National Aeronautics and Space Administration

engineering is out of this world

Spacecraft Structures
A Lesson in Engineering
Cover Illustrations:

Artist concepts of NASA’s Space Launch

System and the launch pad at Kennedy
Space Center.
Authors (Original)

Nick Haddad, TERC

Harold McWilliams, TERC
Paul Wagoner, TERC

Authors (Update)

Twila Schneider: Marshall Space Flight Center, Space Launch System Program, ASRC Federal
John Weis: Marshall Space Flight Center, Office of STEM Engagement

Design, Layout and Graphics (Update)

Kevin O’Brien: Marshall Space Flight Center, Space Launch System Program, Media Fusion, Inc.
Table of Contents

1. Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Next Generation Science Standards ................................................................................................ 2
3. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics ............................................................................ 4
4. Background
Space Launch System .............................................................................................................. 5
Spacecraft Structures ............................................................................................................... 9
5. Teacher Preparation
Materials for Students ............................................................................................................. 12
Build the Launcher .................................................................................................................. 13
Build the Rockets .................................................................................................................... 15
Practice Launching a Rocket .................................................................................................. 15
Prepare the Classroom ........................................................................................................... 16
Teaching Strategies for an Engineering Design Challenge ..................................................... 17
Helping Students Understand the Design Process ................................................................ 18
6. Classroom Sessions
Session 1 ................................................................................................................................ 19
Session 2 ................................................................................................................................ 23
Sessions 3 and 4 .................................................................................................................... 26
Session 5 ................................................................................................................................ 29
Session 6 ................................................................................................................................ 31
Linking Design Strategies and Observations to Science Concepts ....................................... 32
7. Modifications and Extensions ....................................................................................................... 40
8. Appendices
A. Resources .......................................................................................................................... 41
B. Handouts and Recording Sheets ....................................................................................... 42
1. Overview which represents low-Earth orbit. Then they
design, build, and test their own structure
designs. They revise their designs over
Space Transportation several design sessions, trying to maintain or
increase the strength and reduce the weight of
NASA engineers at Marshall Space Flight their structure. They document their designs
Center, along with their partners at other with sketches and written descriptions. As a
NASA centers and in private industry, are culmination, students compile their results into
designing and building the next generation a poster and present them to the class.
of rockets and spacecraft to transport cargo,
equipment, and human explorers to space.
Known collectively as Deep Space Exploration
Systems, the Space Launch System (SLS)
rocket, the Orion spacecraft, and ground
systems at Kennedy Space Center are carrying
out a bold vision of human space exploration.
Space Policy Directive 1 (SPD-1),
signed in December 2017, provides for a
U.S.-led, integrated program with private
sector partners for a human return to the Figure 1. Model thrust structure.
Moon, followed by missions to Mars and
beyond. This design challenge focuses on the Time Required
SLS rocket, an advanced launch vehicle that
provides the foundation for human exploration The design challenge can be carried out in six
beyond Earth’s orbit. 45-minute class periods, but you could easily
extend it for twice that length of time. We
Connecting to Engineering provide some ideas for extensions at the end
of the guide.
and Science
You will need to invest 4 – 8 hours gathering
The Engineering Design Challenge connects
the materials, building the test stand, trying
students with the work of NASA engineers by
out your own designs, reading the guide, and
engaging them in similar design challenges of
preparing the classroom.
their own. With some simple and inexpensive
materials, you, the teacher, can lead an Value to Students
exciting unit that focuses on a specific
problem that NASA engineers must solve This activity will provide your students with
and the process they use to solve it. In the the opportunity to solve a challenge based on
classroom, students design, build, test, and a real-world problem that is part of the space
revise their own solutions to problems that program and to use creativity, cleverness,
share fundamental science and engineering and scientific knowledge in doing so. During
issues with the challenges facing NASA these activities, students will have many
engineers. opportunities to learn about forces, structures,
and energy transfer. The culminating activity
The Design Challenge gives students an opportunity to develop their
presentation and communication skills.
The challenge: Build a model thrust structure
(Figure 1) that is as light as possible, yet Research Opportunities
strong enough to withstand the load of a
“launch to orbit” three times. Students first Appendix A (p. 41) of this guide includes many
determine the amount of force needed to web sites where students can obtain additional
launch a model rocket to 3.3 feet [1 meter (m)], information.

1
2. Next Generation Science CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS:
Standards Engineering, Technology, and Science on
Society and the Natural World
MS-ETS1 – Engineering Design
HS-ETS1 – Engineering Design
STANDARDS:
STANDARDS:
MS-ETS1-1: Define the criteria and constraints
of a design problem with sufficient precision HS-ETS1-2: Design a solution to a complex
to ensure a successful solution, taking into real-world problem by breaking it down into
account relevant scientific principles and smaller, more manageable problems that can
potential impacts on people and the natural be solved through engineering.
environment that may limit possible solutions.
HS-ETS1-3: Evaluate a solution to a complex
MS-ETS1-2: Evaluate competing design real-world problem based on prioritized criteria
solutions using a systematic process to and trade-offs that account for a range of
determine how well they meet the criteria and constraints, including cost, safety, reliability,
constraints of the problem. and aesthetics, as well as possible social,
cultural, and environmental impacts.
MS-ETS1-3: Analyze data from tests to
determine similarities and differences among DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA:
several design solutions to identify the best
characteristics of each that can be combined ETS1.B: When evaluating solutions it is
into a new solution to better meet the criteria important to take into account a range of
for success. constraints including cost, safety, reliability
and aesthetics, and to consider social, cultural
MS-ETS1-4: Develop a model to generate and environmental impacts.
data for iterative testing and modification of a
proposed object, tool, or process such that an CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS:
optimal design can be achieved. Engineering, Technology, and Science on
Society and the Natural World
DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA:
ETS1.A: The more precisely a design task’s MS-PS2 – Motion and Stability: Forces
criteria and constraints can be defined, the and Interactions
more likely it is that the designed solution will
STANDARDS:
be successful. Specification of constraints
includes consideration of scientific principles MS-PS2-1: Apply Newton’s Third Law to
and other relevant knowledge that is likely to design a solution to a problem involving the
limit possible solutions. motion of two colliding objects.
ETS1.B: A solution needs to be tested, and MS-PS2-2: Plan an investigation to provide
then modified on the basis of the test results, evidence that the change in an object’s motion
in order to improve it. depends on the sum of the forces on the
object and the mass of the object.
ETS1.C: Although one design may not perform
the best across all tests, identifying the MS-PS3-5: Construct, use, and present
characteristics of the design that performed arguments to support the claim that when the
the best in each test can provide useful kinetic energy of an object changes, energy is
information for the redesign process—that transferred to or from the object.
is, some of those characteristics may be
incorporated into the new design.

2
DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEAS:
PS2.A: For any pair of interacting objects, the
force exerted by the first object on the second
object is equal in strength to the force that the
second object exerts on the first, but in the
opposite direction (Newton’s third law).
PS3.C: When two objects interact, each one
exerts a force on the other that can cause
energy to be transferred to or from the object.

HS-PS2 – Motion and Stability: Forces and

Interactions
STANDARDS:
HS-PS2-3: Apply scientific and engineering
ideas to design, evaluate, and refine a device
that minimizes the force on a macroscopic
object during a collision.
HS-PS3-2: Develop and use models to
illustrate that energy at the macroscopic
scale can be accounted for as a combination
of energy associated with the motions of
particles (objects) and energy associated with
the relative position of particles (objects).
DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA:
PS2.A: If a system interacts with objects
outside itself, the total momentum of the
system can change; however, any such
change is balanced by changes in the
momentum of objects outside the system.
PS3.A: Energy is a quantitative property of
a system that depends on the motion and
interactions of matter and radiation within
that system. That there is a single quantity
called energy is due to the fact that a system’s
total energy is conserved, even as, within the
system, energy is continually transferred from
one object to another and between its various
possible forms.
CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS:
Cause and Effect
Energy and Matter

3
3. Common Core State
Standards Mathematics
Mathematics Practices:
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
6. Attend to precision.

STANDARDS:
Expressions and Equations
• 6.EE: Apply and extend previous
understandings of arithmetic to algebraic
expressions.
• 8.EE: Understand the connections
between proportional relationships, lines,
and linear equations.
Geometry
• 6.G: Solve real-world and mathematical
problems involving area, surface area,
and volume.
Ratios and Proportional Relationships
• 7.RP: Analyze proportional relationships
and use them to solve real-world and
mathematical problems.
Functions
• 8.F: Define, evaluate, and compare
functions.
• 8.F: Use functions to model relationships
between quantities.

4
4. Background reaching space, the Interim Cryogenic Propul-
sion Stage (ICPS) sends Orion on to the Moon.
Space Launch System The next planned evolution of the SLS, the
Block 1B crew vehicle, will use a new, more
America’s Rocket for Deep powerful Exploration Upper Stage (EUS) to
enable more ambitious missions. The Block 1B
Space Exploration vehicle can, in a single launch, carry the Orion
crew vehicle along with exploration systems
NASA’s Space Launch System, or SLS, is an like a deep space habitat module.
advanced launch vehicle that provides the
foundation for human exploration beyond The Block 1B crew vehicle can send approxi-
Earth’s orbit. With its unprecedented power mately 83,500 lbs. (38 t) to deep space includ-
and capabilities, SLS is the only rocket that ing Orion and its crew. Launching with cargo
can send Orion, astronauts, and large cargo to only, SLS has a large volume payload fairing
the Moon on a single mission. to send larger exploration systems or science
spacecraft on solar system exploration mis-
Offering more payload mass, volume sions.
capability, and energy to speed missions
through space than any current launch vehicle, The next SLS configuration, Block 2, will
SLS is designed to be flexible and evolvable provide 9.5 million lbs. (42,258 kN) of thrust.
and will open new possibilities for payloads, It will be the most powerful variant and will be
including robotic scientific missions to places used for carrying large payloads to the Moon,
like the Moon, Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter. Mars, and other deep space destinations. SLS
Block 2 crew will be designed to lift more than
94,700 lbs. (43 t) to deep space. The de-
The Power to Explore Beyond sign for SLS Block 2 cargo will allow for over
Earth’s Orbit 101,000 lbs. (46 t) to be lifted into deep space.
An evolvable design provides the nation with a
rocket able to pioneer new human spaceflight
To fulfill America’s future needs for deep space
missions.
missions, SLS will evolve into increasingly
more powerful configurations. SLS is designed
for deep space missions and will send Orion
or other cargo to the Moon, which is nearly
1,000 times farther than where the space sta-
tion resides in low-Earth orbit. The rocket will
provide the power to help Orion reach a speed
of at least 24,500 miles per hour (mph) [39,425
kilometers per hour (kph)] needed to break out
of low-Earth orbit and travel to the Moon. That
is about 7,000 mph (11,265 kph) faster than
the space station travels around Earth.
Every SLS configuration uses the core stage
with four RS-25 engines. The first SLS vehicle,
called Block 1, can send more than 59,000
pounds (lbs.) [27 metric tons (t)] to the Moon’s
vicinity. It will be powered by twin five-segment
solid rocket boosters and four RS-25 liquid
propellant engines generating 8.8 million lbs.
[39,144 kilonewton (kN)] of thrust. After

5
Block 1 – Initial SLS Configuration

Launch Abort System

Crew Module
Service Module
Solid Rocket Booster (2) Encapsulated Service Module Panels
Spacecraft Adapter

Orion Multi-Purpose
Crew Vehicle

Orion Stage Adapter

Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage

Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter

Core Stage

RS-25
Engine (4)

Space Launch System Missions

Artemis I, the first integrated flight of SLS and

Orion, uses the Block 1 configuration, which
stands 322 feet (ft.) [98.1 meters (m)], taller
than the Statue of Liberty, and weighs 5.75
million lbs. [2.6 million kilograms (kg)]. SLS
will produce 8.8 million lbs. (39,144 kN) of
maximum thrust, 15 percent more thrust than
the Saturn V rocket.
For Artemis I, Block 1 will launch an uncrewed
Orion spacecraft to an orbit 40,000 miles
[64,374 kilometers (km)] beyond the Moon, or
280,000 miles [450,616 km) from Earth. This
mission will demonstrate the integrated system
performance of SLS, Orion, and Exploration
Ground Systems teams prior to a crewed flight
to send Orion to lunar orbit. SLS will also carry NASA’s Space Launch System is powerful enough to send the
Orion spacecraft beyond the Moon. For Artemis I, Orion will
13 small satellites, each about the size of a
travel 280,000 miles from Earth—farther in deep space than any
shoebox, to be deployed in deep space. spacecraft built for humans has ever ventured.

6
Core Stage

The Boeing Company, in Huntsville, Alabama,

is building the SLS core stage, including the
avionics that will control the vehicle during
flight. Towering more than 212 ft. (64.6 m) with
a diameter of 27.6 ft. (8.4 m), the core stage
will store 733,000 gallons (2.77 million liters) of
super-cooled liquid hydrogen and liquid oxy-
gen that will fuel the RS-25 engines.
The core stage is being built at NASA’s Michoud
Assembly Facility in New Orleans using state-
of-the-art manufacturing equipment, including a
friction-stir-welding tool that is the largest of its
kind in the world. The SLS avionics computer
software is being developed at NASA’s Marshall SLS core stage Liquid Oxygen Tank (top) and Liquid Hydrogen
Space Flight Center in Huntsville. Tank (bottom)

RS-25 Engines Following the installation of the engines into

the fully assembled Artemis I core stage,
Propulsion for the SLS core stage will be pro- NASA’s Pegasus barge transported the entire
vided by four RS-25 engines. Aerojet Rocket- stage to Stennis Space Center near Bay St.
dyne of Sacramento, California, is upgrading Louis, Mississippi, for testing. Once testing is
an inventory of 16 RS-25 shuttle engines to complete, Pegasus will take the core stage to
SLS performance requirements, including a Kennedy Space Center in Florida where it will
new engine controller, nozzle insulation, and be prepared for launch. Aerojet Rocketdyne has
required operation at 512,000 lbs. (2,277 kN) started development testing of new, advanced
of thrust. During the flight, the four engines components to make the engines more
provide around 2 million lbs. (8,896 kN) of thrust. affordable and powerful for future missions.

7
Boosters

Two shuttle-derived solid rocket boosters will

be used for the initial flights of the SLS. To
provide the additional power needed for the
rocket, the prime contractor for the boosters,
Northrop Grumman, of Redondo Beach,
California, has modified the original shuttle’s
configuration of four propellant segments to a
five-segment version. The design includes new
avionics, propellant design, and case insulation,
as well as eliminates the recovery parachutes.
At the Utah facility, Northrop Grumman has
cast all booster segments needed for Artemis I.
At Kennedy, engineers are refurbishing and
upgrading space shuttle booster components
to meet SLS requirements. Trains will carry
booster segments from Utah to Kennedy
Space Center where they will be stacked with
other booster components. The boosters’
avionics systems are being tested at Kennedy
and Marshall. Artemis I Booster Aft Segment

Spacecraft and Payload Adapter, stage to the upper part of the rocket.
Fairings, and In-Space Stage The initial capability to propel Orion out of
Earth’s orbit for Block 1 will come from the
The Orion stage adapter will connect Orion to ICPS, based on the Delta Cryogenic Second
the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) Stage used successfully on United Launch
on the SLS Block 1 vehicle and is the place Alliance’s Delta IV family of rockets. It uses
where the small satellites will ride to space. one RL10 engine made by Aerojet Rockedyne.
Teledyne Brown Engineering of Huntsville, The engine is powered by liquid hydrogen and
Alabama, has built the launch vehicle stage liquid oxygen and generates 24,750 lbs.
adapter (LVSA) that will connect SLS’s core (110 kN) of thrust.

Orion Stage Adapter Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage

8
 its astronaut crew, and cargo to deep space.
SLS Evolution To do this, SLS has to have enough power to
perform a maneuver kown as trans-lunar in-
NASA has designed the Space Launch System jection, or TLI. This maneuver accelerates the
as the foundation for a generation of human spacecraft from its orbit around Earth onto a
exploration missions to deep space, including trajectory toward the Moon. The ability to send
missions to the Moon and Mars. SLS will leave more mass to the Moon on a single mission
low-Earth orbit and send the Orion spacecraft, makes exploration simpler and safer.

it with lightweight, strong materials, such

Spacecraft Structures as aluminum alloys and composites. NASA
engineers also design structures that use as
Every pound that is carried to space requires little material as possible to achieve the strength
fuel, whether that pound is cargo, crew, fuel, and rigidity they need. So, for example, they
or part of the spacecraft itself. The more the machine a waffle grid pattern into the inside of
vehicle and fuel weigh, the fewer passengers the core stage panels to keep them rigid with
and smaller payload the vehicle can carry. minimum weight.
Designers try to keep all the parts of the vehicle,
including the skeleton (or structure), as light as This engineering design challenge focuses on
possible. To design a lightweight structure is the thrust structure, which attaches the four
very difficult because it must be strong enough liquid fuel engines to the body of the rocket.
to withstand the tremendous thrust (or force) of The thrust structure is an essential part of the
the engines during liftoff. Throughout the history spacecraft, which must be kept lightweight. As
of space vehicles, engineers have used various they burn, the four RS-25 engines on the SLS
strategies for the structure. produce about 2 million lbs. (8,896 kN) of thrust.
The thrust structure must not only withstand
In order to make the SLS spacecraft as light this force, it must transfer it to the vehicle in a
as possible, NASA engineers are constructing balanced way, without damaging the vehicle.

9
NASA’s Space Launch System is powerful enough to send the Orion spacecraft beyond the Moon.

10
Questions for Class Discussion

1. Why is it important to make launch vehicles (rockets) as lightweight as possible?

2. What are some ways NASA engineers could make the Space Launch System as lightweight
as possible?

3. If it costs $10,000 to lift 0.5 kg (1 lb.) of payload into orbit, calculate the cost of sending yourself
into space. How much would it cost to send you and your family?

Answers

1. To maximize the amount of payload it

can launch to orbit.

2. Answers will vary. Examples: use

composite materials; remove excess/
unneeded materials from hardware

3. Answers will vary.

11
5. Teacher Preparation
Materials for Students to Use for Challenge

Material Minimum Quantity Minimum Quantity For each

for a few teams for 12 - 15 teams additional team
(60 structures) (120 structures) (10 structures)
Craft sticks 1,500 3,000 250
Dowels 5 5 0
Hot-melt glue sticks
(low-temperature type) 12 20 2

Corrugated cardboard
squares 60 120 10

35 mm film canisters
(without lid) or other 10 20 1
container

1-liter bottle 8 20 1

2-liter bottle 3 5 0

Weight 25–50 lbs. (11–23 kg)

Brass tubing 4 8 1

Package tape 1 roll 1 roll 0

4-oz. paper cup (waxed) 12 36 3

Safety glasses/goggles Equal to # of teams Equal to # of teams Equal to # of teams

Notes on Materials for Students Brass tubing: You need brass tubing that
fits inside each other, sometimes called
“telescoping tubing.” It normally comes in
Dowels: ⅛ -, 3/16 -, and ¼ -in will be handy 12-in. lengths. A 9/16 in. outer diameter
Corrugated cardboard: Cut into 3 ½ inches should fit easily over the ring stand used for
(in.) [9 centimeters (cm)] squares launching. The tubing will need to be cut into
lengths of 4 in. (10 cm).
35mm film canisters: 1 ¼ x 2 in. [32 x 51
millimeters (mm)] Package tape: Any sturdy tape 2 – 3 in. wide
will work. Transparent tape is best.
Weight: You will need to know how much
weight you are using. A sturdy cloth bag about Tools:
the size of a loaf of bread containing about • Safety glasses/goggles
15 – 20 lbs. (7 to 9 kg) of sand or fine gravel • Glue gun – low temperature type
will work well. If you plan to do calculations • Cardboard cutter/utility knife/box cutter
using the mass of the dropped weight, 22 lbs. • Strong scissors
(10 kg) provides a convenient figure. Lead shot • Ruler
makes an excellent filler for the drop weight. • Yard/meter stick

12
Build the Launcher Construction
Materials for Launcher It will be easiest to assemble the launcher if
• Ring Stand you begin by locating the places where screws
will go and drill pilot holes for all of them
 This will be used as the launch rod. A ring before you screw together any of the parts.
stand of the type used in chemistry labs
with a vertical rod ½ in. in diameter and 1. Place the hinge on the launch lever
approximately 3 ft. (1 m) tall works well. (2 by 3 wood length) so that the pivot pin
The kind with a large heavy base is best. of the hinge is at the midpoint of the
length of the launch lever. Mark the
 You can use any straight metal rod ½ in. location for the screws.
in diameter and 3 to 4 ft. (0.9 to 1.2 m.)
long if it can be attached to a suitable
base. If you have a way to thread such
a rod for several inches at one end, you
can then attach it to a base with nuts and
washers.
• Wooden 2 by 3
 1 piece 50 in. (1.3 m) long
(for the launch lever)
 1 piece 4 in. (10 cm) long
(for the mounting block)
 You can use a 2 by 4 in place of the
2 by 3 but it is heavier than necessary.
• Plywood Base Board
 ¾ or ½ in. thick, 10 by 14 in.
(25.4 by 35.6 cm)
• Hinge
 A “T” style hinge is ideal. A good size
has one flap 3 ½ in. (9 cm) wide (in the
direction of the pivot pin) and about 1 in.
(2.54 cm) long. The other flap is triangular,
about 1 ½ in. (3.8 cm) wide at the pin and
about 4 in. (10 cm) long. You may use
almost any kind of sturdy hinge that can
be attached to the launch lever and the
mounting block.
• Flat Head Wood Screws
 These attach the hinge to both 2 by
3s and the 2 by 3 to the base board.
Anything that fits will work fine. The hinge
needs screws that match the hinge and
the mounting block should be mounted
with screws long enough to go solidly into
the block. Figure 2. Example launcher.

13
Construction (Continued)

2. Put the mounting block next to the short

flap of the hinge. Mount the hinge at a
height so that the launch lever will be
2 to 3 in. (5 to 8 cm) from horizontal. If
you mount the hinge too low, the lever
will be able to swing in only one
direction; its motion in the other
direction will be blocked by the
mounting block. Mark the location for
those screws on the mounting block.
3. Place the mounting block in the center
of the base board and mark on the
Figure 3. Side view of base, hinge,
bottom of the base board the location
block, and lever.
for the screws to attach the mounting
block to the baseboard.
4. Drill pilot holes through the base board
into the mounting block.
5. Drill pilot holes for the hinge mounting
screws in the mounting block and
launch lever.
6. Drill clearance holes for the wood
screws in the baseboard and
countersink them. The heads of
the screws need to sink into a prepared
depression so they are flush with or
below the baseboard surface.
7. Screw the short flap of the hinge to
the mounting block, screw the long flap
of the hinge to the launch lever, and
screw the mounting block to the base Figure 4. Endview of base, hinge,
board. block, and lever.

14
Build the Rockets
Materials for Rockets:
• Soda Bottles (and Caps)
 You will use the 1-liter bottle for most of
the rockets, but it is good to have some
2-liter bottles on hand as well. The bot-
tles that have a 5-lobe base are better for
this activity than other kinds (Figure 5).
• Brass Launch Tubes
 
Craft, art supply, and hobby stores sell Figure 5. Bottle with 5-lobe base.
brass tubing in sizes that just fit inside
each other, so it is sometimes called
“telescoping tubing.” It comes in 12-in.
lengths. A 9/16 in. outside diameter is
just right to fit easily over the launch rod
(the ring stand). The tubing will need to
be cut into lengths of 4 in. (10 cm), which
you can do with a tubing cutter or a fine
saw. You can also use PVC pipe with a
similar diameter.
• Package Tape
 
This is used to attach the launch tube to
the soda bottle.

Construction
Fill the bottle with water or sand and cap it
tightly. Tape a 4-in. (10-cm) length of tube to Figure 6. Brass tube attached to bottle with
the flat cylindrical part of the bottle. Be sure package tape.
the tube is vertical (Figure 6).

Practice Launching the Rocket

Once you have constructed the launcher,
rockets, and a sample thrust structure, you will
want to try some models yourself to become
familiar with adjusting the launcher and assur-
ing consistent test conditions.
You will need at least one other person, or two
if you want to observe the launch procedure
rather than doing it yourself. One person will
drop the weight on the end of the lever. The
other person will catch the bottle after it reach-
es its peak and begins descending.
Figure 7. Rocket on launch lever.

15
 Figure 8. Testing the thrust structure.

Slide the rocket tube onto the ring stand and (described in the Modifications and Extensions
center the bottle on the end of the launch lever section on page 40), assembling kits in advance
(Figure 7). will simplify tracking the budget.
The end of the lever should be as close to the Team Work Area
ring stand as it can get without hitting it as
it pivots. The “catcher” should stand behind Set up the classroom for laboratory work to be
or to the side of the launch rod and signal done in teams. Each pair or group of students
when ready for the launch. At this signal, the should have a clear work area near an electri-
“dropper” should count down and drop the cal outlet (for the glue gun) where they can or-
weight from about knee-high squarely on the ganize their materials and build their designs.
other end of the lever (Figure 8). A classroom desk or table will do.

Notice the lever and the launch rod may move Launcher
slightly out of alignment during each launch. Set up the launcher in a central location away
You will want to make sure that the lever is from walls where students can gather around.
square with the launch rod and that the bottle
(and the thrust structure when there is one Safety
under the bottle) is centered on the lever
In the interest of ensuring the safety of the
before each launch.
students and yourself, you should be aware of
several safety guidelines during this activity.
Prepare the Classroom • Hot glue guns or glue pots have hot
You may wish to assemble the materials into metal surfaces that can burn the skin
kits before distributing them to students. when touched. Show students which
In this way you can reduce the amount of areas are hot and advise them to be
time spent distributing materials. You can careful. The hot glue itself can be painful,
also ensure that all design teams receive the but is unlikely to cause any serious burn.
same materials. If you choose to incorporate Nonetheless, students should be warned
the additional design constraint of a budget that the glue is hot.

16
 • When launching rockets, students should sure what caused the change, suggest
follow a strict procedure of notifying one they try changing only one or two of the
another verbally when they are ready to aspects. This helps them learn the value
launch and then counting down to the of controlling variables.
launch. This will ensure that a rocket
is not launched when the “catcher” is • Be aware of differences in approach be-
unprepared. tween students. For example, some
students will want to work longer on a
• Require that the “catcher” wear eye single design to get it “just right.” Make
protection. it clear that getting the structure de-
signed, tested, and documented on time
is part of the challenge. If they do not
Teaching Strategies for an test a lot of models, they will not have
Engineering Design Challenge a story to tell at the end. Remind them
that engineers must come up with solu-
• Like any inquiry-based activity, this En- tions in a reasonable amount of time.
gineering Design Challenge requires the
teacher to allow students to explore and • Model brainstorming, careful observation,
experiment, make discoveries, and make and detailed description using appropri-
mistakes. The following guidelines are ate vocabulary.
intended to help you make this activity as • Ask open-ended “guiding” or “focusing”
productive as possible. questions. For example: “How does the
• Be sure to discuss the designs before force get from the launch lever to the
and after testing. Discussing the designs rocket?” or “What made this design
before testing forces students to think stronger than another?” Keep coming
about and communicate why they have back to these questions as the students
designed as they have. Discussing the try different designs.
designs after testing, while the test • Require students to use specific language
results are fresh in their minds, helps and be precise about what they are de-
them reflect on and communicate what scribing. Encourage them to refer to a
worked and what did not and how they specific element of the design (column,
can improve their design the next time. strut, joint, brace, etc.) rather than “it.”
• Watch carefully what students do and lis- • Compare designs to those of other
ten carefully to what they say. This will groups. Endorse borrowing. After all,
help you understand their thinking and engineers borrow a good idea whenever
help you guide them to better under- they can. However, be sure that the team
standing. that came up with the good idea is given
• Remind them of what they have already credit in documentation and in the pre-
done and compare their designs to pre- test presentation.
vious ones they have tried. This will help • Emphasize improvement over competi-
them learn from the design-test-redesign tion. The goal of the challenge is for each
approach. team to improve its own design. However,
• Steer students toward a more scientif- there should be some recognition for de-
ic approach. If they have changed multi- signs that perform extremely well. There
ple aspects of a design and observed should also be recognition for teams
changes in results, ask students which whose designs improve the most, for
of the things they changed caused the teams that originate design innovations
difference in performance. If they are not that are used by others, for elegance of

17
 design, and for quality construction. lenge, students experience this process.
• Classify designs and encourage the stu- Once students have sufficient experience in
dents to come up with their own names designing, building, and testing models, it
for the designs to be used in the class. is valuable for them to formally describe the
design process they are undertaking. Students
• Encourage conjecturing. Get students to require a significant amount of reinforcement
articulate what they are doing in the form to learn that they should study not just their
of, “I want to see what will happen if . . .” own results, but the results of other teams as
• Connect what students are doing to what well. They need to realize that they can learn
engineers do. It will help students see the from the successes and failures of others, too.
significance of the design challenge if Select a time when you feel the students have
they can see that the process they are had enough experience with the design pro-
following is the same process that adult cess to be able to discuss it. Make a copy of
engineers follow. the Design Process (p. 43) for each team. Go
through the process step-by-step. It is useful
Helping Students Understand to hold up a thrust structure model and point
out specific features that may be the result of
the Design Process studying the test data, unsuccessful builds, or
additional research. For example, using a par-
Engineering involves systematically working to
ticular model, ask “How did this feature come
solve problems. To do this, engineers employ
about? Where did you get the idea? Was it the
an iterative process of design-test-redesign
result of a previous test, done by either you or
until they reach a satisfactory solution
by another team?”
(Figure 9). In this Engineering Design Chal-

Figure 9. The Design Process.

18
6. Classroom Sessions 1. Introduce the Unit
Elicit students’ knowledge of the Space
Session 1 Shuttle, the International Space Station, the
Apollo missions to the Moon, and spacecraft
Introducing the Challenge and in general. Use the background information
Getting Started in the previous section, pictures, and videos
In this first session, you will introduce the of the SLS rocket (see Appendix A; p. 41) to
activity and provide students with back- introduce the vehicle. Ask about what needs
ground information about NASA, the Space to be considered in designing a rocket that
Launch System (SLS) rocket, and spacecraft must launch a spacecraft into space. Discuss
structures. You will define the challenge and the significance of mass (optional: discuss the
discuss how engineers approach a design difference between weight and mass). Explain
problem. Students will practice dropping the to students that they will take on the role of
sandbag until they can consistently launch the engineers for this unit. They will attempt to
bottle rocket to orbit. You will conclude the solve a problem that NASA engineers must
session by launching a teacher-built model solve – building a lightweight, but strong thrust
thrust structure and challenging students to structure for the rocket.
build models that are lighter-weight. 2. Introduce the Challenge
Learning Goals Bring out the launch stand and choose a
• Understand and define thrust structure. student to be the catcher. Launch a rocket,
• Recognize the need for models. but drop the weight so that the rocket barely
moves. Ask students to identify which parts of
• Understand the relationship between a
the rocket each part of the model represents.
model and the actual object being
(The lever is the “engine” providing the thrust,
designed.
the sandbag weight represents the energy of
• Recognize a need for a standard test the engines, and the bottle is the body of the
procedure. rocket.)
• Make observations and collect data.
Explain to students that the thrust structure
• Understand the need for averaging. is the part of the rocket’s skeleton that holds
• Calculate averages. the engine on to the rest of the vehicle. Ex-
plain that, unlike the demonstration in which
Materials the bottle “rocket” gets one big push from
• Handouts (Masters can be found in the lever “engine” and then separates from it,
Appendix B; pp. 42 – 49) a launch vehicle must be pushed constantly
by the engine until it reaches orbit. The push
• Launch stand (includes launch lever, ring
of the engine must travel through the thrust
stand, weight to drop, bottle rocket, and
structure to the rest of the rocket.
yard stick or ring stand with file card to
set drop height) Explain to students that during the following
• A too-heavy overbuilt thrust structure built three class sessions, they will design a thrust
by the teacher (See part 6 in this session structure, launch it, record the results, and
for a model) then try to improve on the design by making it
lighter and stronger. They will get at least four
• Yard stick (or meter stick)
chances to improve on the design.
• File card or similar size piece of a
manila folder Define the challenge (Figure 10). It is recom-
mended you write this on the board.
• Wall chart (or chalkboard) for recording
drop heights and launch results
19
 The Challenge:
Build the lightest weight thrust structure that will withstand the force of launch to
orbit at least three times.
Launch to orbit = propelling a 1-liter bottle of water or sand to the height of
approximately 3 ft. (1 m) into the air.

Design Constraints:
Use only the materials provided.
The thrust structure must be taller than 2 in. (5 cm) and must allow space in the
center for fuel lines and valves (represented by a 35mm film canister, or other
container of similar size, without its lid).

Figure 10. The Challenge.

3. Explain the Culminating Activity bottle rocket “to orbit.” They will determine a
Explain that each team will spend one class drop height for the sandbag so that the rocket
period at the end of the challenge construc- just flies off the ring stand. Discuss with stu-
ting a poster that will tell the story of the dents why you do not want it to fly too far off
development of their thrust structure. Using the launch rod. (That would be subjecting the
the poster, each team will then make a pre- structure to more force than necessary and
sentation to the class explaining the evolution overshooting “orbit.”)
of their design. Choose a volunteer to drop the sandbag and
The poster should contain at least three of another to catch the rocket. (Launch this
the team’s recording sheets. If possible, stu- rocket without a thrust structure.) Measure the
dents should attach three of the actual tested height of the drop with a yard stick or measur-
models (or photos of each). The poster should ing tape. Have the students start by dropping
show the evolution of the team’s design from the weight from a very low height and gradual-
its initial to intermediate and final design stag- ly increase the drop height until the bottle just
es. Essentially, it should “tell the story” of the barely flies off the ring stand. You might have
design process and explain how and why the a different pair of students perform the launch
design changed. It should conclude with a with each increase in drop height.
concise statement of “what we learned.” Continue to launch the rocket until students
In addition to completing the recording sheets, can consistently launch the bottle three times
direct students to keep running notes, dia- to the desired height of 3 ft. (1 m). You might
grams, questions, research findings, data, etc., want several pairs of students to confirm the
in a log. These logs will provide an excellent height.
resource for documenting their experience When you have determined the optimal drop
when they need to make their poster. height, record it and post it in the same place
4. Determine the “Engine Thrust” as the challenge. If a second ring stand is
available, mark it at that height with masking
Explain to students that their first task will be tape. Optional: Tie a string between the two
to determine the necessary thrust to propel the ring stands at the drop height.

20
Optional: Use Different Drop Mass and
Drop Height height and then find the required mass for
launching the bottle to orbit using that weight.
If you are able to conveniently change the Students could record the results of using dif-
mass being dropped, you could choose a drop ferent amounts of sand in a table such as this:

Trail # Launch Mass Drop Mass Drop Height Altitude of Rocket Orbit? (Y/N)
(lbs. or kg) (lbs. or kg) (in. or cm) (in. or cm)

1
2
3

Extension: • What forces are acting on the bag of

sand when it is suspended in the air be-
Graph the data in this table to determine the
fore the drop? (Answer: Gravity and the
relationship between mass and height.
student’s muscles)
5. Discuss the Results
• What force(s) are acting on the bag when
Ask students: it is released? (Answer: Gravity)

• How much mass are we launching to • What is the path of the force? (Answer:
orbit? (Answer: Weight of “rocket” – with Down on one side when weight is
water or sand) dropped; up the other end of the lever
when the rocket is launched)
• What’s the source of the propulsive force?
(Answer: Weight of bag of sand) Have students compare the characteristics
below for the bottle rocket and the actual SLS.

Bottle Rocket SLS

Source of the thrust Lever 2 solid rocket boosters + 4 liquid engines

Source of engine energy Gravity on sandbag Combustion of fuel in boosters and

engines

Thrust duration Fraction of a second ~8 – 9 minutes

Thrust Magnitude Small 8.8 million lbs. (39,144 kN)

Mass of rocket ~2.2 lbs. (1kg) 5.75 million lbs. (2.6 million kg)

Thrust depends on Mass of sandbag Energy density of fuel

Drop height Mass of fuel burned/sec
Strength of gravity Engine design

21
6. Demonstrate a Poorly Designed
Baseline Model
NOTE: If time does not allow for this
demonstration in this session, it can
be left until Session 2, Part 6.
In order to provide a baseline model for a
thrust structure, you should build one that is
truly a juggernaut (Figure 11). For example,
use 3-in. (7.6-cm) lengths of ¼-in. dowels
clustered in threes and attached to cardboard
plates on top and bottom using a generous
amount of glue. This structure will have a mass
of a little more than 4 oz. (113 g) but will cer-
tainly withstand numerous launches. Students
will quickly see ways to improve upon this
crude design and will take pleasure in building
a model that is better than the teacher’s.

Figure 11. A heavy design thrust structure.

7. Wrap-up
Show students the craft sticks and the square
of cardboard they will use for their first design.
Ask them to think about thrust structure de-
signs before the next session.

22
Session 2 1. Review the Design Challenge and the
Design Constraints
Design 1 Make sure students understand the challenge
and the constraints applied to their work.
In this session, students design and build
their first thrust structure using the provided 2. Introduce the Materials
materials. It is important during this session
to establish consistent procedures for testing Explain to students that they must build a
including: thrust structure using the craft sticks and hot
melt glue. The structure should be attached at
• Pre-test approval of design and the top to a square of cardboard on which the
recording sheet. bottle will sit. The structure is NOT attached to
• Oral presentation of key design features cardboard at the bottom.
by students before launch. 3. Review Safety Issues
• Accurate testing and reporting of results
on Test Results Sheet. Point out to students that the tip of the glue
gun and the metal strip at the front of the glue
• Post-test discussion of the design and pot are hot and should be avoided. Review the
the test results. procedure for burns. Remind students to wear
safety goggles when launching their model.
Learning Goals
4. Introduce the Recording Sheets
• Practice construction techniques includ-
ing use of glue gun or glue pot. Introduce the Design Specifications and Test
Results Sheets. Tell students that these are
• Recognize the need for clear
where they will record all the details of their
documentation.
designs and the results of their testing. Ex-
• Practice documenting design. plain that engineers need to keep careful
• Practice making and recording records. Ask students why recordkeeping is
observations. so important. Discuss each part of the sheets.
Make sure students understand that one sheet
• Begin thinking about how to make
shows their model before testing and that the
designs strong and lightweight.
other shows it after testing.

Materials Remind students to keep track of their designs

by numbering their recording sheets. Remind
• Launch stand, sand bag, and ring stand them that they will use their recording sheets
• Craft sticks to construct a poster at the end of the chal-
• Glue guns and glue sticks lenge.
• 3 ½ in. (9 cm) square of corrugated Explain to students the importance of a de-
cardboard tailed sketch of their design. Their goal in
• Paper cups (optional) sketching should be that someone looking
only at the sketch could reconstruct their
• Chart paper (or chalkboard) for recording design. You may wish to show a completed
launch results recording sheet as a sample.
• A balance or scale accurate to a tenth of
a gram Two sketching techniques to introduce are
detail views and section or cut-away views. A
• Handouts of Design Specifications Sheet detail view is a separate close-up drawing of
and Test Results Sheet (pp. 50 – 51) a particular portion of the design that may be

23
difficult to show clearly in the drawing of the build. Establish a cut-off time when you will
full design. A cut-away view shows what the begin testing. Teams that do not have designs
design would look like if it were sliced in half. ready to test by the cut-off time must wait until
It enables the artist to show hidden parts of the next round of testing.
the design.
7. Approving Models for Testing
In addition to answering the questions on the
Design Specifications Sheet, students should When a team delivers their design and record-
also keep running notes, diagrams, questions, ing sheet for testing, check the following:
research findings, data, etc., in a log. These • Model uses only allowable materials
logs can be as simple as notes taken on the
• Model is at least 2 in. (5 cm) tall
back of the Design Specifications Sheet. A log
will provide an excellent resource for docu- • A 35mm film canister (without lid) fits en-
menting the experience when a student needs tirely inside the thrust structure.
to make the final poster. • The model has a team name or identifying
mark on it.
5. Explain the Test Procedure
• The Design Specifications Sheet is com-
• When their design is completed, the team pletely filled out, including a satisfactory
completes a Design Specifications Sheet sketch.
and brings the model and the sheet to the
teacher. If the model is approved, place it on the test-
ing station table. You might call this “being on
• The teacher checks the sheet for com- deck.”
pleteness and accuracy.
8. Test the Models
• The teacher checks that the model has
conformed to all design constraints. Begin testing when most of the teams’ designs
have been approved. Have students stop
• Before their model is tested, each team working and gather around the launch station.
must do a brief oral presentation (for the
entire class) in which they describe the Older students may be able to continue work-
key features of the design. ing while other teams have their models test-
ed. For this arrangement to work, you will need
• During the testing, the team should care- to locate the launch station in a central loca-
fully observe and record the performance tion where students can view it from their work
of their design. areas.
Extension: Before launching, have a member of each
Have students try to reconstruct anoth- team stand and hold up the model or show it
er team’s design using only the Design around to all other students. The representa-
Specifications Sheet. Assess the record- tive should explain:
ing group on the quality of the sketch and • Key features of the design
the constructing group on their ability to
• Why those features were used
interpret the sketch.
• Where the idea came from (a previous de-
6. Students Design and Build Their Models sign, another team’s design, another type
If you did not have time to complete the of structure, etc.)
demonstration of a poorly designed model in Assign a student to record the results of each
Session 1, do it now. test either on a chart on the chalkboard or on a
Allow 10–15 minutes for this first design and large sheet of paper. The chart should look like
the one below.

24
 Launch to Orbit (Y/N)?
Team Design #
1 2 3

With no repairs allowed between launches, This list should be expanded and revised
test each team’s model three times in succes- throughout the activity as the students collec-
sion. If you have more time, you may wish to tively discover which designs are strong and
increase the number of launches per model. lightweight.
Inspect the model after each launch. Students
should make notes about which structural If any of the columns in the structure have
members failed or are in danger of failing. buckled, help students think about how to
strengthen the posts, for example, through
A failed launch occurs when the rocket does bracing. Here is an interesting demonstration
not make it into orbit. A failed launch also oc- of buckling: Take a flexible ruler or yard stick.
curs when the design no longer meets the de- Stand it up on the floor or table. Press straight
sign constraints, that is, it is less than 2 in. (5 down on the top end until the ruler begins to
cm) high or a film canister no longer fits inside. bow out or buckle (Figure 12).
(Important: Do not leave the film canister in the
model when launching.) Try the same experiment with rulers of differ-
ent lengths, but of the same thickness. Show
9. Discuss the Results of Testing that any post or column buckles if placed
under a sufficient load. Notice, however, that
The post-test discussion is critical to expand- the shorter rulers can support more load
ing students’ learning beyond the design and without buckling. Then ask a student to grasp
construction techniques and connecting their and hold steady the middle of the ruler. Repeat
design work with the science concepts under- the pressure on top with your hand. Show that
lying their work. because the ruler is braced in the middle, it is
Encourage students to hold the model and use effectively two short columns rather than one
it to illustrate their point when they talk about a long one.
particular design feature. You could also demonstrate the relationship
For each model, you should pose the same between buckling and the length of a column
guiding question: by using a toilet paper tube and a paper towel
tube. Load both with books. The longer one
“How did this structure transmit the force of will buckle first. (Make sure they are the same
launch from the lever to the bottle?” diameter and made of the same thickness of
cardboard.)
Other discussion questions might include:
• What happened to each part of the thrust
structure during the testing?
• Did any parts of the design seem to fail
before the rest? Why?
• Which design features were most effec-
tive? What made the designs effective?

Record (or have a student record) the most

successful design features on a wall chart. Figure 12. Bracing a ruler to prevent buckling.

25
Sessions 3 and 4 ous session. Continue to ask students how the
thrust is transferred from the lever to the bottle
and to have students trace the load paths on
Designs 2 – 5
paper or directly on the model.
Using what they have learned from the first de-
In the post-test discussion, lead students to
sign, students revise and redesign their thrust
make conclusions about the probable success
structure in several more design-build-test
of a thrust structure built of a certain number
cycles.
of craft sticks.

Learning Goals Allow students approximately 15 minutes to

design, build, and complete a Test Results
• Distinguish between effective and ineffec- Sheet for each model.
tive design features.
3. Introduce Static Testing
• Incorporate design strategies gleaned
from experimentation and observation. Up to this point, the students have been
• Refine observation skills. testing their designs by launching them. This
kind of testing may destroy the models if they
• Draw conclusions based on analysis of
are not strong enough. The models that are
test result data.
“plenty strong enough” will not be destroyed,
• Record test data. but models that are just a little bit too weak
• Analyze test data and draw conclusions. may be damaged in testing. This is unfortu-
• Refine understanding of structures nate because the student may have to start
and forces. over from scratch, whereas if the model were
still intact, it might be possible to make some
minor change that would make the model
Materials strong enough to survive three launches. As
• Launch stand the students get closer and closer to their op-
timum designs (as lightweight as possible, but
• Craft sticks still strong enough), they should become more
• Glue guns and glue attuned to the need for non-destructive testing
• 2-liter bottles, filled with water or sand, before actual launch. You might refer to this as
with guide tubes attached pre-testing or static testing.
• 3 ½ in. (9 cm) squares of corrugated card- Introduce this section by asking the class
board whether they think it would be desirable to
• Ring stands to be used for static testing have a way of testing the models that would
not destroy those that were just a little bit too
• Handouts of Design Specifications Sheet
weak. Point out, if you wish, that engineers
and Test Results Sheet (pp. 50 – 51)
prefer non-destructive proof testing of their
designs whenever possible. Ask students to
1. Review the Previous Session think of non-destructive ways they could test
If a day or longer has passed since the pre- their models that would give them information
vious session, review the results of the first about the model’s strength, but would not
round of testing. Review the successful and suddenly destroy the model as sometimes
unsuccessful design features. happens during a launch.

2. Design, Build, Test, and Discuss Results They will probably come up with ideas of
squeezing the model, compressing it, or
Continue to add successful design features to somehow gradually applying a load to it. The
the list you started on chart paper in the previ- problem, of course, is they do not know how

26
much to squeeze or how much weight to load enough for launch and then to see how
onto the model because they do not know much weight it can support. For example,
how much compressive force the model ex- using paper cups for the thrust structure,
periences at launch. There are several ways see if a single cup can withstand the force
you might determine the compressive force at of launch to orbit three times. If it cannot,
launch. Here are two approaches: then add a second cup, nested onto the
first. See if two cups can withstand launch
1. Build a thrust structure model that will force. If not, then add another cup. When
deform. Launch it, look at the deformation, you finally have enough cups to withstand
and then load up an identical model with three launches, you have an adequate
enough weight to achieve the same defor- thrust structure. Then see how much weight
mation. For example, glue a paper cup onto this model can support. Any model that can
the cardboard square (Figure 13). support the same weight or more should
be able to survive the force of launch. You
can use a table like the one that follows to
record the results of gradually strengthening
the paper cup thrust structure.
The static weight that causes the structure to
fail is the weight to use in future static tests. If
a design can support that weight, it should be
able to withstand three launches to orbit.
Ask students what they would look for in a
static test. Here are some possible ideas:
Figure 13. Paper cup used as a thrust structure.
• Structural members buckling
• Glue joints loose or unstable
Launch a bottle using this thrust structure. • Entire structure unsteady when moved
Note the amount of deformation (crushing) slightly side to side
of the cup. Take a second paper cup thrust
structure and load it up with enough weight Remind students they should record the re-
to achieve the same deformation. Note the sults of static testing directly on their Test Re-
amount of weight. This is the static weight sults Sheet or in their logs for use in creating
any thrust structure must withstand at their poster.
launch. If a student model withstands this
You can lead from this introduction of static test-
amount of weight (and maybe a bit more),
ing into a discussion of the similarities and differ-
then it should be able to survive launching.
ences between static and dynamic loads. Refer
2. A second way to figure out how much to Linking Design Strategies and Observations
weight a model needs to be able to support to Science Concepts (pp. 32 – 37) for a more
is to build a test model that is exactly strong detailed description of the concepts involved.

# of Launches to Orbit Weight Required to Crush in Static Test

Structure 1 (1 paper cup)

Structure 2 (2 paper cups)
(Etc.)

27
Loading static weight onto a thrust structure
will be easy if you use the bottle rockets them-
selves as the weights and use the ring stand to
steady them. Place the thrust structure on the
base of the ring stand, slide the bottle’s brass
sleeve onto the ring stand, and lower it gently
onto the structure. Add more bottles as need-
ed. They should stack up nicely, held in place
in a vertical stack by the ring stand. You can
use bottles of different sizes filled to different
levels with water or sand in order to create a
set of weights. Of course, you will need to de-
termine the weight of your “weights,” and this,
in itself, is an interesting exercise for the stu-
dents. To make static testing easy and acces-
sible to the class, set up a “static test stand”
permanently in the room. Then you will have a
static test stand and a dynamic test stand.

28
Session 5 Students may attach their completed record-
ing sheets or re-copy the information onto
the poster. If possible, they should attach the
Create a Poster
actual tested models to the poster. Placing the
As a culminating activity, each team will create model in a plastic bag and attaching the bag
a poster that documents the evolution of their to the poster works well.
thrust structure designs from initial stage to
2. Define the Assessment Criteria
intermediate stage to final stage. The poster
provides students with a way of summarizing Explain to students that their posters will be
and making sense of the design process. It evaluated on the following criteria:
provides opportunities for reflection and en-
ables students to see how their design work • A clear storyline, organized to show the
has progressed from simple to more sophisti- development of the design
cated and effective designs. • Shows at least three designs
• Contains clear sketches with key features
Learning Goals identified
• Summarize and reflect on results. • Includes test results and description of
what happened to the design during
• Organize and communicate results to an
the tests
audience.
• Includes conclusion about the most ef-
fective thrust structure design and why it
Materials
is effective
• Poster boards / large sheets of paper • Uses scientific vocabulary
approximately 2 by 3 ft. (61 by 91.5 cm),
• Has an appealing layout with a title
one per team
• Uses correct grammar and spelling
• Markers, crayons, color pencils, etc.
• Plastic sandwich bags for holding models You may optionally assign additional research
or invite students to do research on their own
• Glue or tape for attaching recording
initiative. Research findings could also be in-
sheets and models to poster
cluded. See Appendix A (p. 44) for suggested
starting points.
1. Explain the Assignment
Students could investigate:
Explain to students that they will create a post-
er that will tell the story of their thrust structure • Internal structure used in rockets
design. Explain that professional conferences • Internal structure used in other devices
usually include poster sessions where re- and vehicles
searchers present the results of their work.
• Load bearing properties of materials
The poster should include recording sheets,
3. Create the Poster
tested models, and any other artifacts they
think are necessary. It should include brief Give students at least one entire class session
text that describes how their design evolved to create their posters. You might take this
through at least three stages: beginning, inter- opportunity to encourage students to prac-
mediate, and final. If students have kept logs tice sketching detail and section views of the
during the design process, they should use models.
some of the notes from their logs.

29
You might also want to assign several stu-
dents to prepare a “results” poster for the
entire class. This poster would make use of the
charts on which you recorded data from each
test session. The overall improvement of the
class could be calculated and displayed.

30
Session 6

Student Presentations
When all posters have been completed, have
put them on display in the classroom. Allow
students time to browse among the posters.
Encourage conversation. Then reconvene the
class and allow each team a few minutes to
present their poster.
Another option is to conduct a poster session
as might occur at a professional conference.
Half the teams would remain with their post-
ers to answer questions while the other teams
browse. After about 15 minutes, the browsing
teams stand by their posters while the other
teams browse. Browsing teams should ask
questions and engage the presenting teams in
conversation.
The poster session provides an opportunity to
invite parents, other teachers, and students
from other classes to view student work.

Learning Goals
• Communicate results to an audience.

31
Linking Design Strategies and Observation: Compressive Forces
Observations to Science As students think about the forces on their
Concepts model, they will realize that the main force on it
during launch is compression, the direct re-
sult of the bottle pressing down and the lever
An important opportunity for science learn-
pressing up on the thrust structure. Thinking
ing through this Engineering Design Chal-
about these compressive forces offers an op-
lenge comes from the connections that
portunity for learning more about what is actu-
students make between their design solu-
ally going on before, during, and after launch.
tions, their observations, and the under-
Before launch, as the thrust structure and
lying scientific principles. As you observe
rocket rest on the launch lever, the forces are
students designing, conducting the testing,
balanced and, therefore, there is no accelera-
and discussing the test results, there will be
tion. During launch, there clearly is accelera-
numerous opportunities to draw connections
tion, and, therefore, there must be unbalanced
between what the students are doing and
forces on the thrust structure and the rocket
the scientific principles of motions and forc-
because they accelerate. After launch, there is,
es. This section provides suggestions and
again, acceleration (or deceleration, depend-
background information to help you draw
ing on the frame of reference) as the rocket
those connections at the moment they arise,
gradually slows down and stops at its apogee.
the “teachable moment,” when students are
So, there must be unbalanced forces causing
highly engaged and receptive to new infor-
this acceleration. Acceleration would continue
mation. This section is organized according
(downwards) if the catcher did not catch the
to observations the students might make
rocket and prevent it from falling.
and design strategies they might employ.
If students have done static testing, they will
Observation: Tracing the Path of the Force have an idea of the amount of force exerted
on the thrust structure during launch. This will
Students should be able to trace the path of be the weight that they determined the thrust
the force from the lever through their struc- structure had to support. This is the force that
ture to the bottle. They can do this simply by the bottle experiences during launch. Force
pointing out the path the force will take or by can be calculated using the following formula:
drawing a sketch with arrows showing the F=ma. Using a=F/m, they can calculate the
direction of the force. They can also color acceleration the bottle experiences. This is the
the structural members in the model. This so-called “g-force.”
will provide an opportunity to discuss the
advantages of distributing force over a
wide area.

Design Strategy: Balanced Loads

Students should recognize that evenly dis-
tributed support will evenly divide the force
of launch. You might point out that the bot-
tom of the bottle is axially symmetric and
that there must be a reason for that design
(Figure 14). Ask students to think about why
many structures in the natural world, as well
as the “built world,” are symmetrical. Per-
haps it has to do with balanced loads. Figure 14. The base of the bottle has 5-fold
axial symmetry.

32
Squeezing a Thrust Structure
If each hand (Figure 15) presses on the thrust
structure with a force of 1 newton (1 N), then
the compressive force the launch structure ex-
periences is 1 N (0.22 lbs.-force). When forc-
es of equal strength are exerted on opposite
sides of an object, the compressive force on
the object is the size of one of the equal forc-
es. The object does not accelerate because
the forces on it are balanced.

Forces on the Thrust Structure

When the thrust structure rests by itself on
Figure 15. Balanced compressive forces.
the lever, there is no compressive force on
the structure. The structure presses down on
the lever with a force equal to its weight—say
0.1 N (0.022 lbs.-force), and the lever exerts
a matching force of 0.1 N upwards on the
structure. There is a force pressing up on the
bottom of the structure, but no force pressing
down on its top, so there is no compressive
force on the whole thrust structure (Figure 16).
Note: The thrust structure’s weight
creates a compressive force on the
individual elements that make up the
structure because every piece of the
structure (except the top) is pressed
down by the parts of the structure Figure 16. No compressive force on the
above it and supported by the parts thrust structure.
below it. The very bottom of the thrust
structure experiences a compressive
force equal to the structure’s weight.
In very heavy objects like skyscrapers,
this internal compressive force is very
important to the design of the build-
ing. However, the weight of a thrust
structure is so small compared to the
compressive forces due to launching
a bottle that we can ignore the internal
compressive forces due to the struc-
ture’s own weight.
If a “rocket” presses down on a thrust structure
with a force of 9.8 N (2.20 lbs.-force) without
breaking it, the structure transfers this 9.8 N
force to the lever supporting it. The structure
also continues to push down on the lever
because of its own weight of 0.1 N (0.022 Figure 17. A compressive force of 9.8 N.

33
lbs.-force), so the total force the thrust struc-
ture exerts on the lever is 9.9 N (Figure 17). A newton is a unit of force. Despite
The lever pushes back with a force of 9.9 N being a metric unit of measure,
(2.22 lbs.-force). The compressive force on the newton is commonly used as a
the structure is 9.8 N, the amount of force it measure of force in the customary
experiences from both directions at once. (The U.S. and the metric system alike.
extra 0.1 N [0.022 lbs.-force] comes only from A force of 1 newton (1 N) acting on
below, not from above, so it does not contrib- a one-kilogram mass gives it an
ute to the compressive force on the structure.) acceleration of one meter/second2.
A kilogram weighs about 9.8 N and
When a force is exerted down on an object
about 2.2 pounds at the surface of
that is resting on a surface, the compressive
the Earth.
force on the object is the size of that down-
ward force.

Force during Acceleration

If you were to use the launch lever to launch
the thrust structure horizontally behind a toy
car, you would need to push hard enough to
make both the structure and the car accelerate
forward (Figure 18). The structure transmits
some of the force exerted by the lever to the
car. The car pushes back on the structure with
the same amount of force.
If the structure accelerates, this means that
the forces on it must be unbalanced. That is,
the forward force exerted by the lever (say, 2.5
N) must be stronger than the backward force
exerted on the structure by the car (say, 1.5 N).
The compressive force on the structure is the
amount of force exerted on it from both direc-
tions, or 1.5 N. The remaining 1.0 N of the force
exerted by the lever went into accelerating the
structure and the car. Compare this situation to
the bottle sitting on the thrust structure: while a Figure 18. A compressive force of 9.8 N.
non-accelerating object (that is not deformed)
transmits all of the force exerted on one side
of it to the object on the other side of it, accel- Observation: Static and Dynamic Loads
erating objects transmit only some of the force Students should recognize that the amount of
exerted in the direction of their acceleration. time a force is applied matters. When launch-
When forces of different strengths are exerted ing the bottle, the force is applied for a very
on opposite sides of an object: the compres- short time. This is called a dynamic load.
sive force on the object is the size of the small- When static testing, the force is applied for a
er force; and the object is accelerated by the relatively long time. A load applied slowly is
difference between the two forces (also called called a static load. Salvadori’s book, Architec-
the net force on the object). ture and Engineering, contains many excellent
activities for investigating forces including the
one below:

34
Pour sand into a jar on a scale and stop when Design Strategy: Bracing
the weight of the sand is 2.2 lbs. (1 kg). If the
jar weighs 9 oz. (0.25 kg), the total static load Another strategy to overcome buckling is to
on the scale is 2.75 lbs. (1.25 kg). Now hold add a cross brace. The brace might be a band
the filled jar just above the scale and release around multiple columns or a diagonal piece
it suddenly. The scale hand will show a max- from the midpoint of a column to the base.
imum of about 5.5 lbs. (2.5 kg). Repeat the These bracing strategies divide the column
experiment and ask students to follow the into shorter columns, which have less tenden-
scale hand carefully to determine its maximum cy to buckle (Figure 19).
position. Notice that the scale measures ap-
proximately twice the weight of the filled jar.
This is the dynamic load on the scale.
There are many practical instances where the
time that a force is acting makes a big differ-
ence. For example, impact barriers are de-
signed to exert a small force over a long time
in order to stop a vehicle more gently than by
directly hitting a wall. A baseball player brings
in his arms as he catches a ball in order to
cushion the ball and bring it to rest more slow-
ly. Boxers “roll with the punch” in order to in-
crease the contact time of the glove with their
body and absorb the punch more gradually.
Tennis players and golfers “follow through” in
order to increase the time that the racket or
club is in contact with the ball.

Observation: Tension
If students construct a band around the col-
umns to keep the columns from buckling
outward, the columns will be in tension during
the launch. Point out to students the difference
in the performance of the craft sticks under
tension (the sticks are extremely resistant to
breaking when a pulling force is applied to the
ends) and under compression (as described
in the section above). Have the students color
their models using one color for columns un-
der compression and another color for those
columns under tension.

Design Strategy: Strong Posts

To overcome the tendency of vertical posts to
buckle, students might make them stronger
by doubling or tripling sticks. This, of course,
increases the weight. Figure 19. Cross brace design strategies.

35
Design Strategy: Solid Joints Of course, it has energy in its atomic
structure all the time, but we are not con-
Designs that fail at the joints may simply need cerned with that kind of energy here.)
more glue. However, they may not be careful-
ly aligned either, with the result that the force • Would it have more energy if it were more
is applied entirely to one member at the joint massive? (Yes.)
rather than evenly to all the members at the
joint. • Would it have more energy if it were held
higher? (Yes.)
Understanding Energy Transfers during • Where does the energy come from that
Launch moves the sandbag from the floor to its
position above the launch lever? (Human
One of the many ways to understand what muscles, which are powered by chemical
happens during the launch of the bottle rock- reactions.)
et is to analyze the energy transfers that take
place. After students have had experience • Would the sandbag have the same energy
building thrust structures and using them to if it were positioned the same height
launch bottle rockets, take time out to discuss above the surface of the Moon? (No, be-
with them the energy transfers that take place cause the gravitational field of the Moon
during a launch. Make copies of “Testing a is less than that of the Earth. It would
Thrust Structure” (p. 46) for each student or also take less muscular effort to lift the
team. sandbag into position on the Moon. An
interesting question is: If you replicated
In order to engage in this exercise, students the whole launch on the Moon would the
need some basic understanding of energy as bottle rocket rise to the same height?
the ability to do work. It also would be helpful What would be different on the Moon?
if students have had a prior introduction to What would be the same?)
gravitational potential energy and to kinetic
energy. • What do we call the kind of energy that
the sandbag has due to its position?
While looking at the handout, review what (Gravitational potential energy,
happens during a launch. (Sandbag falls, lever abbreviated PE.)
moves, pushes thrust structure, which pushes
rocket, rocket rises, reaches apogee, and gets Then ask, “How does the sandbag transfer
caught.) energy to the thrust structure and the rocket?”
Then ask students whether energy is needed Students may be able to explain that as the
to launch the bottle rocket. (Yes!) sandbag falls it loses height and simultaneously
accelerates. It gains kinetic energy and loses
Next, ask them to explain where the energy for potential energy. When it hits the launch lever,
the launch comes from. They may say, “From some of its kinetic energy is transferred to
the sandbag.” If so, probe further by asking: the lever, which transfers energy to the thrust
• How does the sandbag have energy? structure. The thrust structure accelerates and
(By virtue of its position.) gains kinetic energy. It pushes on the bottle,
which accelerates and also gains kinetic
• How does it get its energy? energy. The bottle rises and as it does so, it
(From the pull of gravity on it.) slows down and reaches a maximum height
of about 39 in. (one meter). (It slows down
• Does it have energy when it is sitting on
because gravity decelerates it.) At its apogee
the ground or only when it is held aloft?
(highest point) it has no kinetic energy and has
(It has useful energy with respect to the
its maximum gravitational potential energy.
launch lever only when it is held aloft.

36
For students in grades 6 – 8, this explanation
of energy transfer may be sufficient. However,
students in ninth grade may be able to use an
easy formula to calculate gravitational poten-
tial energy (PE).
PE = mgh
where m = the mass of the object
g = the acceleration due to gravity
h = the height above the Earth
In the case of the sandbag, if it has a mass of
10 kilograms and is about 0.5 meter above the
Earth, and if g is approximately 10 m/sec/sec,
then PE = 10 × 0.5 × 10 = 50 joules. [1 joule =
1 kg · m2/sec2]
Using this formula, students can calculate the
PE of the bottle at apogee. When they do this,
they find that the PE of the sandbag before
launch and the PE of the bottle after launch
are very unequal. Then, they can try to under-
stand where the “missing energy” went. The
answer, in general, is that it went into sound
and heat. From the point of view of launch,
these are energy losses. They can calculate
the efficiency of the system—the ratio of the
energy output to the energy input—and find it
to be about 20%.
Students can then go on to consider kinetic
energy. They can calculate the kinetic energy
and velocity of the sandbag and the kinetic
energy and velocity of the bottle after launch.
This is discussed in the section that follows.

37
What is Kinetic Energy and How Do We it was released, which was 50 joules. Thus,
Measure It?
KE = ½ mv2 = 50 joule
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has by ½ · 10 kg · v2 = 50 kg · m2/sec2
virtue of its motion. Clearly, objects in motion
have the ability to affect other objects and 5 kg · v2 = 50 kg · m2/sec2
do work on them. A speeding bullet and a v2 = 10 m2/sec2
speeding train are examples. Both have energy v = √ (SQUARE ROOT) 10 m2/sec2
because they are in motion. Which has more
v = 3.2 m/sec
energy, the bullet or the train? Why?
The kinetic energy (KE) of an object depends So, the sandbag is traveling about 3 m/sec
on two things: when it hits the lever.
How fast are the thrust structure and the rock-
Its mass (m) and its velocity,
et going when they “take off?”
or speed (v).
We know that the PE of the bottle at apogee
Knowing these, we can calculate the KE of an = 10 joules. This must also be approximately
object. equal to its kinetic energy at “take off.”

KE = ½mv2 KE = ½ mv2 = 10 joules

The speeding freight train has more kinetic ½ · 1 kg · v2 = 10 kg · m2/sec2

energy than the speeding bullet, even though ½ kg · v2 = 10 kg · m2/sec2
the bullet is traveling faster because the train is v2 = 20 m2/sec2
so much more massive than the bullet.
v = √ (SQUARE ROOT) 20 m2/sec2
Notice that in the formula for kinetic energy v = 4.5 m/sec
the velocity is squared. Without explaining
why this is so, let us consider its implications, Therefore, the velocity of the thrust structure
which are important for rocket propulsion. and bottle rocket are about 4 m/sec at launch.
Because velocity is squared and mass is not,
changing an object’s velocity has more of an Logically, since the launch lever is a solid piece
effect on its kinetic energy than changing its of wood, hinged at its midpoint, the speed of
mass. Doubling the velocity quadruples the each arm must be equal though in opposite
KE, while doubling the mass only doubles directions. So, the final velocity (speed) of the
the KE. sandbag must equal the initial velocity (speed)
of the bottle rocket. In this example, they are
Because the KE of an object depends on v2, not exactly equal (3.2 vs. 4.5) because we
it is important for engine designers to give the have used rough approximations of the drop
exhaust gases the highest possible velocity height and launch apogee, etc. We have also
they can. In this way, they boost the KE avail- ignored the “travel” of the lever, etc. You and
able from a given mass of fuel. your students can do better by taking more
precise measurements and by thinking care-
When students have a basic understanding
fully about what is happening. The main point
of kinetic energy, they can easily calculate the
is that by understanding how PE is converted
kinetic energy and velocity of the sandbag as it
to KE and back to PE you can derive veloci-
hits the launch lever.
ties from measurements of mass and height of
We know that at the moment the sandbag hits drop and height of launch.
the launch lever its PE is approximately zero
and that its KE is equal to the PE it had before

38
How do these energy transfers compare to
those in launching the SLS Block 1?
The SLS Block 1 is powered by the chemical
energy of its rocket engines and solid motors,
not by a launch lever. Still, that chemical energy
transfers the potential and kinetic energy on
the Earth’s surface just before launch into the
potential and kinetic energy of the launch vehi-
cle and payload when they reach their targeted
orbit (-47x130 nautical miles).
The SLS Block 1 can launch itself, about
251,500 lbs. (114,100 kg) after all propel-
lant has been used, plus a payload of about
201,700 lbs. (91,500 kg) into a -47x130 nau-
tical mile orbit. At SLS Main Engine Cutoff,
around 80 nautical miles (148 km) altitude,
the rocket and its payload, around 453,200 lbs.
(205,600 kg), are traveling about 17,400 mph
(7,800 meters per second [m/s]). It has kinetic
energy due to its velocity and potential energy
due to its position above the Earth. At the
injection altitude, the gravitational pull is about
96% of its value at the surface of the Earth, so
at this altitude, g is approximately 9.6 m/sec/
sec. Therefore, at orbital injection:

PESLS = mgh = about 205,600 kg x 9.6 m/s/s x

148,000 m = 2.9 x 1011 joules

Because both the SLS rocket and payload are

in an orbit traveling at 17,400 mph (7,800 m/s)
they have kinetic energy as well. This kinetic
energy is

KE = ½ mv2
KE = ½ x 205,600 kg x (7,800 m/s)2
KE = 6.25 x 1012 joules

Much more of the SLS launch vehicle’s ener-

gy is in the form of kinetic energy than in the
form of potential energy - about 20 times as
much. This tells us that most of the work of
putting the SLS and its payload into orbit is
used during accelerating it to its high speed
rather than raising it to its injection height of 80
nautical miles (148 km).

39
7. Modifications and Ask students to brainstorm about what NASA
engineers must do to reduce the cost of get-
Extensions ting to space. Showing a model of the SLS or
referring to a poster will be useful in stimulat-
Change the Cardboard Plate ing student ideas. You might want to discuss
such facts about the SLS as how much fuel it
The thrust structure model has been tested uses, how much it weighs, cost of materials
in a number of permutations with satisfactory used to build, etc. Possible answers include:
results. The challenge seems to have the opti- Make the vehicle lighter so it uses less fuel,
mal level of difficulty when only one cardboard use less expensive materials, make a better
square is used, and it is placed at the top of engine that uses less fuel, make the engine
the structure. However, you may wish to use more powerful so you can carry more on a sin-
an additional piece of cardboard on the bot- gle launch, use less expensive fuel. Students
tom of the structure. This will make the struc- are less likely to come up with process ideas
ture stronger, but will also make it more diffi- for cutting costs such as designing faster and
cult to see the results of specific loads on the testing more efficiently.
structural members. You may also wish to use
a different shape, size, or thickness of card- Assign a cost to each material and start stu-
board or give students the option of modifying dents with a set budget. Allow students to pur-
the cardboard. Doing away with the cardboard chase materials. You may also attach a cost to
altogether will make the challenge much more testing each design. Students must stay under
difficult. budget while designing the thrust structure
model. Compare designs from teams on the
basis of weight and cost. Have students find
Allow Repairs
the ratio of cost to weight for each design and
If students discover the beginning stages of plot the results on a graph.
a design failure before they have successfully
launched three times, they can be allowed to
stop testing and repair their design. A team
electing to repair its design should go to the
end of the testing queue. The team should also
weigh its model again before testing, record
the new mass, and record the design changes
on the Design Specifications Sheet.

Increase the Rocket Mass

You may find, especially with advanced stu-
dents, that students reach a plateau in reduc-
ing the weight of their structure. At this stage,
you may want to add additional design con-
straints to increase the challenge. The most
obvious modification would be to add mass to
the rocket.

Limit Designs by Cost

Mass reduction is not the only goal in space-
craft design. Engineers must also strive to
lower costs.

40
8. Appendices Appendix B: Handouts & Recording Sheets
The next few pages are images that might be
Appendix A: Resources helpful and the recording sheets for the chal-
lenge.
Explore Moon to Mars
https://www.nasa.gov/specials/moon2mars/

The Space Launch System

https://www.nasa.gov/sls

Aerojet Rocketdyne: RS-25 Engine

https://www.rocket.com/space/liquid-engines/
rs-25-engine

Boeing: Core Stage

https://www.boeing.com/space/space-launch-
system/

Northrop Grumman: Solid Rocket Boosters

https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/nasas-
artemis-program/

Rockets and Launch Vehicles

https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/
headquarters_offices/avs/offices/aam/cami/
library/online_libraries/aerospace_medicine/
tutorial/media/III.4.2.1_Rockets_and_Launch_
Vehicles.pdf

Orion Spacecraft
https://www.nasa.gov/orion

Exploration Ground Systems

https://www.nasa.gov/egs

Exploring Careers at NASA

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/
careers/index.html

Marshall Space Flight Center

https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/home/
index.html

NASA STEM Engagement

https://www.nasa.gov/stem/

41
 Launch Abort System
Crew Module
Service Module
Solid Rocket Booster (2) Encapsulated Service Module Panels
Spacecraft Adapter

Orion Multi-Purpose
Crew Vehicle

Orion Stage Adapter

Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage

Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter

42
Core Stage

RS-25
Engine (4)

Space Launch System: Block 1 Expanded View

43
The Design Process
Forces Before Launch

44
Launch Testing Station

45
46
Testing a Thrust Structure
Sample Rocket Thrust Structure with 5 Engines – View 1

47
Sample Rocket Thrust Structure with 5 Engines – View 2

48
Sample Rocket Thrust Structure Showing Attachment Points
for 5 Engines

x x

x x x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x
x x x x

x x

x= engine attachment point

49
50
.

51
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, AL 35812
www.nasa.gov/marshall

www.nasa.gov

EP-2021-04-32-MSFC