Magnetic particle testing : Magnetic particle testing is a non destructive testing method for

detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. *

Applicable only to : * ferromagnetic materials, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their
magnetic alloys.* Detection sensitivity diminishes rapidly with depth.* If the
flaw is deeper, it must be larger to produce indication.* Deeper flaws produce
broad and fuzzy indication which require careful interpretation.
Magnetic particle testing :detection of ‘surface and sub surface’ flaws [ depth of
detection depends on the type and size of the flaw ]
Leakage field above the flaws collects and hold magnetic particles to form
caterpillar like visible indication pattern.
Discontinuities at or near the surface produce magnetic leakage field on the surface
:Magnetic flux in a magnetized part pass through the body of the part.
Discontinuities at or near the surface of the part disturb the normal flow of
magnetic flux and leakage flux fields are produced on the surface above the
discontinuities. These leakage fields attract iron particles and are detected by
applying iron powders.
Leakage field :flaws at or near the surface of a magnetized part produces leakage
field at the surface which is detected by sprinkling iron powders.
Magnetic lines of force is entirely within the part for a flawless specimen.
Leakage field :flaws at or near the surface of a magnetized part produces leakage
field at the surface which can be detected by sprinkling iron powders.
Detection of leakage field :Finely divided iron particles are used for detection of
leakage field. Leakage field at the surface collects and hold the iron particles
together to form visible indication patterns.

Flaws at or near the surface disturb

the magnetic flux flow and produce
leakage field at surface above the
flaw.
Magnetic particle build up at the
leakage field produces recognizable
patterns which are interpreted.
Color of the particles must be
chosen to provide adequate contrast
against the part’s natural color.
Surface discontinuities produce strong leakage field, which produces sharp
indications, which are easy to recognize.
Sub surface discontinuities produce wide and fuzzy
indications, which are difficult to recognize as the depth of the discontinuities
increases. Thus there is a loss of sensitivity with increasing depth from the
surface.
 Magnetized : Particles applied :
Magnetic particle testing : leakage field produced by tight cracks are indicated by
accumulation of
colored dry particles.
Flaw depth to width ratio for good detection sensitivity flaws should be deeper than
the opening.

For detection sensitivity, the depth of the flaw should be at least 3 times
deeper than the surface roughness of the part.
For good detection sensitivity the ratio of
width: depth: length should be : 1 : 5 : 10
Test Process :1. A suitable technique of magnetization is chosen.2. The part is
magnetized in the desired direction. 3. While the magnetizing field is present,
iron powders are applied dry or wet. 4. Iron powders bridge the leakage
fields, if present, to produce indications.5. Powder patterns produced by
flaws are identified and accept reject decision is made.
Advantages :* Detects flaws up to ¼ inch below the surface. [ not the ultimate
limit ]* Detects flaws filled with foreign matter.* Detects cracks below plating or
paint.* Immediate indication.* Testing possible up to 3000C part temp using dry
powders.* Indications can be recorded.
Limitations :
* Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
* Limited depth of detection.
* Depth or size of flaw not indicated.
* Sensitivity varies with test surface position and roughness.
* Sensitivity diminishes rapidly with depth.
Magnetic Field Strength :Magnetic field is produced by Magnetic lines of
force.* Lines of force is known as Flux.* Unit of flux is weber.
* 1 line of flux is 1 weber.
* Flux per unit area is flux density
and is measured in Gauss.* 1 Gauss is 1 line of flux per sq Cm.* 104
Gauss is 1 Tesla [ 108 lines per sq meter ]
Magnetic behavior :
A magnet has two poles. North and South poles.Opposite poles attract each
other. Like poles repel.
Magnets :A bar magnet has a magnetic field within and around.The Magnet has
two poles. Magnetic field is strongest near the poles. The field runs along the
length of the magnet and is known as longitudinal field.

The field strength decreases with distance

from the poles.
Magnetic field seeks the path of least
magnetic resistance.
The flux lines form a closed loop and they
do not cross each other.
Number of lines per unit area is the
strength of the field and is a measure of
flux density.
Ferromagnetic materials have domains. Domains are smallest known permanent
magnets. A domain has one South and one North pole. When the poles are aligned
under the influence of an external magnetic field, the material behave as a magnet
and attracts other ferromagnetic materials. When all domains are aligned, the
material becomes magnetically saturated.
Magnetic lines of force around a Bar Magnet revealed by sprinkling iron powders
around the magnet. Dense lines indicate strong magnetic field.
Longitudinal & Circular Magnetic field : A Bar magnet has
Longitudinal magnetic field.A Ring magnet has Circular
magnetic field.
Magnetic field of a Bar magnet :Flux lines have a direction, inside the magnet they
travel from the South pole to the North pole and outside they travel from the North
pole to the South pole.
If a Bar magnet is bent into ‘ U ‘ shape, the poles still remain.
Bar magnet being formed into a Ring :
If a bar magnet is shaped into a ring, the magnetic flux lines concentrate
at the gap between the poles.
If iron powders are sprinkled on the ring, particles will be collected at the
ends.
Magnetized Ring :
If a bar magnet is formed into a ring, and the ends are fused, the poles vanish and
the field becomes circular and remains within the ring.
If iron powders are sprinkled on the ring, there is very little attraction of the
particles.
Circular field exhibit no poles.
Surface discontinuities in a magnetized ring produce leakage
fields : A crack at the surface of a magnetized ring produces leakage field which

attracts and accumulate ferromagnetic particles.

Field direction for flaw detection : For maximum detection sensitivity the magnetic
field should be 900 to the major dimension of the flaw. However magnetic field
direction up to 450 to the major dimension may produce detectable indications.
Flaw orientation to the magnetic field : magnetic field 45 - 900 to the major dimension
of the flaw produces leakage fields of varying strength. Field parallel to the flaw
does not produce leakage field. A second magnetization direction, 90 0 to the first
applied field is required.
Flaw orientation to the magnetic field : magnetic field 45 - 900 to the major dimension
of the flaw produces leakage
field. Field parallel to the flaw does not produce leakage field.
Field direction for flaw detection : To produce a leakage field, magnetic field must
intercept between 450 to 900 to the major dimension of the flaw.

A 900 magnetic field

produces stronger
indication.
A 450 magnetic field
produces weaker
indication.
A parallel magnetic
field produces no
leakage and no
indication.
Magnetizing direction :Ideal
magnetic field direction is 900 to
the major dimension of the
discontinuity.
Magnetizing direction :A longitudinal magnetic field will detect the crack on
this weld. Circular field may produce very weak or no indication.
Magnetizing direction and detectable discontinuities :
Magnetizing direction and detectable discontinuities :
Magnetizing Current :Types of current used to magnetize a part are ;
Alternating CurrentHalf wave rectified Direct CurrentFull wave
rectified Direct CurrentThree phase rectified Direct Current[ for
generating very high currents > 3000 amps ]
Alternating Current [ AC ] :This is the common supply current to the Industry.This
current continuously reverses direction [ Positive and Negative transition ] hence it
is known as alternating current. When a part is magnetized by alternating current,
the magnetic field remains near the surface. This is known as SKIN EFFECTFor
50 Cycles AC, field penetration is within 1 mm. Hence, alternating Current is used
for detection of surface flaws only and provides maximum sensitivity for such
flaws in combination with wet particles.Alternating current is extensively used for
demagnetization of parts.
Half wave rectified Direct Current [ HWDC ] :When alternating current is
rectified, the negative transition is blocked and current flows in one direction
only. This is current known as HWDC.HWDC penetrates deeper in the part
and is used for detection of surface and sub-surface defects. HWDC is
pulsating in nature and is very suitable for detection of deeper defects using
dry particles.
Full wave rectified Direct Current [ FWDC ] :When the negative transition is
inverted to positive transition by rectification, all the current flow in one
direction only. This current known as FWDC and is used for generating very
high currents[ > 6000 amps ].FWDC penetrates deeper in the part but is not
pulsating, hence this current is less suitable for use with dry particles.FWDC is
used for detection of surface and sub-surface defects.
Magnetizing a part :Circular magnetization.Produced by
passing current through a part
A conductor carrying electric current has a
magnetic field around it which is 900 to the
direction of current flow :
The magnetic field is 900 to
the direction of current flow :
Right Hand Rule :for determining the direction of magnetic flux flow.

* If a conductor carrying
current is grabbed as
shown in the picture.
* If the thumb points
towards the direction of
current flow [ + to –
terminal ] then the
fingers shows the direction
of the magnetic flux lines.
The above right hand rule
is based on current flow
theory
Left Hand Rule : Based on electron flow for
determining the direction of magnetic flux flow. In this
case, the thumb is to be pointed towards the direction of electron flow, I. E. from
negative to positive terminal.
For a given current flowthe
magnetic field strength is uniform
throughout the length of the
conductor. Test sensitivity is same
throughout the length of the
conductor.
Magnetic field around a conductor
revealed by iron powders :
A current carrying conductor
produces a circular magnetic field.
The circular Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor revealed by iron
powders :
Circular magnetic field :can be established by passing current directly through a
long part.

Passing Current
through the part
produces circular
field around the part.
The field strength is
maximum at the
surface and uniform
throughout the
length.
Magnetic field
strength reduces to
zero at the center of
the part.
Circular field can be
used to detect
lengthwise defects.
Circular magnetic field :can be established by passing current directly through a
long part. Flaws along the length of the part can be detected by this technique.
Detectable flaw orientations for circularly magnetized part : must be 450 to 900 to the
magnetic field.
A long part can be circularly magnetized by passing current along the length of
the part in a head shot machine.
A current is passed through an axle to produce circular magnetization.
Lengthwise discontinuities can be detected by this technique.
If a current is passed through an axle to produce circular magnetization,
Field strength is maximum at the surface. At the center, field strength is
zero.
If a current is passed through a hollow conductor, the inside of the bore is not
magnetized and can not be tested.
Central conductor :For magnetizing the inside surface of a cylindrical
part.Field strength is maximum at the inside surface.

A central/offset
conductor is used to
magnetize the inside
bore of a hollow part.
Flaws at the outer
surface may be detected
if the wall thickness of
the part is not large.
Strength of the magnetic
field reduces with
distance between the
conductor and the inner
surface, hence for large
part, conductor must be
close to the inside wall.
Central conductor :For magnetizing the inside surface of a cylindrical
part.Field strength is maximum at the inside surface.

The circular field around

the central conductor is
collected at the inside
surface of the bore.
This method is called
indirect magnetization.
Central conductor :For magnetizing the
inside surface of a cylindrical part.
Field strength is maximum at the
inside surface.
Central conductor :A central conductor producing a surface indication
on a thin wall tubing. Central conductor detects inside flaws and
outside flaws also if the tube wall is not very thick.
Crack detected by central conductor magnetization : When the wall thickness is not large,
longitudinal defects at the outside surface are also indicated.
Magnetizing a part :Longitudinal
magnetization can be achieved,1. By a coil2.
By permanent magnet3. By electromagnets
A loop produces longitudinal field : If a current carrying wire
is formed into a loop the magnetic field threads the opening of the loop.
The field is longitudinal.
Magnetic field of a single turn loop :field distribution revealed by iron powders.
When a linear part is placed inside the loop, a
lengthwise field is induced on it.
Magnetic field strength increases with number of turns and the magnitude of the current
flow.
Magnetic field of solenoid :Solenoid is a coil with many loops. field strength
increases with number of turns and the current flowing through it. Magnetic field
strength is expressed in Ampere – Turns. When a linear part is placed inside the
loop, a lengthwise field is induced on it.
For a coil, Magnetic field strength is maximum at the inside surface and reduces towards
the center.
Magnetic field of a multi turn coil shown by iron powders.
When a Ferro magnetic material is placed within the coil, strong longitudinal
magnetic field is induced in the material:
A long part can be tested by placing it within a coil.
Because the field is longitudinal, only flaws along the circumference will be
detected.
Lengthwise flaws can not be detected by this technique.
Magnetic field of a multi turn coil :
Magnetic field of a multi turn coil :
Detectable flaw orientations for coil magnetization.
Magnetic field of a multi turn coil :
Coil method for longitudinal magnetization in the part :

In coil method Selection of

current is based on
NI = 45000/(L/D)
N denotes Number of turns in
the coil
L denotes Length of the
material
D denotes diameter of the
specimen
For example 16 inch long bar
with 2 inch OD and 5 turn coil,
the current required is
5I = 45000/(16/2)
or I = 1125 Amperes
Longitudinal magnetization detects circumferential flaws.

* When using the formula

NI = 45000 / (L/D), the following
conditions apply;
* Part diameter should be within
10% of the coil opening and the
part must be placed near the
inside wall of the coil where the
field strength is maximum.
* L shall be maximum 18 inches
* Test length shall be 9 inches on
either side of the coil. For long
parts, testing shall be performed
18 inches at a time.
Increasing the L / D ratio.
Circumferential crack detection in long parts :

By using longitudinal
magnetization in coil method
any indication which is
circumferential produces
strongest indication
Magnetic field is zero at the
center, maximum at the inside
wall.
Any object which is more than
18 inches need more than one
shot of magnetization.l
Current selection is determined
by
NI = 45000/(L/D)
 Smaller parts whose length
predominates,can be
magnetized in a small
portable coil operating
directly from mains.
L / D ratio should be
3 or more.

Portable coil magnetization :small coils of different diameter can be made and
operated directly from the mains supply.
Magnetic Particles are:Finely divided iron powders, colored to provide contrast
against the part surface.Dry powders - used dry, good for sub surface flaws.Wet
powders - used as suspended, good for surface flaws. Powders must have : High
permeability [ easily magnetized ]Low retentivity [ does not remain magnetized ]
Non toxic [ relatively harmless to the user ]Powders are available asVisible -
viewed under ordinary light.Fluorescent type – viewed under ultraviolet light.
Magnetic Particles :Are packed in different forms;Dry powdersCoarse or Fine
particles to be used dry.Wet powders as particles to be suspended in carrier.as
paste or concentrates with wetting agent and corrosion inhibitors, to be mixed
thoroughly with the carrier.
Dry Particles :colored to provide contrast with the part’s natural surface.

Require clean and dry surface.

Good on rough surface.
Fine powders are used on vertical or
overhead surface.
Coarse powders are used on horizontal
surface and provide maximum
sensitivity to subsurface flaws. Dry
particles require mobility and is used
with pulsating current, AC & HWDC.
Sensitivity to subsurface flaws much
more than wet powders when applied to
the surface by floating with minimum of
motion.
require suitable powder blowers for
correct application.
Fine dry particles may be applied by a rubber puffer but is not easily controlled :
Sensitivity of dry particles depends on technique of application.
A Blower for applying fine dry powders, from
Parker research corpn :
A Crane Hook being tested by an electromagnetic yoke and red dry powder
Powder Blower from Parker research corpn :for efficient application of dry particles.
The head floats the particles using compressed air. Excess dry particles around
the indications can be removed by gentle plain air blast also available from the
blower.
Dry particle flaw indication :Red colored Dry particles formed a crack
indication on the face of a cutter blade.
Wet Powders :colored to provide contrast with the part’s surface.Particles are
fine to be remained in suspension.Black particles are most sensitive.

Wet particles are fine powders to

be suspended in kerosene / water.
Require smooth surface.
High sensitivity to fine surface
cracks.
Sensitivity to subsurface flaws
much less than dry powders.
May require the use of white
contrast paint on normal steel
surface.
Available as visible and
fluorescent powders.
 Fluorescent pigment glowing under UV light
Fluorescent chemicals can be used to enhance the visibility of the magnetic
powders : 1. Florescent pigments are used for coating magnetic powders.2.
Fluorescent materials glow brilliantly under ultraviolet illumination.3. No
contrasting medium is required for fluorescent powders.
Fluorescence enhances the visibility of the indications :
Fluorescent magnetic particles illuminated by an ultraviolet light.
Fluorescent magnetic particle examination requires a darkened examination
area.
Wet suspension application :In stationary machines the suspension is applied to the
parts by a hose with the help of re-circulating motor pump. The suspension is
called bath.
Automatic Wet suspension application :Fluorescent examination can be carried out
in daylight condition under high intensity UV light source.
Fluorescent suspension is being used
during a test :
The particle suspension of required concentration is stored in a tank and is re-circulated by a
pump and a hose. The particle concentration gradually reduces and the suspension gets
contaminated with use :
For manual use in field condition,
Pressurized Can, which can be refilled,
is normally used for wet suspension
application.
Pressurized Cans for wet suspension application in the field :
Aerosol spray Cans with ready
mix black powder suspension
application :
Aerosol Cans with ready mix
fluorescent powder
suspensionapplication :
Wet particle use :
When Kerosene is used as the
suspending medium, Rubber
Gloves for Hand protection is
very necessary. Continuous
exposure to kerosene or
petroleum products causes
serious skin infection.
ASTM Centrifuge :Pear shaped centrifuge tube is used to
check particle concentration in the suspension or bath.

The amount of particle in the suspension is important for

flaw detection.
Low concentration produces weak indication.
High concentration mask flaw indications.
For visible powders 1.2 to 2.4 ml of powder per 100 ml
liquid is recommended.
For fluorescent powders .1 to .5 ml of powder per 100 ml
liquid is recommended.
Lower concentration may be used on horizontal test
surface.
Higher concentration is required for vertical or overhead
test surface.
The stem of the tube has an
engraved scale which is used to
read the volume of powders
settled out of suspension.
A thoroughly agitated suspension is poured
into the Centrifuge up to the 100 ml mark
and allowed to settle for 30 minutes.The
settled volume is read from the stem.
ASTM Centrifuge & stand :Particles must be allowed to settle undisturbed.
Vibration may compact the settled powder and the reading would be erroneous.
Contamination of fluorescent suspension :Recycled suspension gradually becomes
contaminated during use. Abnormal coloration of the suspension liquid indicates
contamination.Contaminated suspension must be discarded. Indications are not
visible when contaminated suspension is used.
Magnetized ring [ MTU 3 ]:for checking relative quality of the suspension.

The ring is pre

magnetized to retain a
residual field.
The liquid suspension
to be tested is flowed
on the surface and the
indications are
compared.
Clarity of indications is
a relative measure of
bath quality.
Fluorescent indications
of the cracks are visible
on the ring.
MTU 3 ring for testing wet particle suspension
Accumulation of wet suspension can produce false indications and mask weak
indications.
Accumulation of wet suspension can produce false indications and mask weak
indications.
Magnetized ring [ MTU 3 ]:for checking relative quality of the suspension after
hours of use.
Visibility of indications :Color of the test surface may not provide adequate contrast
when visible powders are used. Red and Black wet powders do not provide
adequate contrast when natural steel surface is examined.
Visibility of indications :Fluorescent particle indications are examined under
ultraviolet illumination in a darkened condition and does not require contrast
medium. The indications glow in a dark background and are easily seen.
Visibility of indications :Faint Fluorescent particle indications are easily seen.
Visibility of indications :Faint Fluorescent particle indications are easily seen.
Contrast of indications :Application of White paint on the test surface provides
contrast for steel examination when visible powders are used.

Brown-Red and Black particles

provide less contrast while
testing steel.
White contrast paint enhances
the contrast.Small indications
are easily seen.
Fluorescent particles glow in
the dark and do not require
contrast paint.
Ready made quick drying White contrast paint in aerosol cans :
Applying white contrast paint for
weld examination.
White contrast paint applied
on welds for magnetic particle
examination.
Performing examination on white contrast paint.
Crack indication on a valve body casting. Black indications on white contrast
paint is easy to see.
White contrast paint enhances the indications on otherwise blackish part
background.
Cracks indicated by black particles on white
paint. High particle concentration produces
black patches.
Magnetizing Equipments :Stationary Horizontal Unitsthis machine uses a combination
of Current flow [ circular ] and Coil [ longitudinal ] method of magnetization. A re-
circulating particle suspension is applied to the part using a hose and a pump. The
machine provides AC and HWDC with high currents. Standard lights for visible
particle and ultraviolet lights for fluorescent particle examination are provided in the
machine.Prod UnitsThese are portable high current sources and use a pair of prods
[ electrodes ] to circularly magnetize a local area of a part by current flow method.
Permanent Magnets Use a pair of very strong permanent magnets to introduce a
longitudinal magnetic field in a local area of a part.Electromagnetic YokesUse an
electrically energized coil to magnetize a C- Shaped laminated adjustable core, which
is used to introduce the magnetic field in the local area of a part.
Stationary Horizontal units are used with wet particles. Supplies both AC and
HWDC adjustable current. Has built in visible light as well as ultraviolet lights
for fluorescent examination. A re-circulating pump supplies the particle bath
through a hose.

Other features ;
Two Contact heads, one fixed
and the other is movable to
accommodate the test part.
Coil for longitudinal
magnetization.
High current capability.
Foot switch for current trigger.
May be used to Demagnetize.
Stationary Horizontal units are used with wet particles. Supplies both AC and
HWDC adjustable current. Has built in visible light as well as ultraviolet lights for
fluorescent examination. A re-circulating pump supplies the particle bath through a
hose.

Other features ;
* Two Contact heads, one
fixed and the other is
movable to accommodate
the test part.
* Coil for longitudinal
magnetization.
* High current capability.
* Foot switch for current
trigger.
* May be used to
Demagnetize.
Stationary Horizontal units :Contact heads may use lead liner for improving
contact. A nozzle and hose is used for applying suspension.
Stationary Horizontal units :Heads also use copper braids for uniform contact.
Contact Heads :For passing current through the part.
Contact heads lined with lead for improving electrical contact. It also has
support for the test part.
Stationary Horizontal units : In addition to contact, the heads may contain coils
such that the heads can be used as yokes for longitudinal magnetization of parts.
Stationary Horizontal units :Foot switches are used to activate the magnetizing
current.
Coil magnetization :A Coil is provided on the stationary magnetizing unit for
longitudinal magnetization of parts. The coil may be of 5 turns.
The Coil
Components in the stationary unit :
Heads and coil for magnetizing part
Rollers for positioning coil and rotating cylindrical part
Grid for draining liquid in to the storage tank
The coil in the unit is heavy. A trolley supports the coil and help to position at the desired
location.
The coil which is used in the stationary horizontal unit. The base is fixed to the roller
support. The supply connections are removed from the heads and connected to the
copper pads of the coil.
Roller support for fixing and positioning the coil. Roller support for rotating
cylindrical parts during examination.
Attachments for the Contact Heads for holding different types of test parts during the
examination.
Small part fixing adapters :to be attached to main contact heads for holding
small diameter parts and for passing current through them.
Motor Pump for re-circulating the particle suspension through the hose :
Mobile Pump and tank system for applying re-circulated particle suspension through a
hose :
Bath Circulating Pump, high current generating main Transformer and control Electronics
in the stationary horizontal unit :
UV lighting system in a
Stationary magnetizing unit :
The Coil and the small part adapters mounted on the Stationary Horizontal unit :
Central conductors for magnetizing inside diameter of hollow parts: Copper and
Aluminum rods of different diameters are generally used as central conductors.
Steel rods can be used but heating effect and electrical resistance will increase
the load on the machine.For a given current and rod diameter, magnetic field
distribution outside any electrical conductor is same.
The Central conductor arrangement :
The Central conductor magnetization of hollow parts.
Head shot unit for small parts :
The braided contact Heads of the small horizontal machine :
Prod magnetizing units : A low voltage, high current transformer for magnetizing local
area of large parts. Provides maximum sensitivity for sub surface defects when
HWDC and dry method is used. Major problem Arc Burn at the prod contact points.
Prod magnetizing units :During use, current can be switched On or Off by the
remote control switch and is used to minimize arcing at the contact points.
Mobile magnetizing Power Units :For 3000 Amps and above for field use.
Mobile Magnetizing Power Units :For 6000 Amps and above on
shop floor use.
Mobile Magnetizing Power Units :For 6000 Amps and above.
Permanent magnet :A pair of strong permanent magnets, separate or mounted in an
adjustable fixture can be used to produce local magnetization in a part. Magnets
produce steady longitudinal field, which does not contribute to particle mobility,
therefore less sensitive for detection of sub surface flaws. Field strength can not
controlled easily.

Permanent magnets are used

when electric current can not
be used.
Wet particles are normally
used with this magnet.
Inspection area is centrally 1
inch dia between the poles.
Qualifying Lifting power 40
lbs or 18.1 kg.
Useful when the flaw locations
are known.
Electromagnetic Yokes :A laminated soft iron C shaped core is magnetized within a
coil and is used to introduce magnetizing field in the part. AC and HWDC
magnetization are generally used. Yoke eliminates electric arcing problem of the
direct current flow methods.
AC / DC Electromagnetic Yoke :A laminated soft iron C shaped core is magnetized
within a coil. The leg spacing is adjustable.
The Electromagnetic Yoke is switched on from a push switch.:
Yoke in use with wet particle aerosol spray can :
Electromagnetic Yokes from Parker :for AC or HWDC local longitudinal
magnetization of a part.AC is used for surface and HWDC for sub surface. AC
operating mode can be used for demagnetizing operation.
Electric yokes use coils wound on
C shaped laminated soft iron core.
Opening of the core [ leg ] is
adjustable.
Magnetizing field switches off
with the current.
Required lifting power, 4.5 kg AC
and 18.1 kg DC.
Recommended Pole spacing
3 to 8 inches.
Detects surface and sub surface
flaws.
Induced Current magnetization :for rings shaped parts using AC or DC surge current
to produce a torroidal magnetic field. The ring is used as a short circuit
secondary in a transformer arrangement. Discontinuities along the ring are
indicated.
Induced Current magnetization :for rings shaped parts using AC or DC surge current
to produce a torroidal magnetic field. The ring is used as a short circuit
secondary in a transformer arrangement. Discontinuities along the ring are
indicated.
A fixture forInduced
Current magnetization :
for annular discs such as
rotary cutters, DC surge
current is used to produce a
residual circular magnetic
field.Radial discontinuities
on the face the disc can be
detected.
Chain Testing :by coil
magnetizationusing
Fluorescent particles as
detecting medium.
Magnetizing Techniques :Head shot magnetization [ Circular magnetization by passing
current through the part ]Coil magnetization [ Longitudinal magnetization by placing the
part within the coil ]Central conductor [ to magnetize the inside bore of hollow parts ]
Prod method [ Circular magnetization of local area of a part ]Permanent magnet
[ Longitudinal magnetization of local area ]Electric yokes [ Longitudinal magnetization
of local area ] Induced current magnetization [ for ring shaped parts ]
Head shot magnetization uses AC, HWDC and high current FWDC for circular
magnetization. Current is passed from one end to the other end. 12 to 32 Amps
per mm of cross section diameter is recommended. This technique detects
lengthwise discontinuities.
Head shot machine for long / heavy parts :Long parts are tested in 12”
increments.If there is difference in cross section,currents applicable to each cross
section is used in ascending order.
Current flow in the conductor produces circular field.
Applicable current 12 – 32 Amps per mm diameter for a circular part.
If there is difference in cross section,currents applicable to each cross section is
used in ascending order.
Head shot machine for long / heavy parts : Axle testing using high intensity UV flood lamp
under day light condition.
An axle surface is being scanned with an UV hand lamp :
An axle under examination using ‘Head Shot ‘ magnetization :
[ Circular magnetization ]
Coil magnetization of the axle :
[ longitudinal magnetization ]
Crack Indication [ fluorescent ] at the head of a bolt produced by head shot circular
magnetization :
Testing in a head shot machine : Generally, the suspension is applied when the
magnetizing current is flowing. This is known as continuous method. For
retentive parts suspension may be applied after switching off the current. This is
residual method and is less sensitive.
Rotor cracks :Revealed by head shot technique [ circular magnetization ]Fin
indications at the left are non relevant.
Rotor cracks :
detected by head shot
circular
magnetization.
Central conductor magnetization :Passing current directly through a hollow part does not
magnetize the inside bore. A conductor running through the bore is used to
magnetize the inside surface of ring shaped and hollow parts.

Current is passed through a

conductor which is placed
along the hole of the part
thereby producing a circular
magnetic field along the
inside circumference of the
part.
This technique detects flaws
at the inside surface and
outside surface also if the
part is not too thick.
Current to be selected is 12
to 32 Amps per mm outside
diameter of the part.
Central conductor magnetization :
Central conductor magnetization : A gear being
tested by central conductor magnetization.
Crack detected by central conductor magnetization : A central conductor or a flexible
cable can be used to magnetize this part
Central Conductor magnetization :[ in this case, conductor is offset ]. Used for testing
Nuts, Rings and hollow Cylindrical parts.
Close up view of central conductor magnetization : [ in this case, conductor is
offset ].
Crack indications [ marked by white circles ] produced by central conductor
Magnetization :Magnetized by a cable through the hole.
Cracks around the holes[ within red marks ] revealed by central conductor magnetizing
technique :white contrast used to enhance the indications.
A helical spring can be tested by central conductor magnetization.
Using a coil [ low fill factor ] :Coil may be large or small and have 3 to 5 turns.

For a coil, Flux density is maximum near the inside surface of the
coil.Smaller parts are to be positioned near the inside wall of a large coil.
Coil magnetization of small parts [ low fill factor ]: When length predominates.
Coil magnetization of small parts :When
length predominates.A part can be
longitudinally magnetized by placing it
within a coilCurrent I is NI =
45,000/ [ L / D ]N number of turns in
coilL length of the part[ max 18” ]D
diameter of the part.For long parts, test
is carried out with increments of 18”
Close up view of coil magnetization :
Coil magnetization by flexible cables : A flexible Cable can be wrapped around a part
to produce local longitudinal magnetization. The current may be taken from a
prod machine.
Coil magnetization by flexible cables : Cable
wrapped around the Lug for longitudinal
magnetization.
Flexible cable being used for magnetizing a crane hook :
Prod magnetization machines :A transformer provides the current and a pair of
prods are used to pass current and produce local circular magnetization in the
part.
Prod contacts and remote control switch : A pair of prod contacts for single handed
operation. The current carrying cables are to be screwed into the terminals.
Copper Prod contacts and remote control switch :
Copper Prod contacts and accessories :
Braids for Copper Prod contacts for minimizing arc burn :
Prod magnetic field :Circular magnetic field generated by prod contacts are revealed
by sprinkling iron powder.
Prod technique of magnetization :
Prod placement for weld testing :
Prod placement for weld testing :
A prod unit detected a crack on a welded test plate : Dry powder indication on white
contrast paint.
A Flat coil attachment for prod units for longitudinal magnetization of small parts : Very
useful for testing fasteners like parts.
A Split coil attachment for prod units for longitudinal magnetization of ends of tubular
parts :Useful for detection of lamination at pipe ends. The ends snap fit to form a
multiple turn continuous loop.
Cable Clamps for prod units for hands free operation :
The ends snap fit to form a multiple
turn continuous loop.
A C-shaped strong permanent magnet can be used to produce longitudinal magnetization in a
local area of a part :
The permanent magnet contains two very powerful magnets fixed in an adjustable fixture.
Permanent Magnets :Crack on a plate surface detected by permanent magnets.
Permanent Magnets :A pair of strong
permanent magnets, such as Neodymium –
Iron - Boron, suitably mounted, is useful for
detecting surface cracks on Ferro magnetic
parts.
Permanent Magnets :A pair of
strong permanent magnets, such as
Neodymium – Iron - Boron,
suitably mounted, is useful for
detecting surface cracks on ferro
magnetic parts.
A surface crack detected by a permanent magnet.
A section of a part can be locally magnetized by placing two strong magnets of
opposite poles 3 to 8 inches apart.
Dry powder indication :A Corner Crack detected by the magnets using red dry
powder.
The electric yoke set:Yokes can be powered by mains or a
battery.
Controls of electromagnetic yoke.
A coil system generates the magnetic field in the core.
The coil is wound around the core.
Magnetic field of yoke :produce a longitudinal magnetic field between the poles and
radial field at the poles. A single pole can be used to introduce a radial field.
Magnetic field of
yoke :produce
longitudinal magnetic field
between the poles and
leakage field for surface
and near surface defects.
Test bar for checking lifting power of yokes : A yoke is qualified by its weight lifting
power.
A Yoke test bar with an artificial crack : Can be used to check the performance of an
yoke.
Test piece for yokes :Small holes drilled at different depth [ 1 to 6 mm hole centers
] from the surface is used to check the sensitivity of the Yoke – Particles
combination.
Indications from the holes by HWDC magnetization.
Yoke in use for testing weld:
Testing a crane hook with dry powder.
Testing a gear with dry powder.
Yoke in use for testing a T
joint.
Channel testing using an Yoke :
Welded Channel testing using an Yoke :
Axle testing using an Yoke :
Weld testing with yoke :white contrast paint applied on the weld to
improve the contrast of indications.
Weld testing with yoke :white contrast paint applied on the weld to improve the
contrast of indications.
Wire rope coupling testing with yoke :white contrast paint applied on the weld to
improve the contrast of the indications.
Castings being tested with an yoke :white contrast paint applied on the
weld to improve the contrast of
Castings being tested with an yoke :white contrast paint applied on the
weld to improve the contrast of
To detect flaws of all orientation, Yoke is to be placed twice in
every test area, 900 to each other :
Yoke in use :testing a crankshaft. AC is preferred for this application because
of irregular contour of the part.
Inspection
Booth with
hood for
fluorescent
examination
and a de -
magnetizing
tunnel for
small parts.
Unit for multidirectional magnetization of small / long parts :
Discontinuity Indications :The interruption of normal physical structure in
the material is defined as discontinuity. Any discontinuity which is identified as
not acceptable is a defect. The build up of iron powder attracted by a leakage
field causes indication. Indications are classified as Linear or Rounded, based on
the formation of powder pattern.
Network of cracks [ wet fluorescent method ]:
Crack :
Crack indications using Fluorescent powders :
Crack indications using black powders :
Crack indication on a rolled bar
The crack on the rolled bar.
Crack indications using Fluorescent powders :
Crack indications
at nozzle weld :
Crack indications using
Fluorescent powders :
A large Crack indication on a weld :
Crack indications on forged steering wheel :Black & white image.
Casting cracks :
Casting cracks :
Crack indications on crane hook :
Crane Hook & crack indication:
Crack detected on a crane hook :
Crack detected on a crane hook :
Crack indications on a crank shaft.
Crack detected on a cast part.
Crack detected on a machined part.
Yoke placement for a weld.
Yoke positioned on the weld.
A Cross yoke for one step magnetization.
Gear & crack indication :
Cracks on a gear face.Teeth indications are non relevant.
Central conductor magnetization : Cracks on the face of a ring.Fluorescent
indications/ Black and White photograph.
Central conductor magnetization of rings : Cracks on the rim of a ring.
Fluorescent indications.
Weld cracks detected by brown dry powder as indicator :
Fluorescent indications of weld cracks :
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :yoke magnetization with brown dry powders.
Longitudinal Crack in weld :black powder indication with wet method.
Machined Parts [ Man Hole ] :of a crack, detected by central conductor.
Fluorescent indications on a machined manhole :
Crack Indication :
Fluorescent indications :of a crack, detected by central conductor.Indications
at the base of projections are non relevant indications.
Crack on a connecting rod :Fluorescent indication.
Crack on a connecting rod :Fluorescent indication.
Magnetic particle indication of IGSCC :
Magnetic particle indication :Crack indication on structural revealed by fluorescent
powders.Longitudinal magnetization.
Pipe Ends :Laminar defect on the face of the pipe revealed by fluorescent
powders.
Relevant and Non - relevant Indications :
Relevant indications are
produced by discontinuities
such as the crack.
Non relevant indications are
produced by leakage fields
or discontinuities not
relevant to the examination
such as corners, drilled hole
near the surface etc.
Surface marks which may produce non relevant indications.
Relevant and non-relevant indications :Fluorescent indication.
Relevant and Non - relevant Indications :
Relevant and Non - relevant Indications :
Relevant and Non - relevant Indications :
Relevant and Non - relevant Indications :
Material Failure :
Crack :
Inter Granular Stress Corrosion Cracking :
Forging burst :
Crack revealed after machining :
Crack revealed after machining :
Crack emnating from the hole.
A cracked component :
A cracked component :
A cracked Rail :
Cracks around a bolt hole :
A cracked Ring
:
A cracked component :
A cracked weld :
Test sensitivity :
ASTM Pie Gauge / Field indicator :Indicates qualitative strength of the
magnetizing field.
8 carbon steel triangles are brazed
together.
The brazing deposit being non
magnetic simulates a discontinuity.
Indicates the adequacy of the
Magnetizing field.
Does not indicate test sensitivity.
Pie gauge :Brazing lines are clearly visible.
Pie gauge :Brazing lines are clearly visible.
Brazing lines are covered
with a .010” thick copper
plate. The indications are
checked on the copper face
during check.
A pie gauge is being used with an yoke :Brazing line indications with dry
particles. Adequacy of magnetizing field is indicated by formation of clear
indications
A pie gauge is being used with an yoke :Brazing line indications with dry
particles. Adequacy of magnetizing field is indicated by formation of clear
indications
Fluorescent indications on the Field Indicator :
Castrol stripes :Consists of an iron foil with three slits, sandwiched between two
brass foils.
Indications of the three slits on the castrol strip :
Qualitative Quantity Indicator shims :
Hall effect field meter :for measuring magnetizing and residual fields using a hall
effect electronic sensor.
Hall effect field meter :with sensor and zero field chamber.
Hall effect field meter and accessories :
Reference Magnets for checking field
meter calibration :
Hall effect field meter with sensor :
Coil for De-magnetization :De magnetizing field may be 5000 to 10000
ampere-turns.
Coil De-magnetization :De-magnetizing coil with motorized conveyor
system. The part to be demagnetized is passed through the coil opening while the
alternating current is flowing.
Coil De-magnetization :A connecting rod is passing through the de
magnetizing coil.
Large de-magnetization coil:De-magnetizing coil with conveyor system for
large parts. Field may be up to 10,000 ampere-turns.
Small de-magnetization coil:De-magnetizing coil with conveyor system for
large parts. Field may be up to 10,000 ampere-turns.
Heavy duty de-magnetization unit with round tunnel :
Heavy duty de-magnetization unit with square tunnel :
Inspection and
demagnetizatio
n of small parts:
De-magnetizing
coil attached to
the table.
Residual field meter :is used for
measuring residual magnetic field
before and after demagnetization.
Residual field after De-magnetizing may
be reduced to less than 3 Gauss. Field is
to be measured at corners of the part.
Gauss meter :
Using a Residual field meter :Field is to be measured at the ends and the
corners of the part, where the leakage field is maximum.
Residual field meter :for measuring residual magnetic
field before and after demagnetization.
Demagnetization :by wrapping coil around the part.
Large objects such as a pipe is
difficult to demagnetize.
The residual field may create
arc blow during welding.
In such case, an A,C. de
magnetizing field is applied
simultaneously during the
welding operation.
Ultraviolet light :
100 – 125 watts low power bulbs use internal deep purple coating as
ultraviolet and visible light filter.
High power bulbs. Requires external koop filter.
Koop filters for use with high power ultraviolet lamps.
Koop filters for use with high power ultraviolet lamps.
UV light meter :for qualifying UV light intensity.
UV light meter.
For measurement of
ultraviolet intensity in
µW/Cm2 at the test
surface.
Minimum
1000 µW/Cm2 is
required at the
examination surface,
UV / Vis light meter :for
measuring UV and Visible light
intensity.
Fluorescent Inspection Booth :Small movable unit for fluorescent
particle inspection.
A darkened booth using
black curtains for
working with fluorescent
particles.
Fluorescent Particles :
Magnetic particles coated with
a fluorescent dye, absorbs
ultraviolet light and emits
brilliant yellow-green or orange-
red visible light.
Absorbs energy near 365nm and
releases at 525 to 575 nm
visible light.
Small indications can be seen
easily.
Examination is performed in a
darkened area of max 20 Lux
visible light.
Fluorescent glow.
End of Slides