1

Welding Distortion and ITS Control

By JGC Annamalai

1 2 3 4 5 6
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 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A1 Topics / Chapters Remedies 2
Page
(A). Basic Information on Welding Distortion
A1 Chapters / Topic List A 2
A2 Introduction to Welding Distortion A 3
A3 Examples - Welding Distortion in Industry A 4
A4 Distortion, how it happens (Theory of Weld Distortion) A 5
A5 Factors Influencing Weld Distortion A 10
A6 Causes for Welding Distortion A 12
A7 Types of Welding Distortion A 13
A8 Quantitative Welding Distortion A 14
A9 Residual Stresses due to Welding A 16
A10 Distortion in Stainless Steel Welding A 19
A11 Advises at Welding Procedures and Distortion Control Methods, are clashing A 22
A12 Recent Development in Distortion Control A 23
(B). Various Methods to Control Distortion
B1 Control of Welding Distortion-an Introduction B 24
B2 Distortion Control by Design Improvement B 25
B3 Distortion Control by Welding Improvement B 26
B4 Distortion Control by Preventive Measures, Sequences B 27
B5 Distortion Control by Pre-Setting B 29
B6 Distortion Control by Clamp Down & Restraints B 30
B7 Distortion Control by Withdrawal of Heat B 31
B8 Distortion Control by positioning welding about Neutral Axis B 32
B9 Distortion Control by Thermal Tensioning B 33
B10 Distortion Control by Stress Relieving-PWHT B 35
(C). Welding Distortion - Case Studies
C1 Case Studies, Distortion, all C 37
C2 Case Studies, Distortion at Pressure Vessel Nozzle & its Controls C 38
C3 Case Studies, Distortion at Pressure Vessel Saddle & its Controls C 39
C4 Case Studies, Distortion at Pressure Vessel Level Gage Nozzle & its Controls C 40
C5 Case Studies, Distortion at Pressure Vessel L-Seams C 41
C6 Case Studies, Distortion at Pressure Vessel C-Seams C 42
C7 Case Studies, Distortion at Boiler Headers, Banana C 43
C8 Case Studies, Distortion / Dome on Boiler wall panels at fillet weld side C 44
C9 Case Studies, Distortion / tilting of Lugs for the Platforms / ladders / stairs / structures C 45
C10 Case Studies, Distortion / Bowing of Machinery Base Plates C 46
C11 Case Studies, Distortion / mis-alignment at Connecting Flanges to Machineries C 47
C12 Case Studies, Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger, Tube to Tube Sheet Welding, Distortion C 48
(D). Annexure List
D1 Direction of Welding Distortion / Finding Center of Bending Curvature D 49
D2 Physical & Mechanical Properties of Materials-changes with Temperatures D 50
D3 Physical & Thermal Properties of Materials -Tables D 52
(Total Pages-53)
Authored by R.Annamalai, (former Chief Equipment Engineer, JGC Corporation), [email protected]
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A2 Introduction to Welding Distortion Remedies
Different names of (1). Weld Distortion (3). Contraction due to Welding (5). Bowing due to Welding
3
Welding Distortion : (2). Weld Shrinkage (4). Weld warpage (6). Sagging due to Welding
Welding is a process of joining metal and alloys in industry, mostly by melting and joining base metals. Welding is used to
make assembly of equipments, pipes, structures etc.
Distortion is a perennial problem faced by Fabrication Engineers because of welding. The shape change or deformations

Pg.A2.1
and change in the dimensions that occur after welding is termed as distortion, leading to various undesirable consequences.
Every time, we add localized heat/unbalanced heat (by welding, torch heat, spatter etc.) to the base metal, Expansion and
Shrinkage happens to the base metal. If the object is restrained or clamped, Distortion will change to Residual Stresses.
On Carbon Steel and low alloy steels : If the object, as a whole, is heated,
uniformly and gradually(as in furnace, for heat treatments and stress relieving or
in local stress reliving for pipes etc), between room temperature and 600°C
(below the first phase transformation line at 723°C in the Constitution
diagrams), the object expands uniformly and contracts uniformly, thus, the
residual stresses are either removed or lowered. Pressure Vessel Codes
requires such stress relieving, after weld completion, but before taking hydro
testing pressure stresses or system stresses in service .
Welding Defects like porosity, crack, slag, undercut etc can be fully controlled or
eliminated. But the effects of Welding Distortion (like residual stresses, grain
size changes, shape changes, dimensional changes, etc), cannot be fully
controlled or eliminated. Distortion or residual stresses can only be partially
controlled/ rectified. We discuss some ways to control the Distortion and
Residual Stresses and Restoration Methods.

Some of the ways to control the Welding Distortion

(1). Avoid welding. Use ready made shapes as much as possible.
(2). Larger the weld bead size in butt & fillet joints, smaller the Distortion
(3). Design size is the desired. Over welding, will lead to Distortion
(4). Distribute the heat. Use intermittent / staggered welding
(5). Minimize the number of weld passes
(6). Plan and Weld, on/about the neutral axis
(7). Use balance welding, like back-step/skip weld/scatter weld technique
(8). Pre-set parts to counter distortion
(9). Clamp/restrain the object from moving during welding
(10). Use Restoration Methods(Thermal Tensioning, PWHT),
to correct distortion
Consequences of Welding Distortion are :
(1). Distortion of Machines or object will have mismatching or may affect the original intended service.
(2). Rectification of the mismatch will result in repair/ rework and will have time and cost impact or more distortion
(3). Distortion and repair work, may affect the functional requirements and load carrying capacity
(4). It may be difficult to maintain the original shape or metallurgy and may affect aesthetics appearance
(5). Welding causes either Distortion and / or Residual Stresses. If the system is clamped or restrained, the
distortion effect will change to Residual Stresses. The stresses may be tensile or compressive or both. If the
equipment is in service, the system operating stresses will add up or cancel with residual stresses. If the
cumulative stresses reaches yield stress, the system will result in permanent deformation in shape or
equipment will fail. Residual stress effect should be considered for equipments in service , like Stress
Corrosion Cracking, Fatigue, Cryogenic Temperatures, Brittle failure areas etc, They are expected to have
premature failure if excess residual stresses are present.
(Note : Unless otherwise mentioned, this Document is written mainly for Distortion in Carbon Steel and Low Alloy Steel
objects, as majority of the works are from CS and LAS. There is a separate chapter for Distortion on Stainless Steel Weld
Distortion. The Distortion behavior of SS, is similar CS and LAS)
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A3 Welding & Heat Distortion & Controls - Examples Remedies
4
Distorted Objects

Pg.A3.1
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A3 Welding & Heat Distortion & Controls - Examples Remedies
5
Distortion

Pg.A3.2
Controls

Refinery
Reformer
Headers

Nuclear
Power
Plant
Reactor
Fuel Control
Rods
Precision
Welding

The above set up (similar to a lathe machine) is to weld, Nuclear Fuel Control Rods, made up of SS-304 (5" &6" dia,
10 tk, 2 butt welds, each pipe 20' long). After completion of root pass and 2 stabilizing passes with Argon shielding
& purging (low heat, GTAW), to control distortion and sensitization, further fill welding was done using GTAW, with
water circulation inside the pipes, to cool the weld and HAZ during welding .
The straight line alignment requirement of the pipe assembly after welding, was 0.75mm for 6m (20ft) length.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A4 Weld Distortion, How it Happens ? Or Theory of Distortion Remedies
On most of the welded assembly cases, Weld Distortion is observed (it changes the shape, changes the dimensions, 6
causes difficulty during assembly of parts and makes the machineries difficult to work smoothly. As welded assemblies
contain, residual stresses, it is not suitable for services like Stress Corrosion Cracking, Fatigue, Cryogenics and areas
where brittle fracture is expected). Differential/Gradient Temperatures on an object or on an area ,cause stresses

Pg.A4.1
and strains.
If the structure is strong or complex or the thickness of the material is heavy or the structure is restrained or clamped to
avoid distortion, there will be no distortion or controlled distortion. Instead, all the expanding forces , contracting forces,
due to heat, will stay as Residual Stresses.
Now, we see how the Weld Distortion happens and the theory behind it.
Case-1, a thin Disc(Base Metal), about 5mm tk, and 50 mm dia. Heat in the form of Weld or Spatter or Heating Torch is
applied at the Center. The Disc analysis shown, below, is the temperatures, just after weld solidification
(Max.temp.reached).
(5). Room Temperature. Strong &
Expanding
rigid. No change in shape Forces
(4). Strong, yielding. plastic range &
Expanding
permanent set.
Forces
(3). Moderate temperatutre .
Ring- Weak in strength. Elastic
Ring- T4 range. Stays as residual
T3 stress
Ring- T2
Ring- C T1
Ring- (2). High temperature.
Yielding. Change in shape.
T
Pool
Temperature (1). Liquid to Solid phase
change. No change in

To find out Center of Bending Curvature: (If many welds, take group center of gravity of all welds )
Thumb Rule: Neutral Axis of structure >> Weld Center >> Center of Bend.(They are in line).
Shrinkage of the "weld" itself comprises only approx. 10% of the actual shrinkage. Most of the shrinkage takes place in base metal
1. A drop of weld metal is added on the base metal(this may also be a spatter or a local gas heating)
Happenings:

2. The heat spreads radially and through the thickness. The sketch at the right gives the gradient temperature, in a
(T,T1,T2,T3,T4). T4 is room Temperature.
3. The specimen is strained by the same plate, at the outer periphery, as there is no increase in Temperature
4. Due to heat losses by radiation, convection, conduction etc, the temperature drops, approximately in the
exponential form. Often, with thickness, 10mm & over, beyond 300mm from weld fusion line, the temperature
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A4 Weld Distortion, How it Happens ? Or Theory of Distortion Remedies
is hand bearable, in single bead weld. Multiple passes and thick beads, may cause the base metal, more hot. 7
5. Increase in length due to temperature rise or decrease in length due to temperature fall ,
L, is the length of the piece, heated/cooled, mm ∆L = LαT, mm

Pg.A4.2
α, Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, mm/mm/°C
(for CS=11.7x10-6mm/mm/°C; for SS=17.3x10-6mm/mm/°C)
T, in °C, the formula is for constant temperature, on L. (if the temperature is not uniform through the Length, L, take
average temperature(from room temperature to operating temperature) and use equivalent co-efficient of thermal
expansion. If the temperature difference is high , split the temperature into many segments for calculation).

Normally, at room temperature, for the

common thickness and length, buckling
does not happen. At welding temperature,
say around 1500°C, yield stress and Young's
Modules are very small and buckling
6. Axial thrust due to change in Temperature: Fail case - Critical Buckling Thrust
Based on Distortion/compression: Based on Critical Buckling Load: (Euler Formula) :
Force, F, developed due to the change in length , ∆L F =the Force required to buckle, due to the
E =Stress / Strain axial force F, on a column, one end fixed and
=(F/A)/(∆L/L)=FL/(A.∆L) another end free, is also called 'the Critical
Buckling Load or Buckling Thrust
F =EA(∆L/L)=EA(LαT)/(L)=EATα
F =EATα The Critical Thrust = EI(π/2L)2= 2.5EI/(L2)
Stress =F/A=ETα ∆L = LαT, mm I=bh3/12
F=2.5E.(b*h*(h2)/12)/(L2)=2.5EAh2/(12L2)
Relative Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion : (h=thickness, for a rectangular section)
F/A=Buckling Stress=(2.5Eh2)/(12L2)
Steel : SS : Al : Cu = 1.0 : 1.5 : 1.9 : 1.4
Euler assumes slenderness ratio, L/r > 120 for
calculating Column Failures by Buckling. (L , column
Distortion is dependant, on the following (Base Metal) : length ; r, radius of gyration, smallest of Ix/A or Iy/A)
(1). Temperature, (5). Yield Stress,
(2). Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion, (6). Young's Modulus,
(3). Thermal Conductivity (7). Freedom or Flexibility to distort (imposed Restrains /
(4). Specific Heat Clamps etc will retard or prevent distortion)
The temperature is continuously falling(exponentially), beyond weld puddle / weld pool. The co-efficient of thermal
expansion is temperature dependent. Higher the temperature, higher the co-efficient of thermal expansion.
(Similarly, the co-efficient of thermal expansion, at Absolute Zero Temperature, is considered as Zero). So, we
need to make small, small segment and use average co-efficient of thermal expansions, to calculate the forces
due to thermal expansion.
Weld, initially liquid metal. After Heat
Dissipation solidified into solid metal
Temperature Distribution
at the Top & Bottom Surface
Weld , Spatter or
Torch Heat (just at end of liquid to solid )

l
Base Metalj

Normally, the surface temperature

is dropping exponentially

7. Expanding: Ring-1, The weld side of the Disc is hotter than the rear side of weld. The yield stress and Young's
Modulus are temperature dependant. Close to weld fusion line (say about 10 mm length) the area is facing very
high temperatures(temperature, close to weld puddle temperature) and more likely candidate for failure.
(1).Due to temperature rise, increment in length(∆L = LαT) and expansion forces(F=EATα) pushes, radially.
As Outer ring is rigid and cannot expand, the expanding forces pushes metal towards the center(yielding).
Immediate to the weld, the temperature is high and the yield stress and Young's Modulus are very low and
ready to fail.
(2). Due to space constrains, the hot metal grows/distorts in the lateral direction/Buckles, near weld puddle.
(3). Due to plastic strains, Residual stresses are set at the rigid areas(Ring-1 & Ring-2).
Expanding Forces are radial, from weld pool center point
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A4 Weld Distortion, How it Happens ? Or Theory of Distortion Remedies
8. Shrinking (during cooling) : 8
Ring-4: During cooling, the farthest outer ring, is at or near room temperature, unaffected periphery, due to
temperature, will stay as rigid.
Ring-3: The next inner ring, which was pushed by hot inner area, was deformed to plastic state with
Residual Stress. Part of the residual stresses recoils during cooling.

Pg.A4.3
Ring-2: The inner ring, immediate to the weld, is soft & ductile and take the contraction and shrink. The
shrinking forces will pull the immediate inner ring(Ring-1).
Ring-1: The innermost ring will shrink and pull the ends or lift. Weld Puddle: The weld puddle is solid now
and start shrinking and start pulling the base metal, immediately next to the weld puddle/fusion line.
The net resultant Distortion is due to the effect of Expansion and Contraction
Shrinking Forces are radial, from outer ring periphery towards center
9. Direction of Lift:
The Expansion and Contraction forces of the base metal and weld, causes weak location to buckle/distort the base
metal. The direction of buckling or curvature of bending is moment of inertia dependent. Ring-1 & 2, the base metal
is permanently set / deformed as the metal yield stress is lower than the applied stress.
The center of bending curvature can be found by this thumb rule:
Neutral Axis >> Weld Center Line >> Center point of bend curvature.
(If the welded assembly is complex and there are many
welds, often average neutral axis line and average weld
center is calculated, as it is done in Strength of Materials).
Case-1. Butt Welds:
Here we have large welds. The distortions are
from different direction. Various Weld Distortion
Types on butt welds are explained in the
following sketches
Welding Distortion Types:

Case-2. Fillet Welds:

In Butt welds, the base metals are in same plane. But, in fillet welds,
the base metals are in perpendicular planes.
Base Metalk

Weld, initially liquid

The effect of expansion and contractions, are very similar to butt metal. Later solidified
welds. The distortion, in the fillet welds are moving the outer base B4 into solid metal
metal ends , closer. If one base metal, is fixed, the distortion or the
Temperature
displacement will be on the other base metal(flexible). Temperature Distribution at the
Distribution B3 Top Surface
In Reality: We explained here a simple case. However, the real on weld side &
distortion is not so simple. The issue is very complex due to the other side B2 B1
l A2
following :
A
(1). Weld Volume: We assumed a small amount of local heating. Base Metalj
Below
However, in reality, we will have large amount of welding/heating Yield Point
to complete the job.
(2). The job is not small in shape. Often the job involves, large number of
parts and shapes. B1, B2, Room Temperature
B3, Yield Point, Yielding
(3). The thickness, moment of Inertia and radius of gyration are huge in real situation. B4, Melting Temperature
Actual Distortion may be high or absorbed and null or may be reversed.
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion x10-6 x10-6 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion x10-6 x10-6
of Materials in./in./°F m./m./°C of Materials in./in./°F m./m./°C
Age Hardenable Stainless Steels 6.944 12.5 Molybdenum 2.900 5.22 9
Alloy Steels 7.222 13 Molybdenum & its Alloys 3.333 6
Alloy Steels (cast) 8.056 14.5 Molybdenum Di-silicide 5.000 9
Alumina Ceramics 3.611 6.5 Monel 400 6.400 11.52
Alumina Cermets 5.000 9 Nichrome (80% NI-20% Cr) 7.300 13.14
Aluminum 13.100 23.58 Nickel 5.800 10.44

PgA4.4
Aluminum & its Alloys 12.778 23 Nickel & its Alloys 8.333 15
Aluminum Bronzes (cast) 9.444 17 Nickel-Base Superalloys 10.000 18
Antimony 6.111 11 Nitriding Steels 6.667 12
Austenitic Stainless Steels 9.444 17 Nodular or Ductile Irons (cast) 8.333 15
Beryllia &, Thoria 5.000 9 Osmium and Tantalum 3.333 6
Beryllium 6.111 11 Palladium 6.667 12
Beryllium Carbide 5.556 10 Phosphor Silicon Bronzes 9.722 17.5
Beryllium Copper 9.444 17 Plain & Leaded Brasses 11.111 20
Boron Carbide 1.667 3 Platinum 5.000 9
Boron Nitride 4.444 8 Platinum 4.900 8.82
Brass (Yellow) 11.200 20.16 Rhodium 4.444 8
Carbon and Graphite 1.667 3 Ruthenium 5.000 9
Carbon Free-Cutting Steels 8.333 15 Silicon Carbide 2.222 4
Chromium Carbide Cermets 6.111 11 Silver 11.111 20
Cobalt 6.667 12 Silver 10.800 19.44
Cobalt-Base Superalloys 8.333 15 Solder (50% Pb-50% Sn) 13.100 23.58
Columbium & its Alloys 3.889 7 SS(Austenite) 304,304L321,347 9.600 17.28
Copper 9.800 17.64 SS(Austenite), 316,316L 9.722 17.5
Coppers 8.889 16 SS(Ferrite), 430, 409,434 6.000 10.8
Cr-Ni-Co-Fe Superalloys 8.333 15 SS(Martensite), 410,420,440 5.500 9.9
Cr-Ni-Fe Superalloys 10.000 18 Stainless Steels (cast) 8.333 15
Cupro-Nickels & Nickel Silvers 9.167 16.5 Steatite 3.611 6.5
Electrical Ceramics 2.222 4 Steel, mild 6.700 12.06
Ferritic Stainless Steels 6.111 11 Tantalum 3.600 6.48
Gold 7.778 14 Tantalum Carbide 4.444 8
Gold 7.900 14.22 Thorium 6.111 11
Gray Irons (cast) 6.111 11 Tin & Aluminum Brasses 11.111 20
Hafnium 3.333 6 Tin & its Alloys 12.778 23
Heat Resistant Alloys (cast) 8.333 15 Tin Bronzes (cast) 10.000 18
High Temperature Steels 7.222 13 Tin, solid 13.000 23.4
Incoloy 800 7.900 14.22 Titanium & its Alloys 6.111 11
Inconel 600 5.800 10.44 Titanium 99.0% 4.700 8.46
Invar, 64%Fe-35%Ni 0.500 0.9 Titanium Carbide 3.889 7
Iridium 3.889 7 Titanium Carbide Cermets 5.556 10
Iron, Cast 6.000 10.8 Tungsten 2.222 4
Lead & its Alloys 15.278 27.5 Tungsten 2.500 4.5
Lead, solid 16.400 29.52 Tungsten Carbide Cermets 2.778 5
Low Expansion Nickel Alloys’ 3.333 6 Ultra High Strength Steels 7.222 13
Magnesium 14.000 25.2 Vanadium 5.000 9
Magnesium Alloys 15.000 27 Zinc 22.100 39.78
Malleable Irons 6.667 12 Zirconium 3.200 5.76
Martensitic Stainless Steels 6.111 11 Zinc 22.100 39.78
Molybdenum 2.900 5.22 Zirconium 3.200 5.76

Shrinkage Allowance (Foundry) inch/foot mm/foot mm/1000mm Shrinkage Allowance (Foundry) inch/foot mm/foot mm/1000mm
Aluminum 5/32 3.97 13.02 Copper 3/16 4.76 15.24
Bismuth 5/32 3.97 13.02 Lead 5/16 7.94 25.40
Brass 3/16 4.76 15.62 Monel 1/4 6.40 20.48
Bronze 3/16 4.76 15.62 Magnesium 1/8-5/32 3.2 to 4.0 10.5 to 13
Aluminum Bronze 7/32 5.56 18.22 Steel 1/4 6.40 20.48
Manganese Bronze 7/32 5.56 18.22 Stainless Steel(SS-304) 5/16 8.125 26.00
Cast Iron 1/10-1/8 2.5 to 3.2 8.2 to 10.5 Tin 1/4 6.40 20.48
Cast Iron Wrought 1/8 3.20 10.50 Zinc 5/16 7.94 25.40
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A5 Factors Influencing Weld Distortion Remedies
Most of us, know the effect of Weld Distortion(it changes the shape, changes the dimensions, causes difficulty during 10
assembly of parts and makes the machineries difficult to work smoothly, not suitable for services like Stress Corrosion
Cracking, Fatigue, Cryogenics, areas where brittle structure is formed, etc.)
We saw how the Weld Distortion happened and the theory behind it.
Distortion is influenced by :

Pg.A5.1
(please refer to Annex-2, to see the change in Physical and Mechanical Properties
with Temperature, for CS and SS) :
(1). Heat & Temperature : Distortion happens because of local heating and
cooling and when the object is strained by external forces or by its own
structure configuration. Heat is function of Temperature and Power Density of
the Welding Process.
(2). Co-efficient of thermal expansion (5). Thickness of the welding.
(3). Thermal conductivity (6). Structure of the Object
(4). Yield strength (7). Young's Modulus
(1a). Heat Input Controls: (Higher the heat input, higher the deflection or distortion)
Low Power Density or high heat input Process, cause damage to the work
piece(say Distortion). Example :
(1). Low energy group includes-Gas Welding/Oxy-fuel (OAW).
(2). Medium energy includes-Arc Welding Sr. Welding Process Welding Heat Arc
Process (SMAW, GTAW, PAW, GMAW, No. Process Density Temperature,
FCAW, SAW, ESW), (W/cm2) °C
2 3
1 Gas welding OFW 10 -10 2500-3500
(3). High energy group includes-Electron 4
2 Shielded meta arc welding SMAW 10 >6000
Beam Welding (EBW) and Laser Beam
3 Gas Tungston Arc Welding GTAW 19,400
Welding (LBW) 5
4 Gas metal arc welding GMAW 10 8000-10000
High Power Density gives low heat input. Eg : 5 Plasma arc welding PAW 10 6
15000-30000
EBW and LBW. The cost of the equipments 6 Electron beam welding EBW 107 -108 20,000-30000
are high, gives higher weld penetration, higher 7 Laser beam welding LBW >108 >30,000
welding speed, higher welding quality.
For , lower weld distortion, it is better to use,
Higher Power Density or low heat input
sources, like EBW or LBW process.
Higher the heat input, higher the temperature
and higher the Distortion
(1b). Distortion control by Temperature Controls:
Higher the temperature, higher the Deflection or
Distortion. Shown below, is sketches for the
Temperature Distribution at the Welding Tip and
the Temperature Contour around the weld. The tip
temperature is by simulation and radiation study and
the temperature around weld is by measuring
temperature, by thermocouples and infrared
thermometers.
Temperature Contour / Temperature Distribution at the Weld Tip and Temperature around the Welding :

Electrode Tip temperature (SMAW) Temperature Distribution around the Weld (SMAW) for CS
(1). Welding speed: 2.4 mm/s; heat input: 3200 W; material, similar to SA36
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A5 Factors Influencing Weld Distortion Remedies
(1). Welding speed: 2.4 mm/s; heat input: 3200 W; material, similar to SA36 11
(2). Welding speed: 6.2 mm/s and heat input of 5000W. material, similar to Isotherm curves
are very similar, but the ellipses are compressed in Y axis and elongated in X axis
The following are the actions for Temperature Controls :
(a). Temperature spreads from high temperature to low temperature. If the high temperature is kept, for long time,
it will spread to more area. If the area will have high temperature for long time and more area may have yielding
further and will have more distortion. So, the welding should be completed fast. Higher the temperature, lower the
yield stress and will have more distortion.

Pg.A5.2
(b). On CS and LAS welding, it is problem for fast cooling, as it often leads to action similar to quenching and
formation of hard martensitic material and crack. Preheat will slow down the spread of heat. People pre-heat the
whole structure, so that faster heat draining will be prevented.
(c). Less harmful distortion, happens, on Stainless Steel, if we cool fast and drain away the welding heat. As there
is no phase change in SS, no hardening or grain change happens. On SS, area beyond weld fusion line is force
cooled, by icing or water cooling.
(2). Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion (higher the co-efficient of thermal expansion, higher the Deflection or Distortion)
The expansion and contraction is function of co-efficient of thermal expansion. Higher the thermal coefficient higher
the distortion. Stainless steel and Aluminum have high thermal coefficient. So they will expand and distort more. For
steel, thermal co-efficient is increasing as the temperature increasing.
−6
Coefficients for Carbon and Low Alloy(Coefficient is the mean coefficient of thermal expansion × 10 (mm./mm./°C) in going from 20°C, (Interpolated from ASME, SecII, D, Table-TE1)
Temp. °C 20°C 40°C 70°C 100°C 120°C 150°C 180°C 200°C 230°C 260°C 280°C 320°C 350°C 370°C 400°C 430°C 450°C 480°C 500°C 540°C 570°C 600°C 620°C 650°C 680°C 700°C 730°C 760°C 800°C 820°C
r. g
CS 11.52 11.70 11.88 12.06 12.24 12.42 12.60 12.78 12.96 13.14 13.14 13.32 13.50 13.68 13.86 14.04 14.22 14.22 14.40 14.58 14.58 14.76 14.94 14.94 15.12 15.12 … … … …
Aus SS 15.30 15.48 15.84 16.02 16.38 16.56 16.92 17.10 17.28 17.46 17.64 17.82 17.82 18.00 18.00 18.18 18.36 18.36 18.54 18.54 18.72 18.72 18.90 19.08 19.08 19.26 19.26 19.44 19.44 19.44

(3). Thermal Conductivity (Higher the thermal conductivity, the heat drain is faster, distortion is less)
Thermal Conductivity plays a major role in Distortion. If the heat from weld pool is transferred/drained fast, the
distortion effects or less. Material with low thermal conductivity, like SS, will accumulate the heat and delay the heat
transfer and cause more distortion.

(4). Yield Strength (higher the yield strength, lower the Deflection or Distortion)
Each material has yield strength. Higher the yield strength, higher the strength and resist plastic deformation and
failure. As the temperature increases, yield stress of most of the materials decreases. Material with lower yield
strength may fail fast at lower loads. To meet the strength and to lower the weight of the structure, often Designers
prefer higher yield strength material. During welding, yield strength of the material is inversely proportional to the
welding temperature. Material with Higher yield strength at high temperature will have less weld distortion
Ref: ASME Sec II, D, Page-568 Yield Strength, MPa (Multiply by 1000 to Obtain kPa), for Metal Temperature, °C, Not Exceeding
−30 to
Temperature, °C >>>> 40 65 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525
Carbon steels SA36 248 233 227 223 219 216 213 209 204 199 194 188 183 177 171 166 162 158 154 150
Material Group G [SS-304, plate]
207 184 170 161 154 148 144 139 135 132 129 126 123 121 118 117 114 112 110 108

(5). Thickness of the Welding.

Volume of Metal: Higher the material thickness is higher the 2nd moment of inertia and will resist distortion. Often
lower thickness material will have higher distortion. Higher thickness material will have faster spread of heat.
Volume of Weld/Thickness of Weld : Higher weld thickness or more volume of weld material, will have more
distortion.
(6). The shape and complexity of the Structure
The distortion will be easily observed on simple structure, as in simple butt weld on 2 plates or on fillet weld with 2
plates . It is difficult to see the Distortion on more complex Structure. The rigidity of the structure make the distortion
absorbed /or controlled by other members or inside the structure and will stay as residual stress.
(7). E, Young's Modulus (also called Modulus of Elasticity), (Higher the E, more stiffer, lower the Deflection or Distortion)
Different materials, at the same temperature, having, higher Young's Modulus, will have higher rigidity. Material to
material, the Young's modulus will change. So, to have less distortion, have higher modulus of Elasticity or Young's
Modulus.
For most of the materials, as the temperature increases, the Young's Modulus for a particular material decreases.
So, the structure at higher temperature, will not be rigid. The structure at higher temperatures, will deform/distort
more. 3
Ref: ASME Sec II, D, Page-696 (Youngs Modulus) Modulus of Elasticity E = Value Given x 10 Mpa(or in Gpa), for Temperature, °C

Temperature, °C >>>> −200 −125 −75 25 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Carbon steels with C ≤ 0.30% 216 212 209 202 198 195 192 189 185 179 171 162 151 137 ... ... ...
Material Group G [SS-304 etc] 209 204 201 195 189 186 183 179 176 172 169 165 160 156 151 146 140
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A6 Causes for Welding Distortions
Cause for Welding Distortions Real Happening Remedies 12
Causes for Welding Distortions and remedies are discussed in most of the Chapters. Here, we give only the consolidation of main
points.

(1). Localized Heating: Welding, thermal (1). Majority of the welding cases, distortion (1). Instead of applying heat, in a local
cutting, local (spot) heating by torch, spatters and residual stresses happen and both are area, apply the heat, distributed over a
etc on metals are the sources for local heat ignored at the fabrication stage, as the real full ring area(as in pipe welding). Pre-
addition to the metal. Localized or unbalanced effect is not known to some of the heat preferred.
heat will set up differential / gradient Fabrication Shops. (2). Follow, all Weld distortion
temperature distribution to a local area and will (2). Precision Dimension requirements and controls, explained in Chapter-9.
cause expanding or contracting stresses, the welding distortion controls are explained (3). (a). The object shall be restrained
around the heated area. As the non-heated in Chapter-9, and Case-Studies in Chapter- or clamped and welding completed.
area, outer periphery acts as rigid object and 10). (b). Subsequently, PWHT completed,
does not allow or resist the metal to expand or with the clamps/restrain in position
to contract, residual stresses will set up. during PWHT.
(c). Machining may be taken, after
If the material is thin or the structure or the
PWHT.
area is flexible to adjust to the expansion or
If the above sequence is not followed,
contraction, there will be no distortion. If free
residual stress may not disappear
distortion is not allowed, remaining part of the
and distortion may re-appear.
expansion / contraction will change to residual

Pg.A6.1
stresses.
If the expansion or contraction is restrained/
clamped, there will be no distortion and the
dimensions may be maintained, but residual
stresses, will stay as hidden stresses in the
metal. Residual stresses may add up or
subtract to the system operating stress and
may partially neutralize or cause metal yielding
or may cause distortion at later date or continue
as hidden residual stresses for later stage
venting/ neutralization/ destruction.
(2b). Release of Residual Stresses: The object (1). During transport by Sea, materials were If the object is heated locally, it will
is distortion controlled by restraining or by stored, in Ships, at different deck floors produce either distortion and / or
clamping. The residual stresses during heating (each about 20 ft high). One time, a Ship, residual stresses. It is difficult, to
and cooling will release, later if the object is loaded with Air Fin Coolers(AFC), had remove full distortion and full residual
heated or peened or shock load applied , faced stormy weather around Arabian Sea. stress. A compromise is to be made,
during transport or during service. Combined AFC, stored in the top floor, fell from Top which is tolerable - distortion or
effect will either have distortion and residual Deck to the immediate mezzanine floor. The residual stress.
stresses. If the residual stresses are not AFC headers were made of ductile material
Most of the structures are made, with
neutralized/ not released, in the worst case the (SA516-70, about 1 1/2" tk). When the AFC
min. distortion and assuming residual
metal will fail, mostly by brittle failure. was received, at Site, the AFC header
stress will not harm. But, there are
boxes, were found, crushed like mud pot.
cases, the residual stress will harm in
All brittle failure. (failed because of residual
the following cases:, (1). Stress
stresses and shock load).
Corrosion Cracking,
(2). Fully machined pump base plates were (2). Fatigue members,
ok at the Shop, but when received at Site, (3). Members subjected to Cryogenic
they were, found bowed upwards(distorted Temperatures,
during loading, unloading or with shock (4). Members subject to unexpected
loads). shock loads. Fatigue stresses,
cryogenic temperature service etc
(3). Stress Corrosion Crack is very common require fully residual stresses free.
on Stainless Steel objects due to (5). Mild shock loads(as in case of
sensitization . Corrosion and stress will loading and unloading, peening), will
cause crack initiation. Further crack/ failure release the residual stresses and set
may be accelerated by residual stresses in the distortion.
and service stresses.

(4). Failure Analysis showed the Titanic

Ship , Liberty Ships/ SS Schenectady Ships
faced cold temperature and the material
used were low quality materials (not suitable
for low temperature service). First cracks
were started from the weld residual stress
areas.

(5). Many bridges also failed due to excess

weld residual stresses.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A7 Welding Distortion - Types Remedies
Types of Distortion 13
Every time, we add heat(by welding, torch heat, spatter etc.) to the base metal, Shrinkage happens to the base
metal. The following shrinkages and distortions types are most common. To understand the effect of shrinkage,
the total shrinkage is classified to several types.

Pg.A7.1
(1). Longitudinal(along weld axis) - shrinkage is parallel to the weld axis
When we weld a long weld/bead or joint, the longitudinal shrinkage
happens. Due to this, the ends of the base plate are shrunk.
Controls: By Clamping/restraint or by low heat welding or by
having low volume of weld metal (smaller weld groove, double V,
instead of single V). Preheating or cooling the whole body,
gradually and slowly will reduce distortion.
(2). Transverse - Shrinkage is perpendicular to weld axis
When we weld a long weld/bead or joint, the transverse / lateral
shrinkage happens. Due to this, the perpendicular edges of the
base plate are shrunk.
Controls: By Clamping/restrain or by low heat welding or by having
low volume of weld metal (smaller weld groove). Preheating or
cooling the whole body, gradually and slowly will reduce distortion.
(3). Angular - Change in the angle
When we weld a long weld/bead or joint and only from one side,
the Angular Distortion happens. Due to this, the ends of the base
plate are move up.
Controls: By changing the groove from single V to double V and
welding alternatively at top and bottom or use cross stiffener to the
weld axis or by Clamping/restraint or by low heat welding, by having
low volume of weld metal (smaller weld groove).
(4). Rotational Shrinkage
When we weld a long weld/bead or joint, the Rotational Distortion
happens. Due to this, the root gap, at the closing end is closed.
Controls: Adding stronger tack welds or by Clamping/restraint or
by low heat welding or by having low volume of weld metal (smaller
weld groove) or by balance welding(skip welding, scatter welding,
back-step welding), like weld in the order 1,5,2,4,3

(5). Bending Distortion

When we weld a long weld/bead or joint, the longitudinal
shrinkage happens. If the V finishing/filling is at the top, ,
the ends of the base plate are shrunk and lift up.
Controls: Use double V joint. By Clamping/restraint, or by
low heat welding, or by having low volume of weld metal
(smaller weld groove). Use stiffener at top and bottom and
at sides of weld
(6). Buckling - While welding thin sheets using SMAW :
When we weld a long weld/bead or joint, the longitudinal
shrinkage happens. Due to this, the ends of the base plate
are shrunk. If the plate is thin, due to the end thrust, by
shrinking forces, the plate is buckled.
Controls: By Clamping/restraint, or by low heat welding, or
by having low volume of weld metal (smaller weld groove).
Balance welding at top and bottom. Use stiffener, on both
side of welding & also at top & bottom.
Check List : to study and take counter action to control Distortion for each weld :
(1) Longitudinal Shrinkage (4) Angular Distortion
(2) Transverse Shrinkage (5) Rotational Distortion
(3) Bending Distortion (6) Buckling
Note: One or many of the Weld Distortion Type may occur simultaneously, on a weld. Welder, Fabricator, Shop Engineer
should study each weld and take action.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A8 Quantitative Welding Distortion (Thumb Rules) Remedies
Most of us, know the effect of Weld Distortion(it changes the shape, changes the dimensions, causes difficulty during 14
assembly of parts and makes the machineries difficult to work smoothly. Residual Stresses are normally not accepted for

Pg.A8.1
services like Stress Corrosion Cracking, Fatigue, Cryogenics or areas where brittle structure is formed(like caustic, H 2S),

A
ASME codes specify PWHT (Stress Relieving) on welds, mandatory for such services.
Quantitative Distortions: Thumb Rules, AWS HB Vol-1, Chapter-7, Recommendations :
Weld Type & Details Formula & Details Abbreviations & Details
Butt
ButtWelds :
Welds: (a). Transverse Shrinkage (inch or C=Co-efficient,
mm): =0.2 for plate tk, >1"(25mm)
=0.18 for plate tk, <1"(25mm)
∆S = Transverse shrinkage, in. (mm);
A w = Cross-sectional area of weld, in. ( mm 2);
Transverse Reaction Stress : t = Thickness of plates, in. (mm);
d = Root opening, in. (mm).
 = Reaction stress, ksi (MPa); ฀
σ
E = Modulus of elasticity, ksi (MPa);
(b). Longitudinal Shrinkage: S = Transverse shrinkage, in. (mm);
The amount of longitudinal shrinkage B = Width of the joint, in. (mm).
that occurs in butt joints is ∆ L = Longitudinal shrinkage, in. (mm);
approximately 1/1000 of the weld
length. This is much less than C 3 = 12 and 305 when L and t are in
transverse shrinkage. inches and millimeters, respectively;
I = Welding current, A;
L = Length of weld, in. (mm); and
t = Plate thickness, in. (mm).
(1). Transverse Shrinkage(inch or S = Transverse shrinkage, in. (mm);
mm) (Alternative):
C 1 = 0.04 and 1.02 when S, L, and tb are in
inches and millimeters, respectively;
D f = Fillet leg length, in. (mm);
t b = Thickness of the bottom plate,
in. (mm).

Controls: To have Strong-backs or

clamping or follow allowance per
Transverse Welds

Fillet Welds

Distortion – Angular, Welded Structures: (b). Angular Distortion :

(A) a Free Joint and (B) a Restrained Joint
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A8 Quantitative Welding Distortion (Thumb Rules) Remedies
Quantitative Distortions, Thumb Rules, TWI Recommendations : 14
15
Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds Butt Welds

PgA8.2
0.8mm per weld where the leg 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint, depending on
length does not exceed 3/4 number of runs. (Normally, the root gap length, at
(75%) plate thickness the fit-up, is considered as equivalent to the weld
metal shrinkage).

Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds Butt Welds
0.8mm per 3m of weld 3mm per 3m of weld
General-Fillet Welds: More the General: Butt Welds: More the weld volume and
Leg Length of Fillet Welds, more the reinforcement, larger the Shrinkage
larger the Shrinkage.

Note : The formulas given here, are thumb rules for simple cases.
If the structure involves large number of welds or the structure is complex, it is better to measure the actual distortion, after
welding and take counter action to control the Distortion.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A9 Welding Residual Stresses Remedies
Residual Stresses are also called Internal Stresses or Buried Stresses or Hidden Stresses or Invisible Stresses 16
Temperature due to Welding, creates forces and stresses on the material. If the material is flexible, the shape and size change
and distortion occurs. If the material/structure is rigid and/or it is restrained by outside clamps etc and did not yield to the stresses
due to welding temperature, the stresses due to expansion and contraction are absorbed/stays in the material as "Residual
Stresses".

Pg.A9.1
Most of the cases, welding creates distortion as well as residual stresses in the material.

Amount of Residual Stress: The sketch here shows a single

side butt welded(multiple beads/runs, from one side) plate
structure and the distortions happened due to the welding.
The plates are free and not restrained and assumed no
residual stress now. It has max.distortion.
This distorted plate is useless and does not serve the
purpose. If we use presses and straighten the distorted plate
in all directions, the plates may be flat or straight and may be
used. The amount of energy buried inside the plates, after
straightening, is equal to the total distortion energy or
residual stresses if we use clamps and other restrains and
maintain the straightness or no distortion.
If the press forces, clamps/restrains are removed, it is likely
that the spring back will happen and the distortion will appear.
Effect of Residual Stresses : Residual stresses coupled with Applied Stress / Service Stress and stresses at stress raiser
points, crevice corrosion, sensitization corrosion etc points, fatigue, low and cryogenic temperature locations, will lead to
premature failures.
Plot of Shrinkage stresses due to Longitudinal Shrinkage, perpendicular to weld(areas where the weld and material
had reached the room temperature) :
Analysis of the welding residual stresses, show: The stresses along the weld axis, is tensile stresses and it exists till few
millimeters from weld fusion line and then, the stress changes to compressive stresses, and they exist beyond null stress point,
few cm away.
If the base metal thickness is high and the weld is multi pass weld , the max. tensile and compressive stresses value will be
higher and similarly "no stress" point will move further away from fusion line.
Longitudinal Residual Stresses on the Weld, at different points on the Weld :

Residual Stresses, when the welding

temperatures reach room temperature

Normally, the area from fusion line to B

and fusion line to D are said as Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ). Many users'
specification, avoid, welding in the HAZ
area due to cumulative effect of Residual
Stresses. If it is difficulty to avoid welding
in the HAZ area, some people, check the
area with RT or MT or LT, before welding.
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A9 Welding Residual Stresses Remedies
Cumulative Effect of Residual Stresses and Applied Stresses, leading to failures:
17

The sketch shows the effect of weld residual stresses &

Applied Tensile Loads, at room temperature.

Design Load : Applied Load-1 and Applied Load-2 or their

Pg.A9.2
cumulative, are below the yield point and are safe.

Cumulative of Residual Stresses and Stresses due to Applied

Load-1 crosses Yield Point and the material will have
permanent set.

Cumulative of Residual Stresses and Stresses due to Applied

Load-1 and -2, and their net stresses crosses Ultimate Tensile
Strength, then the material will have Failure. Applied load will
also include Residual Stresses, transferred from earlier
manufacturing process(like hot & cold rolling, cutting, forging,
extrusion, etc).

Painting on welding and HAZ: If the weld is not stress

relieved, the residual stresses in the weld and in the HAZ will
wait for release. Any shake or shock may be ok, to release
some amount of trapped residual stresses. The relaxing
processes is continuous, after weld completion. When
painting is done on weld and on HAZ, normally the paint will
not stick or will fall. This can be checked by applying a brittle
paint. So, service paints applied on welds and on HAZ are
normally elastic type.

The Effect : The high residual stresses locked into a welded joint

(1). may cause deformation/distortion outside acceptable dimension limits to occur when (a). The holding tack-
welds/clamps/restraints during welding are removed, (b). the item is machined or (c). when it enters service.

(2). High residual stresses in carbon and low alloy steels can increase the risk of brittle fracture by providing a driving
force for crack propagation.

(3). Residual stresses will cause stress corrosion cracking to occur in the corrosive environment eg carbon and low alloy
steels in caustic service or general and intergranual grain attacked stainless steel exposed to chlorides(like sea water)

Control of Residual Stresses:

Clamping down the object or restraining the object from forming Distortion, will eliminate or reduce Distortion but,
proportion to the Distortion Control, it will increase the Residual Stresses.
(1). If Distortion, can be tolerated and allowed, Residual Stresses can be reduced
(2). Various Control Methods (without restraining), to control Distortions, like:
(a). Avoiding Distortion, by following various Design Improvements (Refer Chapter-9a)
(b). Avoiding Distortion, by following various Weld Design Improvements. (Refer Chapter-9b)
(c). Avoiding Distortion, by following various Preventive Methods. (Refer Chapter-9c)
(d). Avoiding Distortion, by faster withdrawal of Heat from weld area or from the assembly (Refer Chapter-9f)
(e). Stress Relieving or PWHT on the welded assembly or on the Welds (Annex-3)
Methods to Remove Shrinkage Forces/stresses after Welding
(1). Peening is one way to release the shrinkage forces/stresses of a weld bead as it cools. Essentially, peening the bead
stretches it and makes it thinner, thus relieving (by plastic deformation) the stresses induced by contraction as the metal
cools. But this method must be used with care. For example, a root bead should never be peened, because of the danger
of either concealing a crack or causing one. Generally, peening is not permitted on the final pass, because of the
possibility of covering a crack and interfering with inspection, and because of the undesirable work-hardening effect.
Thus, the application of the technique is limited, even though there have been instances where between-pass peening
proved to be the only solution for a distortion or cracking problem. Before peening is used on a job, engineering approval
should be obtained. (ASME codes, do not allow peening on welds for reducing or removing Residual Stresses).
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A9 Welding Residual Stresses Remedies
(2). Stress Relieving/PWHT : Another method for removing shrinkage stresses / forces is by Thermal Stress
18
Relieving - controlled heating of the weldment to an elevated temperature, followed by controlled cooling. Sometimes
two identical weldments are clamped back to back, welded, and then stress-relieved while being held in this straight
condition. The residual stresses that would tend to distort the weldments are thus minimized. Stress relieving, relieves, as
much as 90% residual stresses(Details are found in Chapter-B10, Distortion Control, by Stress Relieving)
(3). Time Bound: Residual stress release / relaxing is continuous from the time, the weld is completed. Some
percentage, will release, during shack or shock or jolt, or during peening, or during sand blasting/transport or in

Pg.A9.3
installation or in operation. It will take many years to stabilize.
So to avoid any trouble, during service, the structure/equipments is stress relieved.

Effect of Residual Stresses due to Cold Work on SS :

The picture shows, a household utensil cap, expected, SS-

304. The cap was made by cold work-pressing, drawing,
spinning, flanging etc. After few years of service, cracks
appeared on the flange of the cap. The cracking is due to
residual stresses(+service stress), high hardened material,
created by repeated cold working on SS during fabrication.
Also it may be low grade, say, SS-201 or SS-202.

Remedy: To avoid residual stress cracking,

(1). Use annealed, SS-304,
(2). Need lubrication during fabrication,
(3). The rate of metal flow/press ram speed should be Slow
(4). Solution annealing at different stages of fabrication.

Stress Relieving: Stress Relieving, <400°C. Note: Opening the temporary tack welds
or removing the clamps and strong-backs before stress relieving will allow spring
back with distortion or partly distorted condition. So, if the temporary tack welds or
clamps or strong-back or the structure holding the assembly or back-to-back
assembled and welded structures as one piece etc are used to stop/prevent distortion
during welding, the same clamps / restraints should be allowed to stay during stress
relieving.
Measurement of Residual Stresses in Weldments
For long time, Quantitative measure of Residual Stresses were not ready or a crude method of low accuracy was
available. Recent time, we have more accurate measure of Residual Stresses:
Classification of
Techniques
A-1 Stress forrelaxation
the using electric and Mechanical Strain Gauges
Techniques applicable primarily to plates
1. Sectioning using electric resistance strain gauges
2. Gunnert drilling
3. Mathar-Soete drilling
4. Stäblein successive milling Techniques applicable primarily to solid cylinders and tubes
5. Heyn-Bauer successive machining
6. Mesnager-Sachs boring out
Techniques applicable primarily to three-dimensional solids
7. Gunnert drilling
8. Rosenthal-Norton sectioning
A-2 Stress relaxation using apparatus other than electric and Mechanical Strain Gauges
9 Grid system dividing
10 Brittle coating drilling
11 Photoelastic coating drilling
B Diffraction
12. X-ray film
13. Conventional scanning X-ray diffractometer
14. Stress X-ray diffractometer
15. Neutron diffraction
C Cracking
16 Hydrogen-induced cracking
D 17 Computer Simulation / FEM
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A10 Weld Distortion in Stainless Steels Remedies
Most of the earlier chapters, we discussed about the distortion in carbon steel. In this chapter, we discusses about 19
Distortion in stainless steels. The distortion in Stainless Steels are very similar to carbon steels, but distortion is higher in SS.
The melting point, Young's Modulus and Specific Heat of carbon steel and stainless steels are very close. However, the thermal
expansion is high(1.5X), thermal conductivity is low(0.3X). With same size and shape, Stainless Steels, normally will have
more distortion, compared to Carbon Steels. Ferritic and Martensitic SS has Co-efficient of thermal expansion, close to Steel.
L, length of observation α, Thermal expansion co-efficient
T, Temperature max, from room temperature(if variation in Temp., take small
increments) E, Young's modulus A, area of cross section
I
Physical & Mechanical Properties of CS & SS, variation with Temperatures

Pg.A10.1
Among Distortion in CS and SS, major factors controlling the Distortion are
(1). Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion and (2). Thermal Conductivity.
Other factors causing Distortion, are near equal in CS and SS.

(1). Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion, mm/(mm°C): The following

table, gives the average co-efficient of thermal expansion of Carbon Steels
and Stainless Steels, (0°C to 300°C). Stainless steel, has higher
coefficient of thermal expansion, about 1.5 times CS. So for the same
length and temperature range, the increment in expansion in SS,
comparing to CS, will be 150%.
Alloy Liquid metal Shrinkage/ Linear Thermal
Pattern Allowane Expansion(ASM)
(SFSA), mm for 1000mm mm/mm/°C
-6
Carbon and low alloy steel 20.8 11.7x10
-6
High alloy steels (SS304 etc) 26 17.3x10
Yield stress, between, 1200 to 1400°C, is about 20MPa
(2). Heat Transfer, Thermal Conductivity, W/(m°C): At room or less, compared to 270 MPa, at room temperature.
temperature, the Thermal Conductivity, for CS is 52W/(m°C) and Thermal Conductivity, W/(m°C)
for SS, it is 15W/(m°C). Thermal conductivity of SS, comparing Alloy around around around
to CS is about 3.5 times less. So, SS is poor conductor of heat, 20°C 1300°C 1400°C
comparing to CS. The heat added to the SS metal surface, (with Carbon and low alloy steel 52 27 28
high temperature) is transferred very slowly to the
High alloy steels (SS304 etc) 15 33 90
next segment (having low temperature). This causes, heat to build up or to stagnant at the welding area or near to that and
have more distortion. Thermal conductivity of SS, at 1300°C is decreased about 1/4 times the thermal conductivity at 1400°C

Consequence-1: Welding Electrode Length: Compared to CS, SS has Thermal conductivity normally low and
Thermal Expansion high. To safeguard the welding electrode flux coating from peeling off and to avoid the electrode
bowing due to over heating, welding electrode length of SS are shorter. Normally CS electrode length is used to have
18" and SS electrode length is shorter and it is around 10" or 12".
Consequence-2: Thin SS Sheets: Major use of SS is in sheet metal works. Excess distortion happened due to weld
distortion, causing dents and bulges on the thin sheet metal surface and also make the job difficult in assembly.
Controls: CS and LAS form harmful martensite and hardening, if we cool fast from 723°C temperature line to room
temperature. SS has more distortion compared to CS. But SS does not have any harmful metallurgical effect(grains, phases,
ductility etc) if, we cool fast from liquid metals to room temperature. So, manufacturers, doing SS jobs, are often cooling the
base metal, just away from fusion line, by icing or by copper cladding/ducting or water spray or water wiping. This will reduce
distortion and decrease weld decay.
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A10 Weld Distortion in Stainless Steels Remedies
Stress-Strain curves with change in Temperatures, for SS-316 19
20

Pg.A10.
2
I

Physical-Thermal Properties of some common metals / alloys :

Thermal
Expansions
(comparative)

Aluminum
Stainless Steel
Copper
Steel
Welding Temperature Contour for Steel, SS-304, Aluminum.
Properties of Some common Alloys and Metals :

For SS, the temperature distribution contour lines for

Aluminum Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel are given,
at the right side. We see, 1300°C to 1500°C , the SS
has very high thermal conductivity, weld puddle is very
large and from 1300°C to 600°C temperature contour
lines are congested or near stagnant, due to SS low
thermal conductivity.

Heat affected zone(HAZ) area for SS is much higher

than CS.
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A10 Weld Distortion in Stainless Steels Remedies
Comparison of physical and thermal properties 19
21
of Steel, Austenitic, straight Chrome
stainless steel (Ferritic, Martensitic),
influencing Distortion:

Distortion Control in Austenitic, Precipitation Hardening, and Duplex (Ferritic–Austenitic) Stainless Steels
Austenitic Stainless steels have a (a). 50% greater coefficient of expansion and (b). 30% lower heat conductivity than mild
steel. Duplex stainless steels are only slightly better.
Allowance must be made for the greater expansion and contraction when designing austenitic stainless steel structures.
More care is required to control the greater distortion tendencies. Here are some specific distortion control hints:
(1). Rigid jigs and fixtures hold parts to be welded in proper alignment. Distortion is minimized by allowing the
weld to cool in the fixture.

(2). Copper chill bars placed close to the weld zone help remove heat and prevent distortion caused by
expansion. Back-up chill bars under the joint are always recommended when butt welding 14 gauge (2.0mm) and
thinner material. A groove in the bar helps form the bead shape. NOTE: Keep the arc away from the copper.
Copper contamination of the weld causes cracking.

(3). Without fixtures , tack weld the joint every couple of inches and peen the tacks to remove shrinkage stresses.
Finish the joint with a welding sequence designed to minimize distortion.

(4). A planned sequence of weld ing always helps control distortion. The techniques used in mild steel welding
can be used. Skip welding and back-step/ welding are recommended for light gauge steels.

(5). Low current and stringer beads reduce distortion by limiting the amount of heat at the weld. Also, do not
deposit excessive weld metal. It seldom adds to the strength of the weld and does increase heat input and
promotes distortion. If a structure of heavy steel is not rigidly held during welding, many small beads will cause
more total distortion than a few large beads.
 Welding Distortion & Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A11 13. Advices on Welding Procedure and Weld Distortion Control methods are clashing Remedies
Some of the advices to control Distortion are against the advices on Welding Procedure. Probably, it is due to Welding 22
Inspectors and Welding Engineers follow AWS and ASME codes and traditional advices on better welding.
Whereas , the advices on Weld Distortion Controls are mostly from Production and Shop People.
However, the advices on Weld Distortion controls are found in AWS Volume-1, Chapter-7 and Welding Metallurgy by Linnert,
Volume-1 and Welding Metallurgy, by Kou. So, The Production and Shop people are also following Welding Metallurgy.
Welding Inspector and Welding Engineers are also following Welding Metallurgy. Then how clashing can happen. We discuss
some of the classing points here.
N Description Illustration Justifications
o
(1) Distortion is Procedure: To have fine grains, small beads are preferred.
. proportional to the ANSI specify min.2 beads for a weld. AWS specify

Pg.A11.1
amount of heat weaving max. 6 times electrode size, but 3 times is
added to complete preferred.
the weld. So, use the Distortion is controlled, by adding large amount of weld,
welding process instead of several beads. Max temperature is same.
which gives lesser Several beads, adds heat and hold for longer time, leading
heat to temperature spread for more area and increase the
distortion.
(a). Use automation. (b). Use process which adds large
volume of metal quickly, like SAW . (c). Use heavy
thickness SMAW electrodes and fast filling..
(2) Often, Process Fig-X is continuous weld, resulting in Distortion.
Industries, where the Fig-Y is Intermittent Weld, to control distortion. But this is
environment is not acceptable to Process Industries, as there is gap. The
corrosive, gaps may have corrosion in the voids.
intermittent welds are Fig-Z is a compromise to meet Distortion Control and the
not permitted, to Process Industries. Here, Initially Intermittent
control general welds(A1,B1,A2,B2,A3,B3) are used. Later, the gaps(A4,
corrosion and crevice B4, A5, B5) are filled. The weld is continuous.
corrosion. Do not weld, more than the drawing requirement.

(3) Distortion due to CS and LAS: Forced cooling is not allowed on CS and
. weld shrinkage is LAS material as fast cooling will increase martensite
only 10% of total formation and the surface will have high strength, high
shrinkage. 90% of hardness and crack prone.
Distortion is due to However, Austenitic Stainless Steel welds do not change
base metal distortion, phases, if we sudden cool from welding temperature to
due to non-uniform / room temperature. The phase is always, Austenitic. So,
gradient heating. If forced cooling may be allowed to control distortion on
this heat is removed, Austenitic welds. Avoiding 430 to 900°C sensitization
distortion will be less zone, the welds will have no weld decay.

(4) One of the Base metal-CS: If the heat correction band temperature is
. technique, to correct below 600°C, there will be no phase or grain size change.
the distorted weld is The strains are relieved. As the band cools it contracts and
Thermal Tensioning make reverse distortion and the weld and the base metal is
straight.
If the head band temperature, goes about 700°C, the
Engineering Departments has to decide on the acceptance
of the weld, depending on the service.
Due to distortion reversing, both weld side and on heat
band side, PT, MT, RT or other additional QC checks
may be needed, if the job is critical.
(5) This is correction For general purpose work, this may be ok.
. work. This process is For critical work, such mechanical press work may
traditional and damage the weld/base metal. If used, PT, MT, RT etc
popularly used by all checks are necessary to qualify the weld joints.
Black Smiths and
fitters, for general
purpose works.
 Welding Distortion & Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-A12 Recent Development in Weld Distortion Controls Remedies
Weld Distortion Control and Residual Stress Control are related. To meet the Client/Users requirements, we should 23
consider steps or methods to reduce both Distortion and Residual Stresses. Qualified procedure and qualified personnel are
used to analyze and control weld distortion.
The Author had worked in the following Industries : Space Research, Nuclear Power Plant, Thermal Power Plants, Oil & Gas
Industries. Among industry people, the author found, the awareness on Weld Distortion and Residual Stresses is not full.
Probably, for those people welding work may not be so sophisticated or not critical. Sometime, Vendors supplying equipments
to critical and non-critical areas, treat critical equipments as the non-critical equipments. Vendors are often taught about
Impact of Distortion and its control.

Pg.A12.1
The problems shown in Case Studies, on Distortions are real and the author had experienced.
Only critical users, specify and follow Distortion Controls / Residual Stress Control methods. For general purpose works, daily,
Tons of welding work is done, without following weld distortion controls. Majority of the grills in the house gates and similar
works, has only tack welds. Probably, this serves the purpose and has no distortion. If we use, fillet size equal to plate
thickness or full penetration welds etc, as required in in some codes and spec, we may end up with buckled gates.

Many Users / Inspectors still consider welding and NDE are the main consideration for acceptance. If weld flaws or
imperfections and NDE are ok, the system is accepted. There are many cases, Distortion measurements and controls , action
on Residual Stresses are ignored or not listed in their ITP. Now, because of the advantages on Distortion Controls failures of
objects due to welding Residual Stresses, Awareness is spreading to use Distortion & Residual Stress Controls methods on
non-critical objects also.

The Author thinks this Document will create awareness on Weld Distortions-Residual Stress and their impact and help
people, to follow Distortion Control Methods and Residual Stress Control Techniques so that assembly problems at the
Project Site and Operating Plants will be reduced.
Recent Study and Developments on Weld Distortion
Now, Research and Development Groups work on Distortion Measurements and Control and Residual Stress Measurements
and Control are taken up, at Research Laboratories and Universities. The awareness is spreading. New ideas and procedures
are now available. Specific areas of Developments in Distortion and Residual Stresses are on measurements, modeling,
simulation study etc:

Typical Areas of present Distortion Study and Research are :

(1). Residual Stress Predictions & Weld Distortion.
(2). Modeling and Implementation on Welding Distortion
(3). Welding Distortion on Thin Plate Panel Structure
(4). Control of Distortion of Welded Aluminum Structures
(5). Phase Transformation Effects on Weld Distortion
(6). Residual Stress Engineering by Low Transformation Temperature Alloys
- State of the Art and Recent Developments
(7). Prediction of Welding Distortion
(8). Laser Welding Technologies
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B1 Control of Distortion - Introduction Remedies
The following chapters will suggest ways to control or to reduce Weld Distortion by Heat control, Design Improvement 24
and various methods.

Pg.B1.1
Various Methods to Control Weld Distortions:
Controls (Prevention) : Correction:
(a) Distortion Control-Introduction (i) Distortion Control-by Heat Correction, Thermal Tensioning
(b) Distortion Control-by Design Improvement (j) Distortion Control-by Stress Relieving
(c) Distortion Control-by Weld Improvement
(d) Distortion Control-by Preventive Measures
(e) Distortion Control-by Pre-setting
(f) Distortion Control-by Clamp Down-Restraints
(g) Distortion Control-by Withdrawal of Heat from Weld zone
(h) Distortion Control-by Welding on or about Neutral Axis

Checklist to minimize or to prevent Distortion: Illustration

1 Weld Reinforcement: Do not over weld-Excess Weld 1 Excess Weld reinforcement. 1 Correct Weld reinforcement
reinforcement will be a stress riser. This will cause .
excess distortion and residual stresses, will not
meet Code & User Requirements
2 Control fit-up-Excess root gap, excess weld bevel Irregular
angle, irregular weld edge etc will add up more weld Excess Bevel Angle>40 welding
Bevel Angle=35 to 40
metal and more distortion edge
2 2

3 Use intermittent welds where possible and consistent

with design requirements ExcessRoot Gap, Root Gap, Root Landing,
> 1.5 mm 0 to 1.5 mm 0.5 to 1.5mm
4 Use the smallest leg permissible(dwg) size when fillet
welding
3 4
5 For groove welds, use joints that will minimize the 6
volume of weld metal. Consider double-sided joints
instead of single-sided joints
5
access to the Inside

7
Vessel & plate,

weld available

6 Weld alternately on either side of the joint when

possible with multiple-pass welds
7 Use minimal number of weld passes
Butt weld, with double
V-joint(Volume-0.5Vol) Min. Number of Weld Passes
8 Use low heat input procedures. This generally means Low energy group includes-Gas Welding/Oxy-fuel (OAW).
high energy / deposition rates and higher travel speeds Medium energy includes-Arc Welding Process (SMAW, GTAW,
8
PAW, GMAW, FCAW,
9 Use welding positioners to achieve the maximum
9 14
amount of flat-position welding. The flat position 11
permits the use of large-diameter electrodes and high-
deposition-rate welding procedures
10 Balance welds about the neutral axis of the member
10
11 Distribute the welding heat as evenly as possible
through a planned welding sequence and weldment
12 positioning
Weld toward the unrestrained part of the member
11

13 Use clamps, fixtures, and strong-backs, tack-welds to

maintain fit-up and alignment 11
14 Pre-setting: Pre-bend the members or preset the joints
to let shrinkage pull them back into alignment

15 Even Distribution: Sequence sub-assemblies and final

assemblies so that the welds being made continually 13
balance each other around the neutral axis of the
section 13
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B2 Welding Distortion Control by Design Improvements Remedies
The Distortion caused is because of welding Heat only. So, this chapter considers, primarily to control weld 25
parameters so that Distortion of Heat is controlled or balanced.

Pg.B2.1
No. Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion Illustrations
(1). To Avoid Welding To avoid weld distortion and residual stresses, the 1 1
product design should consider possibility of other
methods of fabrication, like casting, forming by
forging, extrusion etc.

(2). To use, ready made Use as much as possible, ready made components,
shapes, instead of structural shapes, which require less welding.
9 welding
(3) Use welding such Place the welding at the neutral axis or close to the 2 2
that the weld is on neutral axis of the members or group center of weld
Neutral Axis or on neutral axis of the sub-assembly or the total
3 3
close to Neutral assembly
Axis

(4) Reduce stiffener If the plate shows warping / dishing, additional

spacing stiffener with lesser span, should be used. Use
smaller welds.

(5). Increase plate To increase the Moment of Inertia of the Section and 4
thickness to improve the rigidity, use next heavy plate
(6). Reduce cut-outs If the plate has many cut-outs, to reduce weight, this
will increase the distortion. So avoid cut outs.
(7) Reduce insert thick-
thin transition

(8) Reduce design More the volume of weld more the distortion. So,
weld size avoid, as much welding as possible or weld size.
(9). Employ intermittent
welding If the intermittent weld, can give sufficient strength 9
instead of continuous weld, the welds can be
changed to intermittent weld. (Designers do not like
intermittent welds, in fatigue, vibrating, corrosion etc
services)

(10). Bevel T stiffener

joint
Follow Stress Relief Critical welding / construction codes / Owner 3 5
(11).
(Post Weld Heat Specification requires Stress Relief, after welding to
Treatment, PWHT) reduce distortion and Residual Stresses. (The
to control Distortion clamps and hold-ups and Restraints should be in
and to reduce place, during PWHT).
Residual Stresses General structures, requiring distortion control,
should also be stress relieved.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B3 Control of Distortion by Welding and its Parameters - Improvements Remedies
Welding Heat causes Welding Distortions. So, this chapter considers, primarily to control welding heat parameters so that
Distortion is controlled. Following these techniques , the Distortion as well as Residual Stresses will be reduced. 26

Pg.B3.1
No. Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion Illustrations
(1). Improve Fit up (1). Have weld bevel, just sufficient : Normally butt weld Normal Practice
Bevel Angle=35 to 40
(weld volume single bevel angle is 35 to 40°. If the welder is skilled 1 Improvement
reduced means & the electrode can have access to the weld, it is better 30 to 35
Total Heat is to have lower value of the bevel angle(say 30°)
reduced. Heat (2). Have root gap, just sufficient. Normally 0.7 to 1.5
contour is reduced). mm gap is provided. Root Gap is for full penetration. If Root Gap= Root Landing=
the welder is skilled, the root gap may be reduced. Use 0 to 1.5 mm 0.5 to 1.5mm
"welding insert" for full penetration and to have less 1 Vol
weld metal. Rule of thumb is that the weld shrinks,
equal to the root gap width.
(3). if the weld groove size/weld volume is much
reduced, we will have less distortion, if narrow gap
welding, using "J" or "U" groove and torch modification,
Butt weld, with single
on SAW or MIG or Electro-slag welding V-joint(Volume-Vol), reference
process/multiple-torch are followed. 1

Pipe, no access to
the Inside weld
Narrow Gap Welding
Butt weld, with single
(2). Minimize tack weld Larger the tack weld size or number of tacks are more, 1
U-joint(Volume-0.7Vol)

access to the Inside

size. the weld distortion will be more. Use less tacks and
Vessel & plate,

weld available
smaller size tacks, for flexibility. Use, if possible,
mechanical joint positioners.
If tacks are removed and rewelded, heat is added twice
and lead to more distortion.
Butt weld, with double
(3). Welding Parameter Higher the current , higher the melt. Increase the speed V-joint(Volume-0.5Vol)
control so that the heat will not spread to more areas and
cause distortion. Use high energy welding process, like Weld reinforcement, meeting the
Code and User Requirements
EBW, LAW. Distortion is inversely proportional to Heat
Energy of the process and heat transfer speed. 4
(4). QC checking on Excess weld reinforcement, will increase distortion. To
reinforcement. follow smaller weld volume/reinforcement to reduce
Weld Distortion

Excess Weld reinforcement. It will

be a stress riser. This will cause excess
distortion and residual stresses, will not

(5). Use mechanization Manual welding is slow and may cause 4

to weld defects/distortion. So, use mechanization to weld. This
will give higher weld rate and faster work completion
and will reduce distortion. Mechanization also gives
lesser defects.
8
(6). Use low energy Distortion is proportional to the amount of heat added
welding process to complete the weld. So, use the welding process
which gives high energy and gives lesser heat to the
metal.
(7). Reduce weld Welding heat is the source for Weld Distortion. So, use
repairs. only just required heat. Repairs will add additional heat
and more distortion. Many people use, repairs, 3 times
max. But for distortion control, this should be reduced
to 2 times. 1
(8) Many weld passes For the same weld volume, increasing the number of
increase the total weld passes, will increase the total Heat and weld 8
heat Distortion. So limit the weld passes. Sequence /
balance the weld.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B4 Control of Distortion by Preventive Measures, Better Sequences Remedies
The Distortion caused is because of welding Heat only`. Preventive weld distortion control is based on experience and taking
action, based on the study of the past or reverse action to Distortion. Ways to reduce Distortion and / or Residual Stresses are
given here, 27
No. Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion / Illustrations
(1) Smaller the volume of weld To distribute or balance the heat such that better distortion control can be

Pg.B4.1
metal, smaller the Distortion achieved/residual stresses are reduced.
Actions: Weld Joints: More the weld volume means, larger Distortion. So, (1). use double V Butt joints, instead of single V
joints. (2). Use J bevels instead of V bevels. (3). Use welding inserts. (more info found in Chapter 9a).

Pipe, no access to
the Inside weld
Instead of Single V, use
double V or narrow U type
Grooves
Narrow Gap Welding
Butt weld, with single
U-joint(Volume-0.7Vol)
access to the Inside
Vessel & plate,

weld available

Butt weld, with double

V-joint(Volume-0.5Vol)
(2) Balance or Distribute On long run welds, to distribute or balance the heat such that better distortion control can be
the Welding Heat about achieved/ residual stresses are reduced.
the Neutral Axis
Action: The weld heat is distributed / scattered. The long welds need to be broken into many segments and sequence
finalized. Distribute the welding such that heat is spread or scattered and also the weld center line is spread about
structure Neutral axis.

(a) Pre-setting From distortion experience on earlier job, one can

study / measure the distortion and find out counter Details and illustrations are found
measures. Reverse distortion measures can create in Chapter B5.
counter action to the normal distortion.
(b) Thermal Tensioning Thermal tensioning is a corrective method, on
or Heat Correction distorted objects. After study on the distorted objects, Details and illustrations are found
suitable corrective method is applied to rectify the in Chapter B6.
Distortion.
(c) Forced cooling Carbon steel and low alloy steel are found to form
martensitic formation due to sudden cooling and which
may lead to hardening and crack. If allowed, controlled Details and illustrations are found
cooling can be applied. On SS(Aus), the phase and in Chapter B7.
structure do not change, so, fast cooling(outside the
weld fusion area) can be applied, to control the
(d). Weld on the distortion.
Weld such that the center of a single weld or center of
Neutral Axis or group of welds are balanced or on the neutral axis. Details and illustrations are found
Balance the in Chapter B8.
Welding about the
Neutral Axis.
(e) Thermal Tensioning Thermal tensioning is a corrective method, on
or Heat Correction distorted objects. After study on the distorted objects, Details and illustrations are found
suitable corrective method is applied to rectify the in Chapter B9.
Distortion.
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B4 Control of Distortion by Preventive Measures, Better Sequences Remedies
Some of the Common Structures and their Preferred Assembly Welding Sequence for Distortion Control
(a). Manufacture of Box Section, from Channels: (b). Manufacture of H or I Sections, from Plates:
28

m Pad Plate j
3 7 11 13
Preferred Weld
Sequence-1,3,2,4 5 6 9 10
W' W 1 2
Poor Weld
Sequence-1,2,3,4 4 8 12 14
Bad Weld
Sequence-1,4,3,2
Preferred Weld Sequence - 1,2,1',2',3,4,3',4',5,6,5',6',
7,8,7',8',9,10,9',10',11,12,11',12',13,14,13',14'
lBox Sectionk X' is welding on rear side
from Channel
(c). Manufacture of Panel, made from plates / sheets: (d). Manufacture of Cylindrical shell, made from plates:
Sequence to fabricate all Cylindrical Shells:
(1). Fabricate, assemble and weld first,
the longitudinal(L) seams (1,2,3,4,5,6)
(2). Later, Fabricate, assemble and weld the
Circomferencial(C) Seams (7,8)
(3). Use strong backs, to control distortion, on L-seams
(4). Use spiders, inside, to control distortion on C-seams
(5). Install, nozzles, supports etc, on completion of C-seams
(follow the distortion control
methods, recommended earlier)

1 2

7 8 9 10 11

3 4 5 6

14 15 16 17 18
(d). Manufacture of Vertical Cylindrical shell,
12 13 made from plates / sheets:

Preferred Weld Sequence - 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,

11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18

1 2

3 4

7
Note: Basic Distortion Control Sequences, like: 6
Narrow Bevel angle, not excess welding, Back-step 5
welding, skip welding etc , should be followed during
assembly welding also. (for clarity, hidden view are not shown, by --- line
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B5 Control of Distortion by Preventive Measures (Presetting) Remedies

Distortion control by Pre-setting, is based on experience and taking counter action, based on the study of the past and counter
/ reverse action to Distortion control. 29
(3) Anticipate Distortion Presetting the fillet and butt welds. After weld completion, the distortion must be measured. On the
and take Counter next similar welding, take counter measure such that the base metal is preset to counter the
measures: distortion.

Pg.B5.1
Presetting:

(b) Precambering This is a preventive method. Beams normally have deflection, due to dead load and live load and
Beams: (creating an moving load. Max. deflection is limited due to failure of ceramic tiles or cracking on surface or water
intentional reverse stagnation. So, beams of building floors, bridges etc are often pre-cambered (reverse curved) before
curvature) taking the load. On loading the structure will have deflection in the acceptable range

wc Precamber in the unloaded structural member

w1 Initial part of the deflection under permanent loads of the relevant combination of
actions according to expressions (6.14a) to (6.16b) Pre-Cambered Beam
w2 Long-term part of the deflection under permanent loads
w3 Additional part of the deflection due to the variable actions of
the relevant combination of actions according to expressions
(6.14a) to (6.16b)
Beam with Concrete Slab/Floor on Top
wtot Total deflection as sum of w1 , w2 , w3
wmax Remaining total deflection taking into account the precamber

Floor deflection,
(1). L/250 max is for general purpose floors(to avoid surface cracks, tile cracks, water stagnation etc.
(2). L/1700 max is for high precision floors(eg. EOT crane rails)
(c). When the one side fillet weld is completed, the included angle will reduce. If
Back bending fillet
the base is strong, the vertical will tilt. So the vertical plate, should have
joints
reverse bending angle to counter the distortion
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B6 Control of Distortion by Clamp Down or Restraining Remedies
Most of the Shops, follow the Clamp down or Restraint method to control Distortion. Using this method, Distortion is
controlled. 30
Once clamp is removed, the residual stresses will be dominant and it is likely that the residual stresses will force the
object and distortion may return by spring back .

Pg.B6.1
To control Residual Stresses, Stress Relieving(PWHT) should be followed, with all clamps/restraints, in place. Stress
Relieving is found to relieve 90% Residual Stresses.

No Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion Illustrations

.
(1) Tack-Weld (a). Root Tacks: Tack welds are used, to hold the joint in If tacks welds are used, to reduce
position. There are two tack weld types. distortion, they should be placed in a
(1). Tack welds are part of weld : Tacks will hold the sequence.
joint and it will be consumed, when the weld is in progress
and later, it will be part of main weld. So, the tack welds are
expected quality weld, without defects.
(2). Removable tacks: For critical services, Users do
not allow tacks, as part of the weld. It is considered as a
temporary weld to hold the joint. During root welding, when
approaching the tacks, the tacks are ground and new root
weld is made.
(b). Bevel Tack : There are also people, insisting that the
tacks should be made at the bevel area, with a solid bar Tack welds are placed in some sequence
tacked or a bridge type tack is made at the bevel are. Both so that distortion is reduced. (a), (b). (c)
tacks are removed as the welder approaches the tack weld are the some of the tack weld options.
1 area for root welding.
(c). Tack welds are also used temporarily to hold the main
job by brackets or gussets or structures/strong-backs,
during welding

(2) Employ If the job is repeating, often, a special device for holding purpose or fixture (strong-back) is used.
. tooling /
fixtures

(3) Fillet welds: Use side gussets to support the plates or pipes with fillet
side supports welds Tack Welds

Weld Weld
Gusset Gusset

(4) Remove the If cut-outs are planned on the area where welding also exists. Finish welding and then remove the cut-
. cut-outs outs.
(5) Employ egg- This is similar to fixing boxed stiffeners / construction
crate Type
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B7 Control of Distortion by Preventive Measures - Forced Cooling Remedies
The Distortion is caused because of gradient welding Heat only. So, this chapter considers, how to take away the heat from
welding area and preventing it to travel into the base metal and thus not much affecting the base metal. 31
Heat transfer on metals, is proportional to Time. If time is more the heat will spread to more area and
will cause more distortion. So, one of our aim to control distortion is quicker method of completing the
welding. Another way is to remove the welding heat, from welding HAZ area, without travelling into
the base metal. Additional Cooler or Sink, will take away the heat from HAZ area. Quantity of heat, in base
metal is less so it will not spread to more area and will not cause much distortion.

Pg.B7.1
Anticipate Distortion and take Counter measures, based on study and experience :
No. Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion Illustrations
(1) Carbon Steel & Carbon steel(CS) and low alloy steel(LAS) are found
Low Alloy Steel. to form martensitic structure due to fast/ sudden
No Forced cooling, cooling. This may lead to hardening and crack. If
during welding. allowed, controlled /slow cooling can be applied.
(2) Stainless Steel On SS(Aus), the phase and structure do not change,
(Austenitic): Forced when we cool from Austenite phase to room
cooling, during temperature, so, fast cooling(outside the weld fusion
welding is allowed, area) can be applied, to control the distortion.
Hardness and ductility are also not changing.
With controlled heating during SS welding, using heat sink, we notice the
following : (1). stainless steel welds are better and faster. (2). It discolors
(tint) less, (3). SS warps(distorts) less (4). Heating stainless steel surface in
the range 450 to 850°C will form Chromium Carbide(weld decay or
sensitization) and will lose its corrosion resistant properties. Heat sink will
control the heat in that range to the original . There will be less weld decay.

Fast Cooling the Stainless Steel welding, phase does not change,
from Austenite to room temperature, refer Annex-2)
Example-1:
Welding the joint of a flange joint. The weld area is cooled
by water in copper tube to control the distortion.

Example-2:
The Nuclear component(Fuel Rod Control) : 20 ft pipe
spool assembly set up was similar to a lathe machine.
The pipes are 5" & 4" OD with wall thickness 10mm.
Base metal is SS 304 and welded with SS 308L welding
rod.
The Welding and assembly related informations are
provided in the figure. Welding process is automatic
GTAW. The root was made using consumable welding
insert and 8 additional thin beads, to control limited
welding heat. The joint was argon gas purged and argon
gas used for GTAW shielding.
After completion of root pass and another 2 stabilization
passes, additional welding of the pipe was cooled from
inside, by water flow for dimensional control and for
sensitization control.
Requirement: The straight line alignment requirement of
the pipe assembly was 0.75mm over 20 ft length. This
was achieved by the above procedure.
SS Welding:
Many workshop cool the weld area (away from weld fusion
line), just after weld completion, by icing, by placing
copper plate sinks, wet cloths, by placing water tubes &
salt, etc.
Caution: Sufficient care should be taken, not to spill water
on the liquid weld puddle. It will create spatters or liquid
metal spill on the welders or people near-by and porosity
or crack. Cooling should be well away from fusion line.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B8 Control of Distortion by placing Welding about Neutral Axis Remedies
This chapter considers, Weld Distortion control by placing welding about or on Neutral Axis of the structure. Here, we try to 32
keep the weld group center on or near to Neutral Axis. The deflection or distortion causing moments due to welding are
getting cancelled and the structure is near free of Distortion.
No. Technique To follow to reduce Weld Distortion Illustrations
(1) Balancing the welds The Distortion or weld deflection or deviation Poor Good
or group of welds from normal drawing position is controlled by

Pg.B8.1
about the Neutral placing welds center line or group of the weld (1). Modifying the weld groove and
axis of the Structure center line, at the Neutral axis or near to the placing the welds, about Neutral Axis,
Neutral axis of the Structure. results in no distortion
After modification: Clockwise and anti-clockwise
bending moment at the weld , about the neutral
axis is equal or near equal and net bending
moment is zero. Practically, there is no
deflection or no distortion. (There may be
Distortion in Z-axis. This should be separately
studied and action taken.)
(2). Modifying the structure and placing the
welds, about Neutral Axis,
results in no distortion

(3). Modifying the structure joint location and

placing the welds, about Neutral Axis,
results in no distortion

(4). Modifying the bracket structure location

and placing the welds, about Neutral Axis,
results in no distortion
.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B9 Control of Distortion by Thermal Tensioning & Mechanical Pressing Correction Remedies
This chapter discusses some of the Distorted objects and their correction by Heat. 33
Thermal Tensioning is also called Heat Correction. Heated & corrected on the Convex side.
Principle: When we apply heat in a band shape, on the back/reverse side, reverse thing to distortion happens. During cooling,
the tension or pulling the farther end from the weld occurs and this will straighten the object.
Thermal Tensioning temperature - 60 to 650°C (dull red hot color). Temperature over 700°C, will result change in mechanical

Pg.B9.1
properties.

When heat from welding or gas torch is

removed, the material start cooling and
shrinking and this will create tension
from heated/ cooling areas and the
material will lift or bend. Analogy is to

No. Some of the objects, being corrected with Thermal Objects / Illustrations
Tensioning method
(1) Often, we find this in Boiler or heater wall panels. The box Legend - Heat Band, for correction work
Tee joint: section, surrounded by frame works often find a dishing/
buckling, due to welding. Heat correction will bring the
dished plate, as flat.

(2) An I or H beam is bent into a Z shaped object. Heat

H. beam, correction will straighten the flanges and web and make
bent as straight beam.

(3) This is not welding case. This is cambered(heat & bend)

Bent Plate object. Thermal tensioning will straighten the cambered
object.(Cambering is a technique of bending a beam (by
heat or roller) to an arc shape)

(4) This is not welding case. The strip or slab

A. kink on has a kink, due to handling or transport.
the edge of Heat correction at the kink area, straighten
the plate the surface.

(5) The rectangular box construction, shows the

Rectangula opposite edges lifting. Heat corrosion brings
r box the surface in level
constructio
n, corners,
lifted up

(6) Often, we find this

Boiler wall in Boiler or heater
Panel. wall panels. The
Lifting box section, OR
inside the surrounded by
frame frame works often
works(at find a dishing/
the weld buckling (lifting on
side). convex side), due
to welding. Heat
correction will bring
the dished plate, as
34
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B9 Control of Distortion by Thermal Tensioning & Mechanical Pressing Correction Remedies
(7). Transient Thermal Tensioning(TTT), (similar to preheating): Example-1 Example-2 34
Sudden temperature gradient is slowed down. Here, both sides of

Pg.B9.2
welding at about 80mm(3")distance, heat is supplied by flame or
electrical heat and preheated to about 200°C.
Advantages are :
(1).The distortion can be reduced by TTT weld treatment
(2).Heating at 200 °C of TTT treatment is the most optimum to
reduce distortion
(3).The number of acicular ferrite can be improved by TTT weld
treatment
(4). Both mechanical properties and fatigue life time can be
upgraded by TTT weld treatment.

Heating Methods: Spot, line or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in Heat correction of distortion.
(a).Spot Heating:
(b) Wedge Shaped heating
(c) Line heating
The following points should be considered/adopted when using thermal techniques to remove distortion:
(a). use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
(b). other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating technique
(c) use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
(d) restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
{e) limit the temperature to 60° to 650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent metallurgical damage
(f) in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate evenly through the plate
thickness and maintain an even temperature

Mechanical Straightening:
Most of the distortions in a small shop are corrected by mechanical press bending: One such reverse bending is shown
below:

The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove distortion:

(1). Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-back will return the component
to the correct shape
(2). Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent buckling
(3). Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature
(4). As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B10 Stress Relieving or PWHT per ASME Codes Correction Remedies
Stress Relieving is also called, PWHT, Heat Treatment. The treatment is below A1 line and there is no grain/phase change. 35
Clamping or Restraining the welding area or the structure will limit the Distortion. However, it will result in Residual

Pg.B10.1
stresses. Stress Relieving will give, reduction in Residual Stresses, up to 80%. When we heat, 600 to 700°C, the strains
are redistributed or relaxed. Recommended Procedure to be followed while heating/cooling/holding vessel for stress relieve
a Vessel/ structure/ pipe, to avoid unacceptable (a).Distortion, (b). Permanent Setting, (c). Structural Damages, (d).
Residual Stresses.
Uniform and gradual/ slow heating on the whole object, below A1 line, is done so that there will be no appreciable thermal
stress or strain.
ASME Sec VIII, Div-1, UCS-56:
Thermocouples:
Vessel: Sizes over 15 Ft(4.6m):
Thermocouples(TC) are to be installed, such
that the distance from one thermocouple to
another does not exceed 15 ft(4.6m) in any
direction. Install TC at all suspected places.
Local heating by electric coil bands, at the
butt welds of pipes, vessel nozzles etc:
minimum 4 thermocouples, at least one at the
bottom & one at the top
Heating Cycle:
Para-(d.1) The temperature of the furnace
shall not exceed 800°F(425°C) at the time of
the vessel or part is placed in it
(d.2). Above 800°F(425°C), the rate of heating
shall be not more than 400°F/hr(222°C/hr)
divided by the max. metal thickness of the
shell or head plate in inches, but in no case
more than 400°F/hr(222°C/hr; During the
heating period, there shall not be a greater
variation in temperature throughout the
portion of the vessel being heated than
250°F(120°C within any 15 ft (4.6m) interval
of length.

Holding or Dwelling:
During holding period there shall not be a
greater difference than 150°F(83°C), between
the highest and lowest temperature
throughout the portion of the vessel being
heated, except where the range is further
limited in Table UCS-56.
(The rates of heating and cooling need not be
less than 100°F/hr(56°C/hr). However, in all
cases consideration of closed chambers and
complex structures may indicate reduced
rates of heating and cooling to avoid structural
damage due to excessive thermal gradients.)
Install thermocouples at all suspected locations
(max. separated length, 15 ft, (4.6m))
Cooling Cycle:
Temperature
Above 800°F(425°C) , the cooling shall be done in a 1100 F(600 C)
closed furnace or the cooling chamber at a rate not
Heating/Cooling

(normally 1 hr holding per 1" tk)

greater than 500°F/hr (280°C/hr). From Heating Rate
Furnace

max.400 F/hr Cooling Rate

800°F(425°C) to room Temp., the vessel may be (222 C/hr) max.500 F/hr
(280 C/hr)
cooled in still air. 800 F(425 C)
Local Butt Joint: ANSI B31.1,3,4 etc. codes allow, During Holding, max. difference
local stress relieving. Here local means, full 150 F (83 C),at any two points
circumferential(360°) joint at Site, as a belt. on vessel
Nozzle joint : Nozzle may be locally stress relieved,
Room Temperature Time
provided, full circumferential belt with the nozzle, is (Typical ASME Stress Relieving(PWHT) Cycle)
also included in the set up. (Furnace Heating, min. recorded PWHT cycle. 2.35 Hr)
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-B10 Stress Relieving or PWHT per ASME Codes Correction Remedies
36
Plot of 0.2% proof stress Vs Temperature :

Pg.B10.2
Soaking(Dwelling or Holding) Temperatures for some
Typical Thermal of the Steel Materials :
Treatments
(Stress Relieving of Weldments)
Soaking
Material(Base-Metal & Welding)
Grade Temperature
(AWS HB, Vol-1)
(°C)
Carbon steel (max.0.35% C) 595–680
Carbon–1/2% Mo steel 595–720
1/2% Cr–1/2% Mo steel 595–720
1% Cr–1/2% Mo steel 620–730
1 1/4% Cr–1/2% Mo steel 705–760
2% Cr–1/2% Mo steel 705–760
2 1/4% Cr–1% Mo steel 705–770
5% Cr–1/2% Mo (Type 502) steel 705–770
7% Cr–1/2% Mo steel 705–760
9% Cr–1% Mo steel 705–760
12% Cr (Type 410) steel SS410 760–815
16% Cr (Type 430) steel SS430 760–815
1 1/4% Mn–1/2% Mo steel 605–680
Low-alloy Cr–Ni–Mo steels 595–680
2–5% Ni steels 595–650
9% Ni steels 550–585
Quenched and tempered steels 540–550
Austenitic Stainless Steel 400 to 430
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C1 Control of Distortion - Case Studies-Pressure Vessel & Pipe Welding & Structures Remedies
Problem : In Oil & Gas Industries and Power Plants etc Industries, Weld Distortion in Fabrication & 37
Construction of Process Equipments and Piping are often observed serious as they cause problems during assembly or
operation. The Case studies narrated here, are based on the experience of Weld Distortion and counter measures /

Pg.C1.1
controls taken in the Vendor Shops & at Sites.

Case Studies:
(1). Heat Exchanger & Drums, Sinking of shell at the Nozzle weld locations
Some Vendors do not follow Distortion Control methods during fabrication of Pressure Vessel-Drums, Column,
Heat Exchanger shells (1 to 5meter φ , 12 mm to 35 mmTk). On completion of welding of nozzle welds on the
Shell, it was found, sinking of weld nozzles from the normal outer periphery line. Due to the nozzle weld sinking,
often, inserting tube bundles in heat exchangers, installing tray supports to columns etc were found difficult. One
Vendor had force fitted the tube bundle. During maintenance, it was found impossible to pull out. The dish end
was cut open and later scrapped. Many of the tray supports were "cut to suit" the ID.

(2). Drum Saddle, Warped and cannot fit into the shell or cracks developed, on the saddle plate to shell weld joint
Some Vendors do not follow Distortion Control methods(mirroring, bolting & stays) in the fabrication of Saddles
to the Horizontal Vessels. There was cases to fit the saddle plate to the shell as the saddle/wear pad was
closing. Sometime, shop people force fit the saddle wear plate to the shell. There were cases of cracks on the
saddle plate to shell weld joint.

(3). Sinking Long Forged Nozzle for Level Gage on Heads & Shells
Often Client require precision positioning of the level indicator nozzle flanges. There were cases, the distortion
control methods to the shell and nozzles weld were not sufficient. There was rejection at the Shop final
dimensional check. The Boiler Level Instruments were often glass made. Owners cannot take any deviations.
(4). Boiler Feed Header Pipe-After installation of nozzles, the header found distorted like Banana.
Some Shops, did not follow Distortion Control methods during fabrication of Headers for Boiler Tubes/Heater
Tubes or the Feed water headers and Steam Headers. The headers were fee move. The headers, on
completion of welds, found like banana shape and rejected.
(5). Boiler Furnace wall panel plate, sagged, after welding completion
Thin walled panels, used in heaters, boilers, ducts etc were difficult to maintain the flatness as the wall thickness
(often 1/4"tk). The weld along the frames often, created bulging on weld side and rejection.
(6). Platform structure on the Column, Segmented Frames distorted
Often, the lugs/clips connected to the columns, drums etc found tilted, as the shop did not provide stays during
welding. Sometime, circular platforms, used to get closed at the inner side due to distortion.
(7). Pipe & pressure vessel L-Seam Butt welds, sinking of weld joint
Sinking of L-seam welds were noticed as the wall thicknesses were thinner and there was no inside support.
Balance- welded joints were also found sagging.
(8). Pipe Butt welds, C-Seam sinking of weld joint
Sinking of C-seam welds were noticed as the wall thicknesses were thinner and there was no inside support.
Balance- welded joints were also found to sink.
(9). Pump Base Plate Distorted / bowed up at the ends.
Pumps, Compressors, Turbines are precision rotating machineries. If the capacity of the machines are high, the
vibration, noise and damage will be high if they are mis-aligned. Base Plate is one of the item, considered,
causing mis-alignment, if it is not flat.
(10). Pump Flange, connected to piping Flange, were found distorted due to pipe side welding distortion
Piping stresses will also cause machinery mis-alignment. Mis-aligned machines , will cause seal leak, bearing
wear, vibration and noise. There were cases of excess piping stresses and many of machinery foundation bolts
were torn off.
(Details of the case-study problems, resolutions/counter measures are presented in the following pages).
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C2 Control of Distortion - Case Studies-Pressure Vessel Nozzle Welding Remedies
(1). Problem: Heat Exchanger & Drums, Sinking of shell (towards center of the shell) at the Nozzle Weld Locations 38

Observations & Remedy:

Majority of the Pressure Vessel (Drums, Heat Exchangers etc.), having thin wall are having reinforcing pads at Nozzle
locations for Code requirements. During fabrication, the nozzle area welds, cause sinking of the nozzle and thus
reducing the shell inside diameter. Interference/difficulty were faced when internals like tube bundles, tray support etc
were installed, after welding / testing completion.

Pg.C2.1
Check-list for Distortion Control:
1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Observations: Remedy:
Objects: Nozzles are installed on the Vessels(Drums, Heat Option-1. Use Sweepolets for nozzles on vessels
Exchangers, Storage Tanks, Spheres) for inlet-outlet, products, and pipes. The total welding is much less comparing
instruments, manhole etc. connections. to nozzle welds or weldolet welds. Thus distortion is
Observations: Normally, nozzles are set-in or set-on type and much less. RT can be done on the butt welds of
with or without reinforcements. Flange projection from vessel sweepolets.
center line : Most of the Clients, accept 1/4"(6mm) deviation on
flange end length, from vessel center line and 0.5° tilt on the Option-2. If (a). nozzles with Reinforcing pad or (b).
nozzle center line. without reinforcing pads, or (c). long & heavy forged
On completion of welding, there were many cases, we noticed, the branches are used, use inside supporting post to
nozzle flange level had sunk, about 6 to 12 mm or more, due to support the nozzle and prevent sinking. Also install,
weld shrinkages and distortion. Stay rods(min. 4 at each 90°) at flange sides to
maintain the verticality.
Problems: Due to distortion, (1). the Vessel ID is reduced and Better to do PWHT, with Distortion Control set-up. If
we face problems, like difficulty to install internals (Tube bundles, the vessel requires PWHT, please do not remove
tray support rings, etc). (2). Externally Fabricated system pipes the distortion control set up till completion of PWHT
assembly to the Equipments at Site: The fabricated pipes are also as residual stresses will reduce or disappear with the
short at the nozzle connection, as the nozzles are sunk. completion of PWHT. If there is no PWHT/Stress
Relief, the residual stress may spring-come back
and create distortion, later date.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C3 Control of Distortion - Case Studies, Drum Saddle Distortions Remedies
Problem : Drum Saddle, Warped after welding and (a). cannot fit into the shell or (b). cracks developed, on the saddle
plate to shell weld joint 39

Pg.C3.1
Observed

End View

Counter
Measures
Option-1
Mirroring
(Back-to-Back)
Clamping

Check-list for Distortion Control:

1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Option-2
Additional Measure: Pre-setting:
After Tack welds, preset the assembly,
to reduce the effect of
residual stresses

Observations Remedy
Case (1). Saddle base plate While checking on the flat bed at the Vendor Shop, it was noticed, many of the saddle base plates
was lifted up at the ends. of Drums and Heat Exchangers were found lifted up at the ends and only contact point was at the
middle. Investigation showed, Vendor had tacked the assembly and individual saddles were
welded. After welding, the saddle were warped.
Case (2). Saddle plate or Resolution : The Saddles were assembled back-to-back as mirror image and welding completed.
wear plate distorted and the PWHT/Stress Relief: As clamped objects, while welding, will have residual stresses and may
wear pad end moved
spring-back, at later days, PWHT or Stress Relieving is recommended, with the same set up, as
towards the centerline.
Twin as made during welding.
Difficulty to fit into the shell
and saddle.
Case (3). Vendor force fitted Vendor had force fitted the warped saddle on the shell. During hydro testing, cracks were seen on
the saddle and shell. Just the C-seam weld connecting shell to the wear plate of the saddle. Cumulative effect of Hydro test
before hydro test, Cracks pressure and saddle welding residual stresses had cracked the saddle wear plate to Shell welding.
were found, along the Resolution: (a). Cracked Saddle weld was ground and scrapped. (b). New saddles were
saddle wear plate to shell assembled and fabricated & welded as Twin/mirror. (c). Stress Relieving was conducted , as
weld line assembled as twins.
Better sequence : (1). to weld the wear plate first on the shell. (2).Assemble & Weld the saddles (base plate and ribs) as Twin.
(3).Conduct PWHT on the assembled Twin saddles, as assembled. (4). For easy down hand welding(1F) : Rotate the drum, to
180° position (saddle location at the top) and assemble. (5). Weld the PWHT completed saddle ribs to the wear plate of the
shell. Use min. weld size.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C4 Case Studies-Long Forged Nozzles on Heads and Shells (Level Gage) Remedies
Problem : Sinking of Long Forged Nozzles (Root valve) for Level Gage on Heads and Shells was found during 40
final inspection and also at site during installation with level instruments..
Distortion / sinking of Nozzles at the shell to nozzle locations:

Pg.C4.1
Fixture,
Expected to control

Vendor had used, only outside

nozzle sinking

Fixture, (found inadequate

Flange Alignment Fixture

to control the Distortion)

Vessel, Level Gage
Nozzle Installation

Check-list for Distortion Control:

1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
Rigorous Tolerances on Level Gage Nozzle Flanges: 3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion
(1).Distance between nozzle center lines, 1.5 mm
(2).Projection Distance from center of vessel to the flange face, 1.5 mm
(3).Tilt of flange, at the OD rim(for all dia sizes) from Dwg location, 1.5 mm
(4).Rotation of flange bolt hole, 1.5 mm
Observations Counter Measures (proposed)
Vendor Set-up: Vendor had used a flat fixture to tie the outside (1). Option-1: The vendor should have installed
flanged ends of the long forging. There was no inside fixture. additional fixture to arrest the sinking nozzles due to
The vessels were thick walled(about 75mm). The nozzles were weld distortion, as shown in the above sketch.
thick forged long nozzles. (2). Option-2: The Vendor should have used extra
heavy thick raw flange, so that the flange location
Vendor assumed there would be no distortion, as the vessel walls can be machined to match the spec., after welding.
are thicker.
Client requires the level gage nozzle flange to have tight
tolerances to match the glass levels/instruments. Dimensions
were checked at the Site and found the nozzles were not meeting
Spec. Due to excess welding at the nozzle to shell weld joint, the
vessel had sunk at the nozzle locations, unevenly and the nozzles
had gone out of tolerances and rejected. The vendor had fixed the
top of the flanges by a grid plate. But this fixture did not arrest the
movement of weld sinking. There was no fixture inside.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C5 Case Studies-Thin walled Vessel & Pipes Butt welds(L-Seam), sinking Remedies
Problem : On Thin walled (φ>70t) vessels and pipes, we often find the butt L-seam welds sinking, due to weld 41
shrinkage and the inside diameter is locally(at the weld area) reduced by few millimeters.
Majority of the cases, this weld sinking does not cause any problem in pipes(except for pipes with inside service
cleaning by pigging and checking by UT apparatus and other instruments). In vessels, balanced welding (welding from
outside and inside) will have reducing effect on weld sinking. However, due to transverse weld shrinking, the diameter is
reduced. Thin and long vessel may have bowing. Normally to counter this distortion, L-seams are rotated 180°, during
assembly of barrels. If the equipments contain internals, like Tube Bundle, Tray Support etc. suitable weld distortion
control measures should be taken.

Pg.C5.1
Thin walled((φ>70t) vessels and pipes, show sinking(shrinkage) on L-seam weld, below normal line.
Distortion Control Measure-1
L-Seam weld, shows, sinking
Counter Measures: Attaching Strong-back

Distortion Control Measure-2

Transverse Shrinkage/Rotational Distortion Weld Control

(Balance welding, both outside & Inside Welding)
(Many Shops, weld from inside/outside, for pipes φ, 36" and
above) Normal balanced butt welds on most of
the vessels, where there is access from inside.
(If thickness is over 3/4" and φ 36" and above)
Outside butt welds on most of the pipes and
vessels, where there is no access to inside(φ<30").

1. Requires, more volume of weld

1. Requires, less volume of weld
2. Welding is done from outside only
2. Welding is done from outside & from inside
3. Distortion due to lateral shrinkage, yes
3. Distortion due to lateral shrinkage, balanced
4. Distortion due to longitudinal shrinkage, yes
4. Distortion due to longitudinal shrinkage, yes
Balanced L-seam Weld (weld inside & outside, intermittent Above sketch is for one welder. If more welders are
back-step / skip / stagger welding) to control Weld available, they can weld, from top & bottom or at
shrinkage Check-list for Distortion Control: staggered positions
1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion
Observations Counter Measures (proposed)
(1). Autogenous weld. Weld shrinkage & Normally, the small tubes are seamless. L seam, Not welded
sinking.
(2). Pipes: For pipes in plant and in off-sites. Normally no hindrance, it is tolerated
Butt weld shrinkage and weld sinking.
(3). On pressure vessel : If the distortion/sink Use double V or U joint. Majority of the cases, the vessel diameter is
is more & inside diameter is less, it is problem large and people can go inside and do balance welding and also install
to install tube bundles, trays and supports. supports/strong backs. So, weld sinking caused by
longitudinal/transverse weld shrinkage is reduced.

General Use less weld metal. Use High Energy / Heat Input Welding Process(like
LAW / EBW)
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C6 Case Studies-Thin walled Vessel & Pipes Butt welds(C-Seam), sinking Remedies
Problem : On Thin walled (φ>70t) vessels and pipes, we often find the C-seam butt welds sinking, due to weld 42
shrinkage and the inside diameter is reduced by few millimeters.
On autogenous welded SS 1/4" instrument lines, the weld sinking can be seen very clearly. Majority of the cases, this
weld sinking does not cause any problem in pipes(except for pipes with inside service cleaning by pigging and checking
by UT apparatus and other instruments). In vessels. inserting tube bundle etc will be difficult. Balanced welding will
reduce the weld sinking. Inside Spider support is highly recommended.

Pg.C6.1
Thin walled((φ>70t) vessels and pipes, showing weld shrinkage and sinking of Weld, below normal line.
Inside Spider
C-Seam with Distortion C-Seam with Distortion Control

Circumferential weld Shrinkage/Rotational

Distortion Weld Control

Butt welds, Outside, on most of the pipes Normal balanced butt welds on most of the
vessels, where there is access to inside space.
Outside Outside

Inside Inside
1. Requires, more volume of weld 1. Requires, less volume of weld
2. Welding is done from outside only 2. Welding is done from outside & inside
3. Distortion due to lateral shrinkage, yes 3. Distortion due to lateral shrinkage, balanced, less
4. Distortion due to longitudinal shrinkage, yes 4. Distortion due to longitudinal shrinkage, yes
Shrinkage on Circomferencial welding along weld
axis is called here as Longitudinal Shrinkage (For Pipes & Vessels φ>24")
and it will result in shortage of diameter

Rotational Shrinkage
Weld Control

Check-list for Distortion Control:

(For Pipes & Vessels,
1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
φ<24")
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Observations / Problems Counter Measures (proposed)

(1). Autogenous weld. Weld shrinkage & The tube size(φ) is very small (<10mm). It is difficult to control. It is normally
sinking. tolerated, if the wall thickness is ok)
(2). Pipes: For pipes in plant and in off- Normally no hindrance, it is tolerated
sites. Butt weld shrinkage and weld
sinking.
(3). On pressure vessel : If the inside Majority of the cases, the vessel diameter is large and people can go inside
diameter is less, it is problem to install tube and do balance welding. So, weld sinking caused by lateral weld shrinkage is
bundles, trays and supports. reduced. Weld sinking, longitudinally(circumferential), prevented by inside
spider support.

(4). Welded Pipe Flanges, connected to Balanced welding is necessary(lateral shrinkage). To correct local flange gap,
Pumps, etc are not parallel to equipment completed pipe welds are excavated and refilled to counter the flange tilt.
Flange.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C7 Control of Distortion - Case Studies-Boiler Headers Remedies
Problem : Boiler Steam and Feed Water Headers((similar headers are found in Process heaters) were made of 43
Weldolets. No clamping or no preventive steps to control Distortion. After welding, the header was like a Banana.

Pg.C7.1
Specifications required Weldolets for branches on Boiler Steam and Feed Water Headers. Weldolets were installed
following the Bonney Forge Procedure. On completion of weldolet welding, the header bowed and the distorted
header was looking like Banana. The weldolet welding was heavy and there was no clamping / restraints.
Cause for the Distortion:
1. No Distortion Control: The header pipes were not clamped
or no preventive action was taken for distortion control
2. Too much Weld Metal: The weldolet welding requires large amount of welding. Further the weldolet was
found having fillet weld leg size, over-sized than, 1.25 times header pipe wall thickness. Bonney Forge
recommends a cover fillet weld for smooth merger.

Remade Header was clamped on a I Beam

The Headers were rejected and new pipes and weldolets were ordered and the headers were remade
without distortion.
Rejected-Too much weld metal at the Weldolet to Pipe joint Remade header and weldolet welds

Weldolet Installation Procedure : Bonney Forge suggested weldolet welds

1. Place Weldolet onto pipe. Trace the ID of the Weldolet onto the header pipe.
2. Tack weld at four points to secure Weldolet to header pipe for groove weld.
3. Perform hole cut in pipe (follow special notes for the size on size).
4. Perform full penetration groove weld around fitting (completely fill weld bevel)
5. Add spacer between header pipe and Weldolet to provide root gap.
6. Apply cover fillet weld for smooth geometry transition. Check-list for Distortion Control:
7. On completion of welds, arrange PWHT, including all clamps 1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
and restrains to remove max. Distortion/ Residual Stresses
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion
Requirements Findings Resolution
The Steam headers were 28" φ, On completion of all weldolet Option-1. The headers were rejected, as the headers
3/4" tk, SA 106-B pipes & welding, the headers were found were not straight. New materials were given to the
branches 16"φ, Sch 80, SA-105 bowed upwards, about 40 mm, Vendor and the headers were remade. The Header
and Feed Water headers were at the end, like banana. The pipes were clamped to the I-beam(12" x6"), using U
14"φ, Sch 80,SA106,B and Vendor did not have any fixture bolts. The clamps were fixed as close as possible to
branches were 6"φ, Sch 80, to arrest the distortion or there the branches. The re-made headers were accepted.
SA105. All welding-GTAW root was no distortion controls. Cover fillet weld was suggested by Bonney Forge.
and stabilizing pass, with Option-2.Use less weld consuming, standard Tee,
purging, filling by SMAW. Sweepolets/ nozzles for Branches, if the size is
available.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C8 Case Studies-Boiler Wall panel, inside the frames on weld side, bulged Remedies
Problem : Wall panels on Boilers or Furnaces or Exhaust Duct are often made with 1/4" to 3/8" tk SA36 material. 44
The ribs are either flats or angles or channel shapes. They are welded outside. We often find the plate, surrounded by the
ribs on weld side are bulged out, due to weld distortion.

Pg.C8.1
Boiler furnace wall panels and exhaust duct panel plates are often
made with thin plates, like 1/4" or 3/8 tk SA36 material. The ribs
are either flats are angles or channel shapes. They are welded
outside. Often, no clamping or no preventive steps to control
Distortion is followed. After welding the shell plates are found ,
bulging, on the weld side.

Check-list for Distortion Control:

1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Observations Counter Measures (proposed)

Wall panel plates, using 1/4" to 3/8" tk, SA36, is common Boilers, (1). Option-1: Add additional stiffeners or ribs so that
Process Heaters, Exhaust ducts etc bulging/distortion can be controlled.
Plates around 1/4" thick or thinner are found distortion, in most of (2). Option-2: Use just sufficient weld metal. More
the sheet metal fabrication and welding jobs. Most of the cases, weld means more distortion.
these sheets are not capable of storing residual stresses and so
the residual stresses are turned into distortion. (3). Use of Low heat welding process, single pass,
Just after welding, the panels were checked and found the plate faster welding completion etc to reduce distortion.
was bulged out, on the fillet weld side. The reason is weld (4). Skip Welding, Back Step Welding etc to reduce
distortion. distortion.
(5). Option-3:If found unacceptable distortion, use
"Heat Correction" method on the distorted areas.
Repairs-Spot Flame Straightening Method, details are also found in ChapterB9 para.6‐
On the convex side : The thin material is repaired using minimal propylene gas pressure, increased, oxygen, and
a #2 size torch tip. The spot flame straightening method is performed by creating 1 1/4 inch(30mm dia) spots
along both sides of the weld seam and/or along both sides of the Tee’s.
Alternative Method:
(1). The area inside stiffeners are heated in the area of distortion, with a staggered spot flame pattern, on plate
(2). If unacceptable distortion still exists, Step 1 is repeated using an opposite spot pattern on plate, from step 1
(3). If unacceptable distortion still exists, heat all stiffeners in the general area of distortion with spot line flame
heat on plate along the stiffener
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C9 Case Studies-Ladder & Platforms for Column & Drum and Equipments Remedies
Problem : The platform-ladder-stairs are massive structures in the on-shore and off-shore Process Industries. 45
Welding is used to connect most of the structural members and make the structure to the required shape. As the location
of fabricating Shop and the Installed place / Sites are far away, some structures are separated / dismantled for transport

Pg.C9.1
and assembly at Site. Bolting and welding are used to connect the segments.

Site often finds problems on assembly at Site. The causes are: (a)error in drawing / data transfer mistakes, (b). mis-
fabrication & (c). tie-in details and (d). sub-assembly are not matching, the sub-assembly are short supply / damages, (e).
mix-up at Site.
Weld distortion related issues are not much. Further most of the structures are mock-up assembled at Shop, before
shipment to Site. Due to information gap, the following problems are faced: interference of pipes, cables trays,
instruments and supports, mis-matching of bolted joints. Sometime, position of Penetration holes on platform or floors,
for pipes, trays / cable glands, support legs etc are mislocated.

Platform-Ladder-Stairs / Structures in the On-Shore and Off-Shore Plants

Check-list for Distortion Control:
1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Observations Counter Measures (proposed)

Interference : Platforms & Ladders on equipments serve to (1). Close co-ordination and sharing of info is
operate the equipments quickly and safely, They are used daily necessary
and frequently during shut-downs and in emergencies. So, these
are used to connect to trouble making parts, manholes,
instruments and controls. As many departments & agencies are
involved, we see many interference and often the pipe penetration
on the platforms are wrongly made.

Lugs: Lugs are used to support the structures, platform and Lugs connected to the equipments to support the
ladders to the equipments. Sometime, the lug orientations do not Platforms, ladders, stairs, structures should be
match to the platform beams. It is often said, the lug is tilted , due checked for location and alignment before welding.
to weld distortion. Stay bars should be used to make it strong from weld
distortion / tilting. Skip welding etc to be followed.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C10 Case Studies-Large Pump Base Plate Remedies
Problem - For small pumps etc, cast iron base plate is common. For large Pumps etc, Pump Base Plate is often 46
massive welded structure to support the Drivers(Motors, Turbines) and the Driven(Pumps, Compressors etc). Auxiliary
systems like lube oil coolers, seal oil coolers, local panels, pipe supports etc. are also supported on the Base Plates.
After welding, the pedestals are machined to meet the Client spec. But when it reaches the Site, the Site people
sometimes find, the base plate is bowed upwards at the ends. Levels between the driver and driven are beyond limit and
soft foot limit for the driver is not maintained. This will disturbe the machinery alignment and operation at Site, as the
mis-alignment result in vibration and unacceptable noise.

Pg.C10.1
Mounting Plate-A device used to attach equipment to concrete foundations;
includes both (1). base plates and (2). soleplates.
Tolerance : To get min.5 years continuous service of the Pump/machinery, most of the Clients Project Spec. requires
stringent pedestal level controls. Pump and motor Levels: (1). pedestal to pedestal shall be within 0.25 mm/m, and
(2). motor soft foot readings shall be within 0.05 mm. (3). API-610, requires, mounting pads, level shall be within 0.15
mm/meter.

Top Deck plates: Sometime welded Deck plates are uneven/not flat. They are normally 1/4" to 1/2" thick. To control
machinery vibration and abnormal noise, most of the heavy duty pumps/machinery, have foundation grouted and the
foundation base plate totally filled either with epoxy or with non-shrink cement.. Many vents are provided to vent out the
air during grouting. If further check on the deck plate show, air pocket, they are drilled and epoxy filled/gunned.

Check-list for Distortion Control:

1. Longi.Shrinkage 4. Rotational Distortion
2. Trans.Shrinkage 5. Bending Distortion
3. Angular Distortion 6. Buckling Distortion

Observation Counter measures

(1). Sometime, Vendor do not meet Client Project spec or Most of the material requirement for the Project, are specific
API-610 spec . In case the Base plate, does not meet the to the Project. Often, Projects, issue exceptions/deviations
Project/API spec, Vendor often refer to their own standard and additional requirements, to the general spec. During
and they substantiate their argument with some BS or AISC quotation stage and at the time of PO acceptance, Vendor
Standard for general machinery. They ignore the Project confirms and agrees to meet the Project spec. But, some
Spec. Vendors do not meet, when they deliver.

(2). Sometime, the Shop test/inspection report shows, the Normally, the base plate is totally welded and the pedestals
base plate tolerances are within the acceptable range. But, are machined and offered for Inspection. The error may be
when the base plate is moved to Site and checked there, due to (a). Shop measurement error or (b). the residual
deviation in tolerances are noticed. The base plate ends are stresses of the welded base plate is getting released and
found bowed upwards due to welding distortion, more than distortion happens. Vendor should check the possibilities.
the required level. Driver to Driven pedestal levels show (c). It is better to stress relieve(PWHT) the welded base
higher readings. plate structure, before machining.

Vendor to follow all preventive action, during welding, at the

sub-vendor fabrication shop, to control the weld distortion.

Ref:PIP-API-RP-686, Machinery Installations

 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C11 Control of Distortion - Case Studies-Pipe Flange connected to Pumps/Equipments Remedies
Problem - Due to piping flexibility, heavy weight, other constrains, the piping normally stays at the desired route. However, 47
the piping and flange alignment at the machinery require, high precision adjustment. The nozzle load on the machinery is limited
by the Code and Clients. Pipe flange shall have close alignment to the machinery to avoid strains on the machinery. Flange load
& mis-alignment will lead to machinery coupling mis-alignment and excess mis-alignment will lead to excess vibration & noise
and bearing and seal damages/failures.

Pg.C11.1
Reference: PIP-API-RP-686-2009, Machinery-Installation

Observations Counter Measures

(1). Pumps, (a). Mis-fabricated or wrong piping design, will transfer excess forces and moments to the equipment
Compressors, nozzle. Due to this transfer the first effect is seal leak and bearing damage/high noise and vibration. There
Turbines etc are cases like machinery shaft bending or foundation breaks. The pipe should have suitable supports/guides
machineries having /anchors.
(b). Piping Flexibility Analysis: The piping connected the machinery nozzles should be flexibility analysis
piping connection, checked by competent Engineer and check the piping loads are within the stipulated loads at the Machinery
are found to have Nozzles.
leak at the seals or (c). Welding at the flange connected to the machinery, requires careful planning and the welding should
to have high wait for the machinery installation and first alignment. The flange welding should be sequenced to maintain
vibration and noise the equal flange gap, just for the gasket and minimized flange tilt.
or bearing damage, Follow guidelines in Case Studies - 10f.
due to mis- (d). If heat correction(Distortion Control-9i) or excavate weld and refill operation at the elbow welds or at the
alignment of shafts. flange welds for any flange alignment correction, required by the Rotating Machinery Group, it should be
done, with approval of the Piping Engineer and Metallurgist/QC.
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-C12 Case Studies-Heat Exchanger Tube Sheet to Tube Welding Sequence Remedies
Problem - Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers have tube sheet to hold the tubes for heat exchanging. The tube to tube 48
sheet joint is mostly rolled (on heat exchangers used in water and sea water service). But, heat exchangers in process and
high pressure tube side pressure service, vibration service, or where leak cannot be tolerated like Nuclear Boilers, owners
and codes specify tube rolling plus seal welding at the tube end to tube sheet joint.
Depending on the tube size and shell diameter, heat transfer requirement, the number of tubes will vary.

Pg.C12.1
The tube sheet is normally thicker, weakened by the tube holes. The tube to tube sheet joint is small welding and usually
welded with GTAW, with 2 passes. More welding will cause more distortion. Avoid weld more than required.
Continuously welded tube sheet to tube joints, from top to bottom, are often found warped and found leaking at the tube
sheet to channel joint or at the tube sheet to shell joint. So, Welding the tube to joint often requires sequencing on welding,
to control warping and leaking.
Sequence: Often, the tube rolling machine suppliers used to give a sequence chart. 3D modeling and simulation had
found, rolling and welding from periphery(outside) to center, to give minimum distortion and residual stresses and it is
preferred. People also use modified sequence, combining the above with ASME PCC-1 bolt tightening procedure.

Sequence-1: On a Shell and Tube exchanger, rolling or Sequence-2: -Alternative to Sequence-1, combining
welding sequence of tubes to the tube sheet from the Sequence-1 and successful bolt tightening
Periphery (outside) to the center(ring A to H) is preferred procedure, per ASME PCC-1
as it is established to have minimum residual deformation The rolling & welding sequence is from top periphery
& minimum residual stresses on the tube sheet. The to the center. Additional sequence is rolling &
rolling & welding sequence is from top periphery to the welding each ring(A, B, C etc) in 12 segment(1,2,3,4
center. etc).
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-D1 Direction of Bending (Distortion) Curvature Remedies
Contraction forces of the base metal and weld, causing it to buckle/distort the 49
base metal. The direction of buckling or curvature of bending, depends on
Moment of Inertia. The base metal is permanently set / deformed as
contraction stresses are much higher than the metal yield stress.

Pg.D1.1
The center of bending curvature can be found by this thumb rule:
Neutral Axis >> Weld Center Line >> Center point of bend curvature.
(If the welded assembly is complex and there are many welds, often
average neutral axis line and average weld center is calculated, as it is
done in Strength of Material)

Bending Bending
 Welding Distortion & Its Control By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-D2 Change in Physical & Mechanical Properties with Temperature Remedies
Carbon Steel (Mild Steel, C<0.3%), Physical & Mechanical Properties, with change in Temperature : 50

Pg.D2.1
Stainless Steel-304, Physical & Mechanical Properties, with change in Temperature :
 By JGC Annamalai
Chapter-D2 Change in Physical & Mechanical Properties with Temperature Remedies
Youngs Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) for Different Materials, with change in Temperatures : 51

Pg.D2.2
Stainless Steels Phase Diagram (18 Cr, with 2%Ni, 4%Ni, 8%Ni, 12% Ni) ; Carbon Vs Temperature
 Chapter-D3 Thermal Latent Heat of
Physical & Thermal Properties Expansion Fusion
Material Density Melting Point Conductivity-H Specific Heat (0 to 100°C)
3
(lbs/in (gm/cc) (°F) (°C) (Btu/(hr- (W/(m.°C ((Btu/(lb (J/(kg.°C (in/in/°F (m/ (Btu/lb) (J/Kg)
) ft-°F)) )) .F)) )) x 10-6) (m.°C)
x 10-6)
Aluminum 0.098 2.72 1220 660 136 219 0.24 1003 13.1 23.58 169 392288
Aluminum, 2024, Temper-T351 2.8 143.0 795.0 52
Aluminum, 2024, Temper-T4 2.8 121.0 795.0
Aluminum, 5052, Temper-H32 2.68 138.0 963.0

Pg.D3.1
Aluminum, 5052, Temper-O 2.69 144.0 963.0
Aluminum, 6061, Temper-O 2.71 180.0 1256
Aluminum, 6061, Temper-T4 2.71 154.0 1256
Aluminum, 6061, Temper-T6 2.71 167.0 1256
Aluminum, 7075, Temper-T6 2.8 130.0 1047
Aluminum, A356, Temper-T6 2.76 128.0 900.0
Aluminum, Pure 2.707 220.0 896.0
Antimony - 6.62 - 630 120 193 - - 11 -
Beryllium, Pure 1.85 1280 175.0 1885
Brass (Yellow) 0.306 8.49 1724 940 69.33 112 0.096 401 11.2 20.16 -
Brass, Red, 85%Cu-15%Zn 8.80 151.0 380.0
Brass, Yellow, 65%Cu-35%Zn 8.80 119.0 380.0
Cadmium - 8.65 - 320 - 92 - - -
Copper 0.322 8.93 1976 1080 231 372 0.095 397 9.8 17.64 91.1 211464
Copper, Alloy, 11000 8.93 388.0 385.0
Copper, Al-bronze, 95%Cu-5%Al 8.67 83.0 410.0
Copper, Brass, 70%Cu-30%Zn 8.52 111.0 385.0
Copper, Bronze, 75%Cu-25%Sn 8.67 26.0 343.0
Constantan, 60%Cu-40%Ni 8.92 22.7 410.0
Copper, Drawn Wire 8.80 287.0 376.0
German silver, 62%Cu-15%Ni-22%Zn 8.62 24.9 394.0
Copper, Pure 8.95 386.0 380.0
Copper, Red brass, 85%Cu-9%Sn-6%Zn 8.71 61.0 385.0
Gold 0.698 19.36 1945 1063 183 294 0.032 134 7.9 14.22 29 67316
Gold, Pure 18.90 1063 318.0 130.0
Incoloy 800 0.29 8.04 2500 1371 - 0.13 543 7.9 14.22 -
Inconel 600 0.304 8.43 2500 1371 - 0.126 526 5.8 10.44 -
Invar, 64%Fe-35%Ni 8.13 13.8 480.0 0.9
Iron, Cast 0.26 7.21 2150 1177 46.33 75 0.12 501 6 10.8 -
Iron, Cast 7.92 55.0 456.0
Iron, Pure 7.90 71.8 452.0
Iron, Wrought, 0.5%C 7.85 59.0 460.0
Kovar, 54%Fe-29%Ni-17%Co 8.36 16.3 432.0
Lead, Liquid 0.387 10.73 - - 0.037 155 - -
Lead, Pure 11.37 35.0 130.0
Lead, solid 0.41 11.37 621 327 20.39 33 0.032 134 16.4 29.52 11.3 26230
Magnesium 0.063 1.75 1202 650 - 0.27 1128 14 25.2 160 371397
Magnesium, Mg-Al, Electrolytic, 8%Al-2%Zn 1.81 66.0 1.0 x 103
Magnesium, Pure 1.75 171.0 1.013 x 103
Molybdenum 0.369 10.23 4750 2621 - 0.071 297 2.9 5.22 126 292475
Molybdenum 10.22 130.0 251.0
Monel 400 0.319 8.85 2400 1316 - 0.11 460 6.4 11.52 -
Nickel 0.321 8.90 2642 1450 52.4 84 0.12 501 5.8 10.44 133 308724
Chapter-D3 Thermal Latent Heat of
Physical & Thermal Properties Expansion Fusion
Material Density Melting Point Conductivity-H Specific Heat (0 to 100°C)
3
(lbs/in (gm/cc) (°F) (°C) (Btu/(hr- (W/(m.°C ((Btu/(lb (J/(kg.°C (in/in/°F (m/ (Btu/lb) (J/Kg)
) ft-°F)) )) .F)) )) x 10-6) (m.°C)
x 10-6)
Nickel, Pure 8.91 99.0 445.9 53
Nichrome (80% NI-20% Cr) 0.302 8.37 2550 1399 - 12.0 0.11 460 7.3 13.14 -

Pg.D3.2
Nickel, Ni-Cr, 80%Ni-20%Cr 8.31 12.6 444.0
Nickel, Ni-Cr, 90%Ni-10%Cr 8.67 17.0 444.0
Platinum 0.775 21.49 3225 1774 41.36 67 0.035 146 4.9 8.82 49 113740
Silver 0.379 10.51 1760 960 247.87 399 0.057 238 10.8 19.44 38 88207
Solder (50% Pb-50% Sn) 0.323 8.96 361 183 - 0.051 213 13.1 23.58 17 39461
Solder, Hard, 80%Au-20%Sn 15.00 57.0 15.0
Solder, Hard, 88%Au-12%Ge 15.00 88.0 No Data
Solder, Hard, 95%Au-3%Si 15.70 94.0 147.0
Solder, Soft, 60%Sn-40%Pb 9.29 50.0 180.0
Solder, Soft, 63%Sn-37%Pb 9.25 51.0 180.0
Solder, Soft, 92.5%Pb-2.5%Ag-5%In 12.00 39.0 No Data
Solder, Soft, 95%Pb-5%Sn 11.00 32.3 134.0
Steel, Carbon, 0.5%C 7.83 54.0 465.0
Steel, Carbon, 1.0%C 7.80 43.0 473.0
Steel, Carbon, 1.5%C 7.75 36.0 486.0
Steel, Chrome, Cr1% 7.87 61.0 460.0
Steel, Chrome, Cr5% 7.83 40.0 460.0
Steel, Chrome, Cr20% 7.69 22.0 460.0
Steel, mild 0.284 7.88 2570 1410 26 -37 56 0.122 510 6.7 12.06 -
Steel, Nickel, Ni20% 7.93 19.0 460.0
Steel, Nickel, Ni40% 8.17 10.0 460.0
Steel, Nickel, Ni80% 8.62 35.0 460.0
Steel, SAE 1010 7.83 59.0 434.0
Steel, SAE 1010, Sheet 7.83 63.9 434.0
SS(Aus) 304,304L321,347 0.286 7.93 2550 1399 8.09 13 0.120 501 9.6 17.28 -
SS(Aus), 316,316L 8.03 16.26 502.1 17.5
SS(Fer), 430, 409,434 0.275 7.63 2650 1454 8.11 13 0.110 460 6 10.8 -
SS(Mar), 410,420,440 7.65 1500 25 460 11
Steel, Tungsten, W0% 7.90 73.0 452.0
Steel, Tungsten, W1% 7.91 66.0 448.0
Steel, Tungsten, W10% 8.31 48.0 419.0
Steel, Tungsten, W5% 8.07 54.0 435.0
Tantalum 0.6 16.64 5425 2996 - 0.035 146 3.6 6.48 -
Tin, Cast, Hammered 7.35 62.5 226.0
Tin, Liquid 0.253 7.02 - - 0.052 217 - -
Tin, Pure 7.30 64.0 226.5
Tin, solid 0.263 7.29 450 232 38.48 62 0.065 272 13 23.4 26.1 60584
Titanium 4.51 15.6 9 544.0
Titanium 99.0% 0.164 4.55 3035 1668 12.65 20 0.13 543 4.7 8.46 -
Tungsten 0.697 19.33 6170 3410 100.53 162 0.04 167 2.5 4.5 79 183377
Tungsten 19.35 180.0 134.4
Solder,Type metal (85% Pb-15% Sb 0.387 10.73 500 260 - 0.04 167 - 14
Zinc 0.258 7.15 786 419 67.023 108 0.096 401 22.1 39.78 43.3 100509
Zinc, Pure 7.14 112.2 384.3
Zirconium 0.234 6.49 3350 1843 145 233 0.067 280 3.2 5.76 108 250693