7-1

7 CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER IN
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT

SUMMARY

7.1 DEWATERING OF EXCAVATIONS

7.2 OPEN PUMPING

7.3 WELL SYSTEMS

7.4 ELECTROOSMOSIS

7.5 DISCHARGE WELLS

7.6 DESIGN OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS

7.7 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

7.8 WATER SUPPLY/DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

 7-2

7.1 DEWATERING OF EXCAVATIONS

Let consider the scenario of the following landfill cell

excavation:

6m

Silty Clay 10 m
 = 20 kN/m3 H=5m

Sand Aquifer

1. What is the factor of safety against blowout?

2. How would you achieve a factor of safety  1.4

Weight/area =
Uplift pressure =
 Factor of safety against blowout

Need to lower head in the aquifer during excavation.

 7-3

Therefore, the head in the aquifer need to be lowered by

2.72 m (10 – 2.72 = 7.28 m) to allow safe excavation of
the landfill cell.

It is frequently necessary in many construction projects

to control in terms of both and

The or is reduced
in or around to achieve one or more of the
following objectives:
a) to produce
b) to prevent or at the bottom of
excavations
c) to reduce

d) to improve cut side

slopes
e) to reduce the
, e.g. from borrow pits.

For most soil, the during construction

must be maintained at least
in order to ensure dry
working conditions. , the groundwater
needs to be maintained at a somewhat lower level to
 7-4

keep traffic from water to the surface and

making the bottom of the
Why sandy soils are more susceptible to ‘pumping’ than
clayey soils?

The used most often to lower the

groundwater table is soils fall under three broad
categories:
. No
single drainage method is ideal for all construction sites
and the adopted method should depend on:
 (i.e. permeability, sequence of the
soil strata).

 Method used to

 The necessity of adjacent

structure.

When dewatering excavations the following conditions

must be fulfilled:
 The chosen dewatering method will
of sides and bottom of the as
well as the integrity and safety of
 7-5

 The lowered

of the excavation
 , when necessary, be provided to
prevent loss of soil.
 Adequate be provided.
 The discharge of the
with the excavation.
 Adopted for groundwater lowering
will not lead to damage of adjacent structure, such as

7.2 OPEN PUMPING

It is the simplest and most economical method used

to dewater soils. An open ditch is used to collect water
from excavated slopes and the flow of water occurs
under gravity alone, thus, this method is ideal for
coarse grained soils with high hydraulic
conductivity (10-3 cm/s). The water collected at the
ditch is pumped out using a sump pump. Filters may be
used in the ditch to provide weight sufficient to
counteract the upward seepage forces and prevent
piping
 7-6

Initial water table

Depressed water table

Sump pump

7.3 WELL SYSTEMS

Well systems provide drainage by pumping water at

depth up to 30 m. A simple form of dewatering using
this method involves well point, which is a perforated
pipe about ½ to 1 m long and 5 to 8 cm in diameter.
A series of well points, spaced between 1 m to 2 m, are
connected to a common suction head and pump. The
well points can be used to bring water to the surface
from a maximum depth of 6 m. To lower the water
table more than 6 m, a multiple-stage well point
system is used in which new well points are installed in
successive stages. Beyond the dewatering of 16 m, it is
no longer economical to use well points. For such
depth, deep wells are used often in combination with
well points. To install a deep well, a borehole (with
 7-7

diameter of 15 cm to 60 cm) is created and a casing

with a screen of length 5 to 25 cm is provided. These
well can bring up water from greater depths than well
points because each well has it own pump. The pump
may be turbine type with a motor at the surface or
submersible placed within the well casing at the bottom
of the well.

7.4 ELECTROOSMOSIS

The application of direct current (DC) electric field to a

soil-water-electrolyte system incites three distinct
electrokinetic transport mechanisms, i.e.
electromigration, electroosmosis and electrophoresis.
Electromigration is the movement of ions in the soil pore
fluid, electroosmosis is the movement of soil pore water,
and electrophoresis is the movement or tendency of
movement of soil solids.

The movement of water by electroosmosis is from

positive electrode (anode) toward negative electrodes
(cathode). For the purpose of collecting and pumping
out water, the cathode is made in a form of a well point.
 7-8

The flow rate in electroosmosis process is largely

independent of the soil grain size. For this reason
electroosmosis can be used effectively to dewater fine-
grained soils.

7.5 DISCHARGE WELLS

The categories of discharge wells are gravity well,

artesian well and artesian-gravity well.

7.5.1 Fully Penetrating Gravity Well

Steady pumping at rate q

2 rw

Initial groundwater level

H h

hw

r
R Impervious stratum
 7-9

The area of flow at a radial distance r from the centre of

the pumping well is
(7.1)
The hydraulic gradient, i = dh/dr

From Darcy’s law, the flow, q = k i A, i.e.

(7.2)

Integrating the equation with h = hw at r = rw and h = H at

r = R, gives:

(7.3)
or
(7.4)

and
(7.5)

R the radius of influence determined from the empirical

expressions:
R = 300 (H – hw) k (7.6)
R, H, and hw must be expressed in the same units and
k, the hydraulic conductivity, in cm/s.
 7-10

7.5.2. Fully Penetrating Artesian Well

Steady pumping at rate q

2 rw

Initial groundwater level

Aquitard
H h

hw Confined
D aquifer

r
R Impervious stratum

The area of flow at a radial distance r from the centre of

the pumping well is
(7.7)
From Darcy’s law, the flow, q, is

dh
qk
2 r D (7.8)
dr
Integrating the equation with h = hw at r = rw and h = H at
r = R, gives:
2 kD
q H  hw  (7.9)
lnR / rw 
 7-11

and

q ln r / rw 
h  hw (7.10)
2kD

Note: Transmissivity, T (m2/s) = k D

7.5.3. Fully Penetrating Artesian-Gravity Well

Steady pumping at rate q
2 rw

Initial groundwater level

H h

Confined
hw D aquifer

r
R R Impervious stratum

High pumping rates from wells in confined aquifer may

lower the piezometric surface to a level below the top
of the aquifer. In this case represent a combined
artesian-gravity well. The discharge from such well is
given by:
 7-12

q

 k 2DH  D2  h2w  (7.11)
lnR / rw 
and
HD r D2  h2w R
h ln  D 
2
ln (7.12)
ln(R / rw ) rw ln(R / rw ) r

The distance R where flow changes from artesian to

gravity is given by:

ln R 
D 2

 h2w ln R  2DH  Dln rw
(7.13)
2DH  D2  h2w
 7-13

Example 7.1

A dewatering well is to be installed in an aquifer as

shown. The well will have an 8 inch diameter casing in
a 24 inch diameter boring with a submersible pump that
draws the water level down to a depth of 62 ft below the
ground surface. Compute the maximum dewatering
flow rate by this well
q

Clayey sand 22 ft

56 ft 62 ft Sand
K = 610-3 ft/s 55 ft

Submersible pump

Silty Clay

Solution
 7-14

What is h at 400 ft from the centre of the well?

 7-15

7.6 DESIGN OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS

The design of dewatering systems using deep wells and

well points involves:
 of wells/well points,
 of the wells/well points, and
 the at which water to achieve
the required drawdown.

Many dewatering projects require installations of a

number of wells. As an approximate guide, the two
nomograms (figures 9.37 and 9.38) were developed to
determine well points spacing for uniform and stratified
clean sands and gravels.

Example 7.2

Determine the spacing of well points required to lower

the ground water 15 ft for:
(a) uniform fine sand (b) stratified fine sand

Solution
 7-16

7.6.1 Seepage from Circular Source Wells

The general drawdown equation for a system of fully

penetrating gravity wells with seepage from a circular
source is given by:

R1 r1
r3
1 R3
r2,1
r2
3

R2
2
r3,1

1  R R R 
H2  h2   qw 1 ln 1  qw 2 ln 2  ....  qwn ln n  (7.14a)
k  r1 r2 rn 
1 n R
H h 
2 2
 qwi ln i (7.14b)
 k i 1 ri
 7-17

where qwi is the discharge from ith well, Ri the radius

of influence for ith well, ri the distance from ith well
to point P, n the total number of wells. The
corresponding equation for a group of artesian well is
given by:
1 n R
H  h  qw i ln i (7.15)
2 kD i 1 ri

The summation terms in Eqs. (7.14b) and (7.15) denote

the discharges and positions of wells in the system
relative to the point where the drawdown is needed.
Using F to denote the summations terms, Eqs. (7.14)
and (7.15) may be expressed as:
F
H2  h 2  (7.16)
k
and
F
H  h (7.17)
2 kD
To determine the head hwj at specific well j in a system
of fully penetrating wells, the following equations are
used:

Gravity Wells
1  R j n 1 Ri 
H h 
2 2
qw j ln   qw i ln  (7.18)
 k 
wj
rw j i 1 ri, j 
 7-18

Artesian Wells
1  R j n 1 Ri 
H  hw j  qw j ln   qw i ln  (7.19)
2 kD  rw j i 1 ri, j 

where qwj is the flow from well j, Rj the radius of

influence of well j, rwj the effective well radius of well j,
and ri,j the distance from each well to well j.

Using Fw to represent summation terms, Eqs. (7.18) and

(7.19) may be expressed as:

Fw
H2  h 2wj  (7.20)
k
F
H  h wj  w (7.21)
2 kD

Note: The summation in the right hand side of Eqs.

(7.18) and (7.19) consist of two components: the first
component express the drawdown due to pumping
from well j, and the second expresses the
 7-19

Example 7.3

Design a system of gravity wells along the circular

border of excavation to achieve a drawdown of 20 ft at
the centre of the excavation. Limit the individual well
discharge to 1000 gpm, and assume all wells are of the
same radius, rw = 1 ft. k = 200 ft/day. Radius of
influence = 950 ft.

50 ft

100
80 ft
Sandy soil

Solution
7-20
 7-21
2

r2,1
3 r3,1 1
r4,1

4
7-22
 7-23

7.6.2 Seepage from Line Source Wells

The general drawdown equation for a system of fully

penetrating wells with seepage from a Line source is
given by:
Line source
 Real wells
Image wells

L1 r2,1
S2,1

2 1 1 2
S2 S1
r1 r2

S3,1

P
S3 r3
r3,1

3 3


Gravity Well
1 n Si F
H h 
2 2
 qwi ln  (7.22)
 k 1
i ri D
Artesian Well
1 n Si F
Hh   wiq ln  (7.23)
2 kD i1 ri 2kD
 7-24

where Si is the distance from point P to image well i and

ri is the distance from point P to actual well i and
n Si
F   qwi ln (7.24)
i1 ri

The equations for determining the head hwj at well j are:

Gravity Well
Fw
H h 
2 2
(7.25)
k
wj

Artesian Well
Fw
H  h wj  (7.26)
2 kD
and
2L j n 1 Si, j
Fw  qwj ln   qwi ln (7.27)
rwj i1 ri, j
where 2Lj is the distance from real well j to image well j,
rwj the effective radius of well j, Si,j the distance from real
well j to image well i, and ri,j the distance from real well j
to real well i. Note that 2Lj is taken as the radius
influence of well j in Eq. (7.27).
 7-25

Example 7.4

Repeat example 7.3 with the line source at 1000 ft from

the centre of the excavation.

1000 ft

50 ft

100
80 ft

Solution
 7-26

Line source

2 2

r2 S2
r3 1 1 3
S1
3
S3
r4 S4

4 4

Real Wells Image Wells

7-27
 7-28

Line source

2 2

r2,1 S2,1
1 3
r3,1 1 S3,1
3
r4,1 S4,1

4 4

Real Wells Image Wells

 7-29

7.6.3 DEWATERING OF RECTANGULAR AREA

b
a

7.6.3.1 Circular Source

k(H2  h2w )
Gravity qT 
ln(R / rw )

2kD(H  hw )
Artesian qT 
ln(R / rw )

ab
 r2 w = a b  rw 


Example: Circular Source at 800 m from the

centre of 50 m ×50 m

A) First Design

2 1

3 4
 7-30

R2 R1

2 1
P1
P2

3 4

R3 R4

A1. Centre check (P1):

Use Equation 7.14b for gravity wells and Equation 7.15

for artesian wells

R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =

2 1
r2 r1
P1
r3 r4
3 4

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =
 7-31

A2. Well 1 check:

Use Equation 7.18 for gravity wells and Equation 7.19

for artesian wells

R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =
r2,1
2 1

r3,1 r4,1

3 4
r2,1 = r3,1 = r4,1 =

A3. Point in the perimeter between two wells check (P2):

Use Equation 7.14b for gravity wells and Equation 7.15

for artesian wells

R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =

2 1
r2 r1
P2
r3 r4

3 4
 7-32

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =

B) Second Design:
2

3 1

R2
2 P2

R3 3 1 R1
P1

R4

B1. Centre check (P1):

Use Equation 7.14b for gravity wells and Equation 7.15

for artesian wells
 7-33

R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =
2

r2
P1 r1
3 r3 1
r4

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =

B2. Well 1 check:

Use Equation 7.18 for gravity wells and Equation 7.19

for artesian wells

R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =
2

r2,1
r3,1 1
3
r4,1

r2,1 = r3,1 = r4,1 =

 7-34

B3. Point in the perimeter between two wells check (P2):

Use Equation 7.14b for gravity wells and Equation 7.15

for artesian wells
R1 = R2 =
R3 = R4 =

2 r2
P2
r3 r1
3 1
r4

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =
 7-35

7.6.3.2 Line Source

k(H2  h2w )
Gravity qT 
ln(2L / rw )
2kD(H  hw )
Artesian qT 
ln(2L / rw )

Example: Line Source at 800 m from the centre of

50 m ×50 m

A) First Design

2 1
P1
P2

3 4

A1. Centre check (P1):

Use Equation 7.22 for gravity wells and Equation 7.23

for artesian wells

S1 = S2 =
S3 = S4 =

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =
 7-36
Line source
Real Image

2 1 1 2
S1
r2 r1 S2
P1
r4 S3
r3
S4

3 4 4 3

A2. Point in the perimeter between two wells check (P2):

Use Equation 7.22 for gravity well and Equation 7.23 for
artesian well

S1 = S2 =
S3 = S4 =

r1 = r2 =
r3 = r4 =
 7-37

Line source
Image
Real

2 1 1 2
S1
r2 r1 S2
P2
r3 r4 S3
S4

3 4 4 3

A3. Well 1 check:

Use Equation 25 for gravity well and Equation 7.26 for

artesian well

L1 = S2,1 =
S3,1 = S4,1 =

r2,1 = r3,1 =
r4,1 =
 7-38

Line source
Image
Real
S2,1
r2,1
1 1 2
2 L1

r3,1 S3,1
r4,1
S4,1

3 4 4 3

B) Second Design

2
P2
P1
3 1

4
 7-39

7.7 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

Subsurface drainage is often used for seepage control

and dewatering. Engineers are required to determine
the spacing of the subsurface drains for specified
rainfall/recharge rate and groundwater conditions.

Several rigorous analytical solutions are available to

determine the spacing of subsurface drains.
Hooghoudt’s invoke Dupuit-Forchheimer assumptions to
obtain simpler solutions.

Infiltration, i

Soil surface

hw hmax

h
d
S/2
x

Impermeable layer
 7-40

Hooghoudt’s assumptions are:

1. Water table is in equilibrium with uniform

infiltration, i
2. Horizontal flow towards the drain
3. d and hmax are very small compare to S

From Darcy’s law:

dh
q  kh (7.28)
dx
q can be express in terms of infiltration as:

S 
q    x i (7.29)
2 

Equating the discharges from Eqs. (7.28) and (7.29)

gives:

S  dh
  x  i  kh (7.30)
2  dx

Intergrading Eq. (7.30) from x = 0, h = hw + d to x = S/2,

h = hmax + d yields:
 7-41

(7.31)

Eq. (7.31) is known as Hooghoudt’s equation for

subsurface drains.

At empty drain, hw = 0 and at the drain penetrating up

the impermeable layer (d = 0). Eq. (7.31) becomes:

 4khmax 
1/ 2

 2d  hmax  hw  0
 i 
S 1/ 2
(7.32)
 4k 2
 
 i hmax  hw   d0


For stratified soil with different permeabilities for layers

above and below the drains, k1 and k2, respectively
Hooghoudt’s equation for empty drain is modified to:

1/ 2
 4k1 hmax
2
8k d h 
S    2 max  (7.33)
 i i 

Other drain spacing solutions include the nomographs

given by Toksoz and Kirkham in Figure 4.23 (handout)
 7-42

for two layered soils with k1/k2 > 1 and Figure 4.24
(handout) for two layered soils with k1/k2 < 1.

Example 7.5

(a) Compute the spacing required for drains if hmax were

to be limited to 1 m, i = 0.2 cm/day, d = 1 m & k = 2
m/day.

Solution

(b) Compute the spacing required for drain if the soil is

stratified with k1 = 2 m/day above the drain and k2 = 0.4
m/day below the drain.
 7-43

Solution

Example 7.6

Compute the spacing required between the drains for

stratified soil of two layers, layer 1: 2 m thick and k1 = 2
m/day; layer 2: 2 m thick and k2 = 0.4 m/day. The
infiltration = 0.5 cm/day. The drain is to be placed 1.5 m
from the ground surface (0.5 m above the interface).
hmax = 1 m and the diameter of the drain = 20 cm.

Solution
 7-44

7.8 WATER SUPPLY/DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

Both and are

used in construction operations

(displacement pumps family) can

pump water containing high percentage of sand and
mud and can handle large volume of air along with
water. Therefore, they widely used for dewatering
excavations containing mud and sand.

are centrifugal pumps designed

to operate within the body of the fluid which they are
pumping.
 7-45

7.8.1 Required Head

Total head =

Static head is the difference in elevation between the

surface of the source and the point of free
discharge.

Friction Head is the sum of pipe friction and hose

friction.

(See Figure 9.4 and Tables 9.7 and 9.8)

7.8.2 Pump Selection

The capacity of a centrifugal pump depends on the

pump size and horse power, the total head and the
elevation of the pump above the source water level.

Table 9-9 shows the capacity of M-rated centrifugal

pumps.
 7-46

7.8.2 Effect of Altitude and Temperature

The maximum height of pump above the source water

level at which a centrifuge pump will theoretically
operate =

For example, at 20o C temperature, the maximum

theoretical lift at sea level is 10.1 m. However, the
maximum practical lift is 7 m. Figure 9-9 shows the
effect of temperature and altitude on the suction lift.

Submersible pumps are used when the vertical distance

between the source water and the ground surface
exceeds the maximum practical left. Jet pumps and air-
lift pumps are capable of lifting water more than 10 m.

Example 7.7

Water to be pumped from a pond to an open discharge.

Given
Open discharge location = 12.2 m above the pump
Pump located 3.1 m above pond water level

From pump to discharge:

 7-47

Length of pipe = 103. 7 m

Diameter of pipe = 4 inch
1 check valve, 3 standard elbows.

From pump to pond:

Length of intake hose = 6.1 m

Diameter of hose = 4 inch
1 foot valve (equivalent to 21.4 m)

Required

1 Total head the pump must produce for a flow of

1060 L/min (280 gal/min).
2 The minimum size M-rated centrifugal pump.

Solution
7-48
 7-49

Example 7.8

What is the maximum practical suction lift for a

centrifugal pump located at an altitude of 6000 ft when
the temperature is 95o F

Solution