Form two combined science notes: compiled by Mr Musona

Biology Section

Variation
-these are the differences shown by organisms of the same species e.g. height, colour, sex,
shoe size, e.t.c.

Types of variation
-there are two types of variation: (a) continuous variation (b) discontinuous variation
(a) Continuous variation/Environmental variation
-these are differences between organisms of the same species which do not have clear cut
differences and have intermediates (in-between differences/changes)
-these characteristics change gradually e.g. height, weight, surface area of leaves, leaf length,
finger length, heart rate e.t.c
-the characteristics are measurable
-when measuring height, it starts with the shortest going to the tallest, however, from one
height to the next, there are possible heights connecting the trend
-it shows a normal distribution curve (bell-shaped) because the results are so close to each
other
-it is a change which can be made by the environment to which an organism is living in e.g. a
plant may be influenced in its height by factors such as soil fertility, water availability e.t.c.
and the weight of an animal may be influenced by the quality and quantity of food available
to one animal than the other of the same species

Continuous variation on number of seeds per pod

Number of seeds per pod

20
18
16
14
Number of pods

12
10
8 Number of seeds per pod
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of seeds per pod

1|Page
(b) Discontinuous variation/Inheritance variation
-these show clear cut differences without any intermediates e.g. presence or absence of
earlobes in humans, tongue rolling, sex, eye colour, blood groups(only four groups: A, B, AB
or O), finger prints e.t.c

Discontinuous variation in blood groups

Blood Group
50
percentage of opulation

40

30

20
Blood Group
10

0
A B AB O
Blood Group

Comparing continuous and discontinuous variations

Continuous variations Discontinuous variations

1. They refer to small, indistinct Refer to the large, conspicuous differences
differences from the normal condition from the parents
2. They are already present in They are new variations through similar
population variations which might have occurred
previously
3. Usually unstable and non-heritable Usually stable and heritable

4. Can be represented by a smooth curve A curve is not produced

5. Very common in all organisms Appear suddenly and in few cases only

Nutrition: compiled by Mr Musona: 07/12/2017

Definition
-it is the study of food and its relationship to health
Nutrition in plants

Plants as universal producers of food

-green plants are the ultimate source of food for all organisms, including themselves.
-therefore, plants are primary producers

2|Page
-green plant leaves harness sunlight and convert carbon dioxide and water into chemical
energy in the form of carbohydrates (glucose/starch) through photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
-is a process by which green plant leaves make food using carbon dioxide, water and in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll

Word equation for photosynthesis

sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrates + oxygen
Chlorophyll
-the carbohydrates manufactured during photosynthesis are readily soluble, therefore cannot
be stored for future use by plants, hence are converted to starch which is insoluble and stored
for future use in plants
-therefore, to test if plants are photosynthesising we test for starch in green plant leaves
Experiment 1: Testing for starch in a leaf

Materials
-soft green leaf which has been in the light
-iodine solution
-alcohol
-dropper
-test tube or small bottle
-beaker or boiling tin
-burner and tripod stand
-gauze
-test tube holder
-white tile
Method
-boil the leaf in water (kill the leaf)
-remove the boiled leaf from water and boil it in alcohol over a water bath (to remove
chlorophyll)
-remove the leaf from alcohol and dip it in hot water for a minute to soften it (alcohol makes
it brittle and hard)
-place the soft leaf on a white tile and add two drops of iodine solution on it
Observations
Colour changes where there is starch to blue-black (dark black)
-iodine itself is brown in colour
Where there is no starch, there is no colour change.
Conclusion
Green plant leaves make food through photosynthesis and stored as starch

3|Page
 Test tube

Beaker Leaf

Boiling water alcohol

Burner

Tripod stand

Caution

Alcohol is inflammable! Put test tube with alcohol in a beaker of boiling water after putting
out the burner.

NB: killing the leaf is to destroy enzymes that help in chemical reactions of photosynthesis.

Leaf structure

Energy from sun

Translocation

Water

Carbon dioxide oxygen

4|Page
Internal structure of a leaf

What makes the leaf the universal food producer?

-the presence of chlorophyll (green pigment) which traps sunlight

-has a large surface area to collect sunlight (shape of the leaf)
-has stomata (pores) underneath through which carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and
oxygen and water vapour diffuses out of the leaf
-their thickness allows light to reach all cells inside the leaf (they are thin)
-they have stalks which hold them in a proper position to trap most sunlight
-they have veins by which water is distributed to all the cells and manufactured food away
from the cells
NB: plants are the only food producers and animals are consumers. Wherever there is a
feeding system, the first stage always has plants.

Digestive system
Digestion is the breaking down of large insoluble particles of food into small soluble particles
that can be absorbed by the body.
-therefore, digestive system is a group of organs that are involved in the breaking down of
food particles into smaller particles which can be used by the body.

The alimentary canal

-is the path starting from the mouth, followed by food during digestion until excreted as
waste through the anus
-the organs that are involved are: mouth, gullet, stomach, small intestines, large intestines and
the anus
-it is also known as the digestive tract
Types of digestion

5|Page
-there are two types of digestion:
(1) Physical digestion or mechanical digestion
(2) Chemical digestion

The alimentary canal/digestive tract of human

1. Physical /mechanical digestion

-is the breaking down of large particles of food into smaller ones by the teeth in the
mouth and also by the stomach muscles squeezing food molecules mixing it with
digestive juices
2. Chemical digestion
-is done by the enzymes and digestive juices during chemical reactions with the food
-enzymes are special biological chemicals
-each enzyme has a special or specific food to act on e.g. salivary amylase work starch,
Enzymes in the stomach work on proteins e.t.c.
-it starts in the mouth where there is an enzyme (salivary amylase) in the saliva
-it continues along the alimentary canal until excretion of wastes
-after food is digested, its nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream in the small intestines
-the absorbed nutrients are used by the cells in the body for different functions that include;
growth, as energy, repairing of damaged tissues
-excess nutrients are stored by the liver
Functions of organs in the alimentary canal

1. Mouth

6|Page
 -using teeth, chops the food, lubricate it with the saliva
-mixes it with enzyme amylase which acts on starch
2. Gullet/oesophagus
-a tube which propels food from the mouth to the stomach using its muscles
3. Stomach
-stores and churns food
4. Small intestines
-is where most of the digestion system occurs and absorption of nutrients from digested
Food by the body
5. Large intestines
-reabsorbs fluids and stores faecal matter before excretion at the anus
Respiration Compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

Definition:
-it is the release of energy from food substances by the cells
Word equation
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat energy
Experiment to show that there is energy in food.

Is there energy in carbohydrates?

Materials
Ø Mealie-meal
Ø Burner
Ø Stand
Ø beaker or boiling tin
Ø Thermometer
Ø heating dish

Method
-place some mealie-meal in a heating dish or tin lid
-heat the mealie-meal until it begins to burn

7|Page
-light the mealie-meal in the dish with a match and remove the burner so that the meal can
burn on its own
-place a beaker of water above the burning meal
-record temperature changes using a thermometer from the start until the meal has burnt away
Observations
Temperature increases as the water is heat by the burning meal

Conclusion
Any fuel which is burnt releases energy in the form of heat. The energy trapped in plant
material during photosynthesis is released in our bodies by respiration.

Respiratory system

-the group of organs involved in the respiratory system are: nose and nasal passage, mouth,
windpipe or trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, air sacs (alveoli), diaphragm
-when air enters through the nose, dust and smoke particles are filtered
-the nasal passages warm and moisten the air
-the trachea divides into two bronchi
-each bronchus enters a lung and further divides into bronchioles
-the bronchioles have minute air sacs at their ends

8|Page
Transport systems compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

9|Page
Transport system in plants

The internal structure of the dicotyledonous plant root

The internal structure of a dicotyledonous plant stem

Functions of the internal structures of the plant root and stem

1. Xylem – for water and mineral transport in plants

2. Phloem –for food transport within the plant
3. Cambium –separates the xylem and phloem
4. Epidermis –for absorption and protection
5. Cortex –for diffusion of water and mineral salts to the vascular bundles and storage of
food and water

10 | P a g e
 6. Root hair-are the finger-like outgrowths which increases surface area for absorption
of water and mineral salts

Osmosis

-is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of
their low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane

-this the process which helps plants get water from the soil

Water uptake by plants

-root hairs and the roots have cells which have vacuoles filled with cell sap
-the sap is a solution of mineral salts
-therefore, there is less water concentration in the root hairs and the roots than in the soil
-water moves from the soil around the root hairs into their cells’ vacuoles where there is high
concentration of cell sap and low water concentration
-concentration of cell sap increases across root cortex towards the xylem at the centre of the
roots
-the xylem then takes water up the stem
The active transport
-is the movement of ion particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration, against a concentration gradient.
-mineral salts move from the soil where they are less concentrated, towards the root hair
vacuoles where there is high concentration of cell sap
-it requires energy to move against concentration gradient
-the energy is obtained from cell respiration
-it is an opposing movement to osmosis
Transport in mammals

The heart

11 | P a g e
Labels:
1. Vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. Left ventricle
6. Left atrium
7. Pulmonary vein
8. Aorta
9. Pulmonary artery
bicuspid valve
semi-lunar valve

Main blood vessels to and from the heart

1.Vena cava
-carries blood with less oxygen from the body to the heart
-it is in two branches: (a) superior vena cava (b) inferior vena cava
(a) superior vena cava
-brings in blood from the head to the heart
(b) inferior vena cava
-brings in blood from the legs to the heart
2. Pulmonary vein
-carries blood with more oxygen to the heart from the lungs
3. Pulmonary artery
-carries away blood with less oxygen from the heart to the lungs
4. Aorta
-the largest artery in the body which carries blood with more oxygen from the heart to the rest
of the body

Functions of the heart

-receiving and pumping of blood around the body

___________________________________________________________________________

Reproduction systems : compiled by Mr Musona ZPCS 30/12/2017 Kadoma

The internal structure of dicotyledonous plant seed (bean)

Bean seed external structure

12 | P a g e
Monocotyledon plant seed (maize)

-germination is the beginning of growth in a plant

-the embryo (plumule and radicle) grows into a new plant
-bean seed has two cotyledons (first leaves) where food is stored
-maize seed has one small cotyledon
-food in a maize seed is stored in the endosperm

Flowering plants

Structure of wind pollinated plant flower

13 | P a g e
-has long stamen sticking out loosely at the tip of the filament
-has small, dull-coloured and less attractive flower
-does not produce nactor
-the anthers produce large quantities of tiny, light, smooth and dry pollen which can easily be
blown by wind
-the anthers are big and higher than stigmas
-the stigmas are large and feathery so that they catch any pollen grains blowing past
-examples of wind pollinated plant flowers are: maize plant, grass e.t.c.

Structure of insect pollinated plant flower

14 | P a g e
-has large colourful petals
-produce scent and nector
-has sticky stigma
-has small anthers
-has large coarse, spiky pollen and few in number
-the reproductive parts are enclosed in colourful petals
-examples of insect pollinated plant flowers are: bean plant, rose flower, orchid plant e.t.c
-a group of petals is called corolla
-a group of sepals are called calyx
Functions of parts of a flower
1. Anther
-a male sex organ which produces pollen grains
-pollen grains are the male sex cells
2. Filament
-is also part of male sex organ for flowers which holds the anther on proper position
For pollination
2. Stigma
-the female sex organ which collects pollen grains from anthers
4. Style
-also female sex organ for flowering plants which holds the stigma in position up and
Allows the pollen tube to grow down to the ovary
5. Nectary
-produces nectar which attracts insects
6. Sepals
-protects the flower when it is still in the bud (the unopened flower)
7. Petals
-coloured or scented to attract insects or birds
8. Ovary
-contains the ovules

15 | P a g e
9. Ovules
- the female sex cells
Reproduction system in human

Male reproductive system

1. Prostate gland
-secretes an alkaline fluid that protects sperms from damage by male urethral and
vaginal acids

2. Sperm
-is the male sex cells
3. Testes
-produces the sperms and secretes the hormones which make boys change in their
Bodies at puberty stage e.g. testosterone
4. Sperm duct
-are tubes through which sperms reach the urethra from the testes
5. Urethra
-is a tube which stretches from the bladder through which urine and sperms pass out
6. Penis
-the male reproductive sex organ for ejaculating sperms and passing out urine

Female reproductive system

1. Ovary
-produce female sex hormones, progesterone and oestrogen
-produce,store and release the female sex cells, the ova (plural) or ovum (single)
2. Uterus
-it is where implantation of a fertilized ova occurs and the embryo grows
3. Cervix

16 | P a g e
 -is the opening of the uterus
4. vagina
-receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the birth canal during child birth
5. oviduct
-is the site of fertilization and conducts the ovum to the uterus

___________________________________________________________________________

Health and diseases compiled by Mr Musona 14/12/2017 ZPCS Kadoma

Healthy
-is a state of the body when all its systems are working normally (well-being)
-when the body systems are not working normally, then we talk of diseases
What should we do to remain healthy?
-have balanced diet
-exercise regularly
-need clean air and water
-protection from extremes of weather
-avoid stale food
Causes of diseases
-pathogens
-poisons
-poor nutrition

17 | P a g e
-inherited factors
(1) Pathogens
-these are disease giving organisms, examples:
Kind of pathogen Size Examples of diseases caused
Viruses Less than millionths of a Aids, common cold, flu
millimetre
Bacteria Less than thousandths of a Sore throat, pneumonia
millimetre
Fungi Greater than hundredths of a Ringworm of the skin
millimetre
Protozoa Greater than hundredths of a Sleeping sickness, dysentery
millimetre
Worms Visible to the naked eye Bilharzia, elephantiasis

Bilharzia
-is also known as snail fever or schistosomiasis
-it is caused by worms
-it is a water borne disease
-the parasite may live in any part of the body of the host animal (human)
-if the parasite lives in the brain or heart of the host, death may result
Parasite
-is an organism which depends on another living organism for its food
Symptoms
-itchiness on the skin
-feel tired and weakness after a week
-headaches and nausea
Signs
-may have blood in urine or faeces
Prevention of bilharzia
-avoid contact with infected water
-avoid swimming in rivers
-stop urinating and defecating around water sources and in water
-avoid fishing with feet in water
-avoid washing clothes in rivers
-avoid bathing in rivers
-it can also be controlled through breaking its life cycle
-through educating people on avoiding to get contact with fresh water bodies such as rivers,
ponds and dams which may be contaminated by the parasite
Treatment
-it can be treated using a single dose of praziquantel drug

18 | P a g e
 Life cycle of bilharzia parasite

inside eggs
human host

worms
burrow into free larvae
skin

adult parasite
worms inside snail

__________________________________________________________________________

Chemistry Section compiled by Mr Musona 2017

(1)
Separation methods and applications

1. Filtration

19 | P a g e
Definition: it is a method of separating insoluble solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass

-a mixture of liquid and solid is placed into a filter paper

-the liquid flows through the filter paper into the container
-the liquid in the container is called filtrate
-the remaining solid in the filter paper inserted into a funnel is called the residue

Application of filtration in our daily lives

1 It is used in vacuum cleaners
-dust-filled air is passed through a filtering bag inside the machine
-solid particles are trapped within the bag while clean air passes out through the machine
2 In motor vehicles

20 | P a g e
-dirt particles are filtered from fuels by filters to avoid choking of the engines
3 In water treatment
-solid dirt particles are trapped by sand filled tanks before chemicals are added to purify
water before pumped to the consumers

2. Winnowing
-used to separate solid dry substances of different weights
Application of winnowing in our daily lives
-it is used when grain is separated from chuff
-chuff weighs less and is blown away by wind living grain in the dropping container
-this method uses wind as medium for separation

3. Magnetism
-is the ability to attract other materials
Application of magnetism in our daily lives
-it used to separate metallic objects from grain at the grinding mills

4. Evaporation
-a method used to separate soluble substances from solutions using their chemical and
physical properties

21 | P a g e
-it is used to collect a soluble solid (solute) from the solvent
NB. Avoid heating directly over burner since the heat may cause the crystals not form well.

Application in the industry

-used in the manufacture of salt

5. Simple distillation
-used in recovering solvent from a solute
-it has two aspects of evaporation at boiling point followed by condensation

Application in the industry

-used in the purification of drinking water e.g. producing fresh water from sea water

22 | P a g e
6. Fractional distillation
-used in the separation of a mixture of miscible liquids
-the separation is achieved by having various out-let pipes at different heights along the
column

Application in industry
-in the separation of crude oil

Matter
-is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space)
Mass
-the measure of amount of matter in a substance
Concentration

23 | P a g e
-is the amount of solute that is dissolved in a solvent
Solvent
-is a liquid that allows substances to dissolve in it
Solute
-is a substance that dissolves in a solvent
Determining the concentrations of solutions
-it can be done when the solute and the solvent in a solution are identified
-solutes can be solids, gases or other liquids
-units of concentration are: g/cm3or kg/l [mass of solute per volume of solvent]
Dilution
-is a solution that is made by adding more solvent to a solution of known concentration
Experiments

Experiment 1:0
Aim
To prepare a set of dilute solutions

Materials
Ø Four large beakers
Ø Dye
Ø Water
Ø Glass rod
Procedure
· Label the four beakers (A;B;Cand D)
· Pour about 50ml of water into the beaker A
· Add five drops of dye to the water
· Stir the liquid using a glass rod until all the water is coloured [a solution of the dye
has been made]
· Pour about 5ml of the prepared solution into beaker B
· Add water to beaker B until the water level rises to the 50ml mark [the solution will
have been diluted ten times]
· Compare the solutions in beaker A and B
· Use beaker B solution to repeat pouring into a further container C about 5ml of that
solution and pour the water until it reaches the 50ml mark [solution diluted further
ten times]

24 | P a g e