STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (USD)

Using this method, the service loads are multiplied by certain factors to determine the
load at which failure of the structure is considered to be eminent. The resulting load
is called the factored load and the strength reduction factor ∅ shall be as follows:
Table 421.2.1
Strength Reduction Factors (NSCP-2015)

Action or Structural Element Exemptions

∅

(a) Near ends or pretensioned

Moment, Axial force or combined moment
members where strands are
and axial force
0.65 to 0.90 not fully developed,

Additional requirements are

given in Section 421.2.4 for
(b) Shear 0.75
structures designed to resist
earthquake effects.

(c) Torsion 0.75 -

(d) Bearing 0.65 -

(e) Post-Tension anchorage zones 0.85 -

(f) Brackets and Corbels 0.75 -

Struts, Ties, nodal zones, and bearing

(g) areas designed in accordance with strut 0.75 -
and tie method in Section 423

Components of connections of precast

(h) members controlled by yielding of steel 0.90 -
elements in tension

(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60 -

0.45 to 0.75 in
accordance
(j) Anchors in concrete elements -
with Section
417

For low values of axial compression ∅ shall be permitted to be increased in

accordance with the following:
 a) For members in which fy does not exceed 415 MPa, with symmetric
(ℎ−𝑑 ′ − 𝑑𝑠)
reinforcement and with not less than 0.70, ∅ shall be permitted
ℎ
to be increased linearly to 0.90 as ∅ Pn decreases from 0.10 fc’ Ag to zero.

Where:
h = overall thickness of the member in mm
d’ = distance from the extreme compression fiver to centroid of compression
reinforcement in mm.
ds = distance from the extreme tension fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
in mm.

b) For other reinforcement members, ∅ shall be permitted to be increased linearly

to 0.90 as ∅ 𝑃𝑛 decreases from 0.10 fc’ Ag or ∅ Pb whichever is smaller to zero.

LOAD FACTORS FOR VARIOUS LOAD COMBINATIONS

1) Structures subjected to Dead Load and Live Load:

U = 1.4D + 1.7L

2) Wind load is included in the design

U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)

U = 0.90D + 1.3W for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

3) Earthquake loads (E) is included in design.

U = 1.3D + 1.1L + 1.1E

U = 0.90D + 1.1E for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

4) Earth pressure (H) is included in design

U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H

U = 0.90D + 1.7H for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

5) Fluid pressure (F) is included in design

U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.4F

U = 0.90D + 1.4F for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L
 6) Structural effects (T) of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of
shrinkage – compensating concrete or temperature change maybe significant
in design:

U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L) but not less than U = 1.4 (D + T)

WHITNEY RECTANGULAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

The actual stress distribution in the compressive area of concrete has the form of a
parabolic segment, a fictitious equivalent stress distribution was proposed by C.S.
Whitney by replacing it by an equivalent rectangular stress distribution with an
average strength of 0.85fc’ and a depth “a” where a = 𝛽c, c being the distance to the
neutral axis.

THREE TYPES OF BEAM FAILURE

1) Balanced Section
The steel starts to yield at the instant when the concrete attains its ultimate
strain capacity of 0.003 and starts to crush. At this stage of failure, the
permissible concrete compressive strain is 0.003 while the strain of steel

𝑓𝑦
when 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑐 = 0.003
𝐸𝑠

2) Over-Reinforced Section

This type of failure occurs when there is more reinforcement that that required
for balanced condition. Failure is initiated by crushing of the concrete. at this
condition, the steel strain is less than the yield strain.
𝜀s < 𝜀y
3) Under-Reinforced Section

This type of failure occurs when the area of steel reinforcement is less than
The required for balanced condition. Failure here is caused by yielding of steel
which continues to elongate as the strain exceeds the yield strain.

𝜀s > 𝜀y
BALANCED CONDITION

Es = 200000MPa
𝑓𝑦
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐸𝑠
𝑓𝑦
𝜀𝑦 =
200000
From the fig., by ratio and proportion

0.003 𝜀𝑦
= Cb 𝜀 y = 0.003d – 0.003Cb
𝐶𝑏 𝑑− 𝐶𝑏
0.003𝑑
Cb (𝜀 y + 0.003) = 0.003d Cb =
0.003+ 𝜀𝑦

0.003𝑑
Cb = 𝑓𝑦
0.003+
200000
600𝑑
Cb =
600+𝑓𝑦
 T=C

Asb fy = 0.85 fc’ a b

0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑎 𝑏
Asb = a = 𝛽Cb
𝑓𝑦

0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝛽𝐶𝑏 𝑏
Asb =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌 𝐴
𝑏= 𝑠𝑏
𝑏𝑑
Substitute values:
0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽𝐶𝑏 𝑏 0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600𝑑)
𝜌𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 𝑏 𝑑 𝑓𝑦 𝑑(600+ 𝑓𝑦)
𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′𝜷(𝟔𝟎𝟎)
𝝆𝒃 =
𝒇𝒚 (𝟔𝟎𝟎+ 𝒇𝒚)

3
As = Asb
4

3
𝐴𝑠 𝐴 3
4 𝑠
𝜌= 𝜌= 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑏 𝝆max = 0.75 𝝆𝒃
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 4

MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBER

1. At every section of a flexural member where tensile reinforcement is required
by analysis, the steel area As provided:
shall not be less than
𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′
4 𝑓𝑦
And not less than
1.4 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = where bw = b (width of rectangular beam)
𝑓𝑦
 1.4
𝜌min =
𝑓𝑦

2. For statically determinate T-beam with flange in tension, the area As min shall
be equal to or greater than the smaller value given either by:
𝑏𝑤 𝑑 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′ or As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′
2 𝑓𝑦 4 𝑓𝑦

With bw = b (width of flange)

Note: This requirement may not be applied if at every section the area of tensile
reinforcement provided is at least one third greater than that required by
analysis.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN

C = 0.85 fc’ a b (compressive force of concrete)

T = As fy (tensile force of steel reinforcement)

𝑎
Mn = T (d - )
2
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - ) Nominal moment capacity
2
MU = ∅ M n
𝑎
MU = ∅ As fy (d - ) Ultimate moment capacity
2
 𝑎
MU = ∅ C(d - )
2
𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ a b) (d - )
2
T=C

As fy = 0.85 fc’ a b

As fy
a=
0.85 fc’ b
As fy 𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ b) (d - )
0.85 fc’ b 2
As = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑑
𝑓𝑦
𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑓𝑐′
𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 fy 𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ b) (d - )
0.85 fc’ b 2
𝑓𝑦 As fy
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜌 b d [d -
𝑓𝑐′ 0.85 fc’ b(2)
𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 𝑓𝑦 𝑑
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 [ 𝑏 𝑑2 − ]
2 𝑓𝑐 ′ (0.85) 𝑏

2 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜌𝑓𝑦
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 [𝑏𝑑 − 0.85(2)𝑓𝑐 ′ ]
𝜔
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 b d2 (1 - )
2(0.85)

MU = ∅ b d2 fc’ 𝝎 (1 – 0.59 𝝎)

Rn = fc’ 𝜔 (1 – 0.59 𝜔) coefficient of resistance

MU = ∅ b d2 Rn

Mu
Rn = coefficient of resistance
∅ b d2
 𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′ 𝟐𝑹𝒏
𝝆= [ 1 - √𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′ ]
𝒇𝒚

𝑎
Mu = ∅ As fy (d - ) (Ultimate moment capacity)
2
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - ) (Nominal moment capacity)
2
BETA FACTORS

INVESTIGATION OF BEAMS REINFORCED FOR TENSION

1) Case 1 fs = fy if steel in tension will yield (Under reinforced)

 (𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌max )
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fy
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
a=
0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏

a=𝛽 𝑐
0.003 𝜀𝑠
=
𝑐 𝑑−𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑐

When 𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑦
Safe resisting ultimate moment = M
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - )
2
MU = ∅ Mn (Ultimate moment capacity)
𝐴𝑠
Actual 𝜌 = > 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max
𝑏𝑑
1.4
Check: 𝜌min =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏
0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)

2) fs = fy if steel in tension does not yield (Over reinforced)

(𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max < 𝜌 )

Assume first fs = fy to determine the values of “a” so we could draw the strain
𝑓𝑦
diagram and check for the actual values of 𝜀𝑠 if less or greater than 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑠
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fy
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
a=
0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏

a=𝛽 𝑐
0.003 𝜀𝑠
=
𝑐 𝑑−𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑐
𝜀 𝑓𝑦
𝑦=
𝐸𝑠

𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑦 (steel does not yield)

0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
fs = 𝜀𝑠 𝐸𝑠 (Hookes Law)
𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
fs = 𝐸𝑠
𝑐
T=C
As fs = 0.85 fc’ a b
Express in terms of c:
 0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
(As) 𝐸𝑠 = 0.85 fc’ 𝛽 𝑐 b
𝑐
Solve for “c“, which is the only unknown value: the equation form will be a
quadratic equation.

a=𝛽 𝑐
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - )
2
Mu = ∅ Mn (Ultimate moment capacity)

Check:

(𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max < 𝜌 )

𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏𝑑
Note: for minimum reinforcement of flexural members>

√𝑓𝑐 ′ 1.4 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = 𝑏𝑤 𝑑 and not less than
4 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS AND COLUMNS

NSCP provides that the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall not be
larger than:
1) 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, nor
2) 1/3 the depth of slab, nor
3) 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcement bars or wires,
bundles of bars, or prestressing tendons or ducts.

BEAMS REINFORCED FOR TENSION

Notations Used For Analysis Of Reinforced Concrete eams

a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block

a=𝛽𝑐
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis
𝛽 = factor equal to:
𝛽 = 0.85 for fc’ up to 30 MPa
0.05 (𝑓𝑐 ′ −30)
𝛽 = 0.85 - but not less than 0.65
7
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
b = width of compression face of member
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement
Asmin = minimum amount of flexural reinforcement
√𝑓𝑐 ′ 1.4 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = 𝑏𝑤 𝑑 and not less than
4 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
bw = web width, for a rectangular section b = bw
√𝑓𝑐 ′
As min = 𝑏 𝑑 for statistically determinate T-section with flange in
4 𝑓𝑦 𝑤
tension and bw is equal to the width of the flange

Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete = 4700√𝑓𝑐′ for normal weight

Concrete
Ec= wc 1.5 0.043√𝑓𝑐′ for values between 1500 and 2500 kg/m3
Es= modulus of elasticity of reinforcement
Es = 200000MPa
fc’ = specified compressive strength of concrete
fy = specified yield strength of no-prestressed reinforcement
fs = calculated stress in reinforcement at service loads.
𝜌 = ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcement to concrete gross area
𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏𝑑

𝜌𝑏 = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions

0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)

𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏 maximum steel ratio

𝑓𝑦
𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑓𝑐′ 𝜔 = tension reinforcement index

1.4
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum steel ratio
𝑓𝑦
∅ = strength reduction factor
 Nominal Moment
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - )
2
Mn = 0.85 fc’ a b (d – a/2)

Ultimate Moment
𝑎
Mu = ∅ As fy (d - )
2
MU = ∅ b d2 fc’ 𝜔 (1 – 0.59 𝜔)

FLEXURE IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

If a beam is made up of a homogenous and linearly elastic material, the maximum

𝑀𝐶
bending stress can be obtained by using the flexural formula f = . At ultimate load,
𝐼
the reinforced concrete is neither homogenous nor elastic, thereby making the
expression not applicable in evaluating for stresses, but the basic principles of the
theory of bending can still be used to analyze the reinforced concrete beams. The
following assumptions are used in defining the behavior of a reinforced concrete
beam.
1) Strain distribution is assumed to be linear. This assumption is based on
Bernoulli’s hypothesis that plane sections before bending remain plane
And perpendicular to the neutral axis after bending.

2) Stain in the steel and surrounding concrete is the same prior to the
cracking of concrete or yielding of steel.

3) Concrete is weak in tension. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in

the flexural analysis and design computations, and the tension
reinforcement is assumed to take all the total tensile force.

4) Strain in the reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly

proportional to the distance from the neutral axis except for deep flexural
members with overall depth to clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for
continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear distribution of
strain shall be considered. The maximum usable strain at extreme
concrete compression fiber shall be assumed to be 0.003.

5) Stress in reinforcement below specified yield strength fy for grade

reinforcement used shall be taken as Es times steel strain that is fs = Es 𝜀.
For strains greater than that corresponding to fy, stress in reinforcement
shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy.

6) Concrete stress of 0.85fc’ shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an

 equivalent compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section
and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = 𝛽 𝑐
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.

7) Distance c from fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be

Measured in a direction perpendicular to the axis.

8) Based on NSCP Specifications, factor 𝛽 shall be taken as 0.85 for

Concrete strengths fc’ up to and including 30 MPa.

For strengths above 30 MPa

0.05 (𝑓𝑐 ′ −30)
𝛽 = 0.85 - but not less than 0.65
7
For fc’ between 17 MPa to 28 MPa, 𝛽 = 0.85

0.05 (𝑓𝑐 ′ −28)

𝛽 = 0.85 - but not less than 0.65
7
Three types of reinforced concrete beams, depending on the type of failure, which is
Yielding of steel or crushing of the concrete.

1) Balanced Section:
In a balanced section, steel starts yielding when the concrete just reaches
its ultimate strain capacity and starts to crush. At the start of failure, the
permissible extreme fiber compressive strain is 0.003 while the tensile strain
in steel equals the yield strain
𝜀 𝑓𝑦
𝑦=
𝐸𝑠
𝑓𝑦
0.003 𝜀𝑦 0.003 𝐸𝑠
= =
𝑐𝑏 𝑑−𝑐 𝑐𝑏 𝑑−𝑐𝑏
𝑐𝑏 𝑓𝑦
0.003 (𝑑 − 𝑐𝑏 ) =
200000
600 (𝑑 − 𝑐𝑏 ) = 𝑐𝑏 𝑓𝑦

600 d – 600 𝑐𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑓𝑦

𝑐𝑏 𝑓𝑦 + 600 𝑐𝑏 = 600 d

600 𝑑
𝑐𝑏 =
(600+𝑓𝑦)
2) Over-reinforced section
In over-reinforced section, failure occurs by initial crushing of the concrete. At
The start of failure, the steel strain 𝜀𝑠 will be lower than the yield strain hence
Steel stress fs will be lower than its yield strength fy. This condition occurs when
there are more reinforcements at the tension side than that required for
balanced condition. In this condition, concrete crushes before steel yields and
concrete failure is sudden since it is brittle material. It is not recommended to
have a design based on this condition.

3) under reinforced section:

In under reinforced section, failure occurs by initial yielding of the steel. The
steel continues to stretch as the steel strain increases beyond the yield strain
𝜀 y. This condition occurs when the area of tension reinforcement used the
beam is less than that required for the balanced strain condition. Almost all
codes of practice recommend designing under reinforced beams to provide
sufficient warning such as excessive deflection before failure.

STEPS IN DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS REINFORCED FOR TENSION

1) Compute for the ultimate moment:

Mu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL

2) Compute the balanced steel ratio

0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)

𝛽 = 0.85 for fc’ ≤ 30 MPa

0.05 (𝑓𝑐 ′ −30)

𝛽 = 0.85 - but not less than 0.65
7

3) Compute the 𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏

4) Assume 𝜌 = 0.50 𝜌max

5) Compute the tension reinforcement index

 𝑓𝑦
𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑓𝑐′
6) Compute for bd2:

MU = ∅ b d2 fc’ 𝜔 (1 – 0.59 𝜔)
𝑀𝑢
bd2 =
∅ 𝑓𝑐′ 𝜔 (1−0.59 𝜔)
7) try values of b roughly assuming b = h/2

8) Solve for As (Steel area)

As = 𝜌bd

9) Try bar diameter: Db solve for number of bars N

𝜋𝐷𝑏2 𝑁 4 𝐴𝑠
= As N=
4 𝜋𝐷𝑏2

10) Check for actual 𝜌

𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏𝑑

(𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌max )

1.4
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏

0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(0.75) 𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)
11) Check for its moment capacity
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fy
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
a=
0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏
𝑎
Mu = ∅ As fy (d - ) > actual moment (safe)
2
SAMPLE PROBLEM

A rectangular beam reinforced for tension only is to carry a dead load moment of 150
kN-m and a live load moment of 140 kN-m. used 65 mm steel covering with fc’ = 20.7
1
MPa and fy = 414 MPa. use 𝜌 = 𝜌max
2
1) Determine the dimension of the beam.
2) Determine the number of 25mm ∅ that could be used.
3) Determine the ultimate moment capacity of the beam being used.

SOLUTION

1) The dimension of the beam

Mu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL

Mu = 1.4 (150) + 1.7 (140)

Mu = 448 kN.m

0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 = 𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)
0.85 (20.7)(0.85)(600)
𝜌𝑏 = (414 ( (600+ 414)

𝜌𝑏 = 0.0214

1
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
𝜌= 0.75 𝜌𝑏
2
1
𝜌 = (0.75) (0.0214)
2
𝜌 = 0.008025

𝑓𝑦 (414)
𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑓𝑐′ = (0.008025) 20.7

𝜔 = 0.1605
MU = ∅ b d2 fc’ 𝜔 (1 – 0.59 𝜔)

MU =(0.90) (20.7) b d2 (0.1605) [1 – 0.59 (0.1605)]

MU = 2.70 𝑏𝑑 2

𝑀𝑢
𝑏𝑑 2 =
2.71

448 x 106
𝑏𝑑 2 = = 165925926
2.70
Try b = 350 mm

165925926
d2 =
350
d = 688 mm say d = 690 + 65 = 755 mm

use 350 mm x 755 mm

2) number of 25 mm ∅ bars

As = 𝜌bd = 0.008025 (350) (690)

As = 1938 mm2

Using 25 mm ∅ bars

𝜋 (25)2
N = 1938
4
N = 3.95 USE N = 4 - 25 mm ∅ bars

3) Moment capacity of the beam used

𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏𝑑
𝜋 (25)2
(4)
4
𝜌= = 0.0013
350 (690)
 1.4
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑓𝑦
1.4
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(414)

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.00338

𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏

𝜌max = 0.75 (0.0214)

𝜌max = 0.01506

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌max

Therefore: Steel yields
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fs

𝜋 (25)2
(0.85) (20.7) a (350) = (4)(414)
4
a = 132 mm
𝑎
Mu = ∅ As fy (d - )
2
𝜋 (25)2 132
Mu = (0.90) (4)(414) (690 - )
4 2
Mu = 456.52 kN.m > 448 kN.m (safe)