A DICTIONARY OF BASIC JAPANESE GRAMMAR B* g *:S<:j!!

¥
Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui TheJapanTunes

First cloth-bound edition: March 1986 First paperback edition: March

1989 18th printing : January 1994 ISBN 4-7890-0454-6 Copyright (g
1986 and 1989 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui Cover: CADEC
Inc. All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or
portions thereof in any form. Published by The Japan Tim , Ltd. 5-4,
Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108, Japan Printed in Japan

Preface This is a dictionary of basic Japanese grammar designed

primarily for first and second year Japanese students and for
teachers of Japanese. After having examined major textbooks being
used in Japan and the United States we have chosen what we
believe to be basic grammatical items. Our descriptions and
explanations have incorporated the recent findings in Japanese
linguistics which we felt were of practical significance. We have
spent three years and a half preparing this dictionary. Each of us
initially prepared half of the original draft: approximately 200 entries.
Upon completion of the first draft of the dictionary (i.e., Entries,
Appendixes, Char- acteristics of Japanese Grammar, and
Grammatical Terms), we closely examined, discussed and improved
our individual drafts. Therefore, every part of this dictionary has
virtually been written by both of us. Naturally we owe a great deal to
our predecessors whose works are listed in the references. Our
heart-felt thanks go to them, although we could not ac- knowledge
them individually in each entry where we used their insightful ex-
planations. We would also like to acknowledge many profitable
discussions with our colleagues at the University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign and at the Summer Japanese School of Middlebury
College, Middlebury, Vermont. For fear of omission, we would rather
not attempt a comprehensive listing of names. Even so we would like
to mention four individuals whose technical assistance has made it
possible to publish this dictionary: First, Mr. Burr Nelson of the
University of Illinois and Mrs. Sharon Tsutsui, who have edited our
English and provided us with valuable comments and suggestions
from the user's view- point; also, Mr. Mamoru Y oshizawa, who has
patiently and conscientiously as- sisted with the proofreading; and,
last but not least Mr. Masayuki Ishida of The Japan Times, who has
done such conscientious editing: he has been a perfect midwife for
the birth of our progeny and our special thanks go to him. Spring
1986 Seiichi Makino Michio Tsutsui

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... . . . ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... v To the Re ader . . . .
.......................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. VIII List of Abbreviations ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ...... ...... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... x List of Symbols
................................................................................. XI Grammatical
Terms ........................................................................... 1
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar
................................................... 16 1. Word Order
.............................................................................. 16 2. Topic.........
......... ......... ... ......... ... ... ...... ..................... ......... ... ... 21 3. Ell i ps
is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4. Personal Pronouns . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . .
. . . . . . . . 28 5. Pass i ve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.
Politeness and Formal i ty ............................................................ 36
7. Sentence-final Particles ...............................................................
45 8. Sound Symbolisms-giseigo and gitaigo
....................................... 50 9. Viewpoint...... ......... ............... ......
.................. ... ..................... ... 57 . . . Main Entries 61 - 573 . . . A
ppendi xes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 1. Basic
Conjugations ..................................................................... 576 2.
Semantic Classification of Verbs and Adjectives ...........................
582

T ABLE OF CONTENTS V 11 3. Pairs of Intransitive and Transiti ve

Verbs.................................... 585 4. Connection Forms of Important
Expressions ................................. 589 5. Ko-so-a-do . .. ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... . .. ... . .. ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... . .. ... 6()() 6.
Numerals and Counters............................................................... 602
7. Compound Words .....................................................................
608 8. Improving Reading Skill by Identifying an 'Extended
Sentential U ni t' ......... ...... ......... ......... ......... ... ......... ... ... ... ... ...
.................. 612 Grammar Index
................................................................................. 619 E ngl ish
Index .................................................................................... 621
Japanese Index . . . . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... . .. ... . .. .. .
... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... 626 References ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 632

To the Reader This dictionary consists of the following parts: A.

Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal
definitions of the grammatical terms frequently used in this book. If
the reader finds that he is not familiar with these terms, we suggest
he read this section carefully. B. Characteristics of Japanese
Grammar introduces the reader to the major characteristics of
Japanese grammar and the important concepts involved. The reader
should read through this section before he starts to consult the
dictionary. Some entries from the Main Entries section refer the
reader to topics in this section which provide broader perspectives
on those entries. C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this book.
Each entry is organized as follows: CD [entry name] @ [part of
speech] J " \ ( @ [meaning / function] ( """""""'''''-'''''''--''''-''' ./""o.""" ...
"'VI @ [English counterpart(s)] [antonym] CID [related expression(s)]
@ . Key Sentence(s) (1)Formation @Examples @Note(s) @)
[Related Expression(s)] CD [entry name]: Each entry is given in
romanized spelling followed by its hiragana version. Entries are
alphabetically ordered based on their ro- manized spellings. @ [part
of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech. @ [meaning
/ function]: The general meaning or function of the entry is given in
the box below the entry name. @ [English counterpart(s)]: English
expressions equivalent to the entry are given to the right of the box.
When the entry has an antonym, it is provided, as in (ANT. xxx).

IX
CID [related expression(s)]: Items which are related semantically to
the entry are listed as [REL. aaa; bbb; ccc (ddd)]. Expressions in
non-bold type like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related
Expression(s)] (@». Expressions in bold type like ccc contain
comparisons to the entry under [Related Expression(s)] for ccc.
Parenthesized expressions like (ddd) are explained in the ccc entry.
@ . Key Sentence(s): Key sentences present basic sentence
patterns in frames according to sentence structure. The parts in red
color are recurrent elements. The same is true of Formation. (1)
Formation: The word formation rules / connection forms for each
item are provided with examples. @ Examples: Example sentences
are provided for each entry. @ Note(s): Notes contain important
points concerning the use of the item. @) [Related Expression(s)]:
Expressions which are semantically close to the entry are compared
and their differences are explained. D. Appendixes contains
information such as tables of verb / adjective conJU- gations, a list of
connection rules for important expressions and a list of counters. E.
Indexes contains three indexes: the grammar index, the English
index and the Japanese index. The reader, therefore, has three
means of access to the word he is looking up.

List of Abbreviations Adj(i) = i-type adjective (e.g. takai 'high,

expensive', yasui 'inexpensive') Adj(na)=na-type adjective (e.g.
genkida 'healthy', shizukada 'quiet') Adv.=adverb Aff. = affirmative
ANT. = antonym Aux. = auxiliary Conj. = conjunction Cop. = copula
(= da / desu, datta / deshita) Fml. = formal (= -des-, -mas-) Gr. =
Group Inf. = informal Irr. = Irregular (e.g. kuru' come', suru 'do') KS =
Key Sentence LSV = Location + Subject + Verb N = Noun N ego =
negati ve Nom. =nominalizer (=no and koto) NP=Noun Phrase Phr. =
phrase PI. = pI ural Pot. = potential Pref. = prefix (e.g. 0-, go-
'politeness markers') Pro. = pronoun Prt. = particle REL. = Related
Expression S = Sentence Sinf = Sentence that ends with an informal
predicate (e.g. Nihon ni iku of Nihon ni iku n desu ' It is that I am
going to Japan.') SLV = Subject + Location + Verb S.o. =someone
S.t. =something SOV = Subject + Object + Verb SV =Subject+ Verb
Str. =structure

XI Suf. = suffix (e.g. -sa' -ness', -ya 'store') V = Verb

Vcond=conditional stem of Gr. 1 Verb (e.g. hanase of hanaseba 'if
s.o. talks') Vinf=informal form of verbs (e.g. hanasu 'talk', hanashita
'talked') Vmasu=masu-stem of Verb (e.g. hanashi of hanashimasu
'talk') Vneg= informal negative form of Gr. 1 verb (e.g. hanasa of
hanasanai 's.o. doesn't talk') Vstem=stem of Gr. 2 Verb (e.g. tabe of
taberu 'eat') Vte=te-form of Verb (e.g. hanashite 'talk and -', tabete
'eat and -', kite 'come and -', shite 'do and -') Vvol = volitional form of
Verb (e.g. hanaso 'let's talk', tabeyo 'let's eat', koyo 'let's come', shiyo
'let's do it') WH-word =an interrogative word (e.g. nani 'what', doko '
where', dare' who', itsu 'when', do 'how', naze 'why') List of Symbols
t:) = See or refer to. ? = The degree of unacceptability is indicated by
the number of question marks, three being the highest. * =
ungrammatical or unacceptable (in other words, no native speaker
would accept the asterisked sentence.) {A / B} C = AC or BC (e.g. {V
/Adj(i)} inf = Vinf or Adj(i)inf) 0= zero (in other words, nothing should
be used at a place where 0 occurs. Thus, Adj(na) {o / datta}
kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or Adj(na) datta
kamoshirenai.)

Grammatical Terms The following are brief explanations of some

grammatical terms most frequently used in this dictionary. Active
Sentence A sentence which describes an action from the agent's
point of view. (Cp. Passive Sentence) In active sentences, the
subject is the agent. Sentences (a) and (b) below are an active and a
passive sentence, respectively. (a) ;tG!:i:Ji.y 3 '- tJ -:J t::.. o Sensei
wa Jon 0 shikatta. (The teacher scolded John.) (b) .y 3 'i;tG!:E ,:. '- tJ
t J t t::.. o Jon wa sensei ni shikarareta. (John was scolded by the
teacher.) Agent One who initiates and / or completes an action or an
event. The agent is not always in the subject position. Compare the
positions of the agent Bill in (a) and (b). (a) I::" Jldi -;" - -:J t::.. o SiTU
wa Masa 0 butta. (Bill hit Martha.) (b) -;" - 'i I::" Jif ,:. t::.. it t::.. 0 Masa
wa SiTU ni butareta. (Martha was hit by Bill.) Appositive Clause
(Construction) A clause which modifies a noun (or noun phrase) and
explains what the modified noun is. In (a), Mear; ga Tomu ni acta
'Mary met Tom' is an appositive clause, and is what jijitsu 'the fact'
refers to. (a) fL'i j 7 !J - tJ i' A ,:. -:J t::..$ 1JJ -:J -C , 0 Watashi wa
Mear; ga Tomu ni atta jijitsu 0 shitte iru. (I know the fact that Mary
met Tom.) Auxiliary Adj ecti v e A dependent adjective that IS
preceded by and at-

2 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

tached to a verb or another adjective. The bold-printed parts of the

follow- ing sentences are typical auxiliary adjectives.

(a) fL'i.y 3

':.ff -:J -c

l, L '0 Watashi wa Jon ni itte hashii. (I want John to go there.) (b)

Q)

f.'i-ft

TL'o Kono jisho wa tsukaiyasui. (This dictionary is easy to use.)

(c) fL'i-j- LtJ

ft

t::L'o Watashi wa sushi ga tabetai. (I want to eat sushi.) (d)

A'i*

mt::

l,L'o Besu wa daigaku 0 deta Tashii. (Beth seems to have graduated

from college.) (e) :m.:r'iff* L

\ J: ? t=.o Hanako wa sabishii yoda. (Hanako looks lonely.) (f)

Q)jO..:r'ijO

\ L-t-? t=.o Kono o-kashi wa oishisoda. (This cake looks delicious.)

Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding

verb or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences
are typical aux- iliary verbs. (a) 1::'" Jv'i

.:F

\-c L'Qo Biru wa ima tegami 0 kaite iTU. (Bill is writing a letter now.)

(b)

tJ

mHt -c

Qo Mado ga akete aTU. (The window has been opened. (= The

window is open.» (c)
'imm

L -c l,

?t:: o Boku wa shukudai 0 shite shimatta. (I have done my

homework.) (d) fL 'j:

}t

:. jO

it L -c

11 t:: 0 Watashi wa tomodachi ni o-kane 0 kashite ageta.

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 3

(I loaned money to my friend.) (e)

Q)::r

1::0 ;:r. - ;r- 'ifNj"t i! Q 0 Kono konpyuta wa takasugiTu. (This

computer is too expensive.)

(I) .y 3 -.y 'i A

:b -
'-1,)( ? -C L \ Q 0 Joji wa supotsuka 0 hoshigatte iTU. (Lit. George is
showing signs of wanting a sports car. (= George wants a sports
car.» (g) OJ -:J! mtJ

-:J -c *t:: ! Al Ame ga futte kita! (Gee! It's started to rain!)

Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word

but. functions like a single particle. For example, the compound
particle to shite wa consists of the particle to, the te-form of suru and
the particle wa, but it is used like a single particle to mean C for'.
(Cp. Double Particle)

Compound Sentence A sentence which consists of clauses

combined by coordinate conjunctions such as ga meaning' but' or by
the te-forms of verbs, adjectives or the copula meaning '- and'. (a)

'iiJk 1t\ t.: tJ( A

Iv 'i iJk tJ

tJ

-:J t::.. o Boku wa oyoida ga Sumisu-san wa oyoganakatta. (I swam

but Mr. Smith didn't.) (b) S a3

Iv ';1 Jt!Jj( ,:. fT -:J -C

*

Iv ,:.

-:J t::.. 0 Yoshida-san wa Tokyo ni itte Suzuki-san ni atta. (Mr.

Yoshida went to Tokyo and met Mr. Suzuki.)

Contrastive Marker A particle which marks contrast. For example,

when X is contrasted with Y, it is typically marked by the particle wa.
X and Y usually appear in SI and S2, respectively in 8 1 ga 8 2 , as
shown in (a). (a) .y 3

*t::.. tJ

, 1::'" Jv,

*t

tJ

-:J t::.. o Jon wa kita ga, Biru wa konakatta. (J ohn came here. But
Bill didn't.)

Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences

without subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate
conjunction is ga 'but'. Exam pIe:

4 GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(a)

-:J -c ,,\ '£. T fJ(, 't:J -:J

-tt '£. -tt Iv o Hashitte imasu ga, chitto mo yasemasen. (I'm running,
but I haven't lost any weight at all.)

Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an

action represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An
animate direct object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in
(a) and (b) below). An inanimate direct object is typically something
which is created, exchanged or worked on, in short, the recipient of
the action of the verb (as in (c), (d) and (e) below).

(a) t1J Q 96!:E 'i

!!:

J: < 11

Q 0 Yamaguchi-sensei wa gakusei 0 yoku homeru. (Prof. Yamaguchi

often praises his students.)

(b) tJ

jO!> 'j:-!B

t.= '£. L t::.. o Kaori wa IchiTO 0 damashita. (Kaori deceived Ichiro.)

(c)

'j:*

."\t=o Boku wa hon 0 kaita. (I wrote a book.)

W -M

!>

-7

-:J

0 Ichiro wa Midori ni sukafu 0 yatta. (Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)

(e) fL'j: t: 7

1m It -c jO ,,\ t::.. o Watashi wa doa 0 akete oita. (I kept the door

open.)

Although direct objects are marked by the particle 0, nouns or noun

phrases marked by 0 are not always direct objects, as shown in (f)
and (g). (t:) 0 2 ; 04)
(f) :mT'i-1!

Q)*

.lvt.:o Hanako wa Ichiro no daigakunyugaku 0 yorokonda. (Hanako

was glad that Ichiro entered college.)

(g) "A 'i:t Q)

lI

"\-c ,,\t::. o Tomu wa sono toki koen 0 aruite ita. (At that time Tom
was walking in the park.)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 5

Double Particle A sequence of two particles. The first particle is

usually a case particle and the second is an adverbial particle such
as wa 'topic / con- trast marker', mo 'also, even', and shika 'only'.

(a) Jt!Jj(tJ\ a:, '

a3
Iv

*t::..o Tokyo kaTa wa Tanaka-san ga kita. (Lit. From Tokyo Mr.

Tanaka came.)

(b) fL 'i

7-

Iv t: t

'- t.: 0 Watashi wa Mira-san to mo hanashita. (I talked with Mr. Miller,

too.)

Embedded Sentence A sentence within another sentence is an

embedded sentence. The bold-faced part of each sentence below is
the embedded sen- tence. An embedded sentence is marked by a
subordinate conjunction such as kara 'because', keredomo
'although', node C because', noni ' although', to C if', the quote
marker to C that', a nominalizer (no or koto) or the head noun of a
relative clause.

( a)

a3 'i D tJ( 111 L \

-:J t.: 0 Yamada wa atama ga itai to itta. (Yamada said that he had a
headache.)

(b)

a3 'i iltJ(1II L \ f/)

f* Iv t!. 0 Yamada wa atarna ga itai node gakko 0 yasunda. (Yamada

didn't go to school, because he had a headache.)

(c)

a3 'i

OO'=ft < f/) tJ;*fJf t! t!.o Yamada wa gaikoku ni iku no ga dai-sukida.

(Yamada loves to go to a foreign country.)

(d)

a3 'i

.:f

:g? t.:

tJ
dJ Q 0 Yamada wa kaTate 0 naTatta koto ga aru. (Yamada has
learned karate before.)

Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In

this dictionary the term " hearer" is used in a broader sense to mean
the person to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.

Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command,

as in Hanase! 'Talk!', Tabero! C Eat it!', Shiro! 'Do it!' or Koi! 'Come!'.

6 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something

specifi- cally. No in B's sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here,
no is used for jisho C dictionary', but does not refer to a specific
dictionary. (a) A:

Ivt

M=.tJ;

\Iv

TtJ

o Donna jisho ga hoshii n desu ka. (What kind of dictionary do you

want?) B: IJ,
\O)tJ;

'-

\Iv

To Chisai no ga hoshii n desu. (I want a small one.)

Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The
action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the
subject of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta 'ran' in (a) is
an intransitive verb because the action of running is related only to
the subject. (Cp. Transitive Verb)

(a)

Iv 'ijE? t=.o Suzuki-san wa hashitta. (Mr. Suzuki ran.) Intransitive

verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku 'go', kuru' come',
aruku 'walk', tobu 'fly', noru C get onto '), spontaneous change (such
as naru , become', kawaru 'change', tokeru 'melt', fukuramu 'swell',
hajimaru 'be- gin '), human emotion (such as yorokobu ' rejoice',
kanashimu ' feel sad', omou , feel '), and birth / death (such as
umareru 'be born', shinu 'die '). (t:) Appendix 3)

I-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends

with i. Examples of i-type adjectives are takai 'high, expensive' and
tsuyoi ' strong', as seen in (a). (Cp. Na-type Adjective) (a) (Wi" ,*
takai hon (an expensive book)
5!U"'A tsuyoi hito (a strong person) I-type adjectives are further
subdivided into two types: i-type adjectives which end with shi-i and
those with non-shi-i endings. Most adjectives with Shi-i

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 7

endings express human emotion (such as ureshii C happy', kanashii

C sad', sabishii ' lonely', kurushii C painful '); the non-shi-i adjectives
are used for ob- jective descriptions (such as kuroi ' black', shiroi '
white', hiroi C spacious', takai C high, expensive '). Na-type Adjective
An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with na. For
example, shizukada ' quiet' and genkida ' healthy' are na-type adjec-
tives, as in (a). (Cp. I-type Adjective) (a) 1flt tJ

* shizukana ie (a quiet house) JG

A genkina hito (a healthy person) Na-type adjectives are very similar

to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can be used as real nouns as
shown in (b). All na-type adjectives behave as nouns when they are
used before the copula da, as shown in (c).

(b) ..'i*:$"t*T.t o Kenko wa dalj"idesu yo. (Health is important, you

know.) Cpo -Qt

t
A kenkona hito (a healthy person) :=UiJJ 'i:git '! -tt Iv o G o-shinsetsu
wa wasuremasen. (I'll never forget your kindness.) Cpo m;ut

A shinsetsuna hito (a kind person) (c)

Q)A Ii :rc

{t.: / "t*T / t!. -:J t::.. / "t* L. t::.. / 1.:

tet

\ / 1.:

OJ !> '! 1t Iv / 1.:

t.t. tJ

-:J t::.. / 1.:

OJ

'! it Iv"t* '- t::.. 0 } Kono hito wa genki / gakusei Ida / desu / datta /
deshita / janai / jaari- masen / janakatta / jaarimasendeshita.} (This
person {is / was / isn't / wasn't} healthy / a student.)

N ominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a

noun phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers no and koto: the
former rep-

8 GRAMMATICAL TERMS
resents the speaker's empathetic feeling towards an event / state
expressed in the nominalized noun phrase / clause; the latter
represents the speaker's relatively anti-empathetic feeling towards
an event I state. (t:) no 3 ; koto 2 )

Noun Phrase / Clause Particle Predicate Sentence Nominalizer f3*m

MCtr (J)/::"

'i ;I '- "'0 Nihongo 0 yomu no / koto wa muzukashii. (Reading

Japanese is difficult.)

The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an

ordinary noun or a noun phrase / clause can be used.

Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an action by

someone from the viewpoint of someone else who is affected by that
action. (Cf. Active Sentence) (a) and (b) are passive sentences. (a)
fL'i 1::'" Iv

:.

t::..tLt::.. o Watashi wa Biru ni butareta. (I was beaten by Bill.) (b)

1!

'itJc.:r

:. mtJ
tL t=o Taro wa Akiko ni nakareta. (Lit. Taro was annoyed by the fact
that Akiko cried. (= Taro was an- noyed by Akiko's crying.»

Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence In the sense

of 'can do s.t.' The formation is as follows:

Gr. 1 Verbs Vcond+.75 ru

e.g.

-tt.75 'can talk' hanase -ru

Gr. 2 Verbs Vstem + '? tL.75 e.g. ft

'?

'L.75 C can eat' rareru tabe-rareru Vstem+tL.75 e.g. 1t

tL.75 'can eat' reru tabe -reru Irr. Verbs *.75 *

tL.75 'can come' kuru korareru *tL.75 koreru

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 9

T.75
m*.75 C can do' dekiru

suru

Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the

sub- ject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an
adjective, or a noun followed by a form of the copula da. Optionally,
objects and other adjec- tival and / or adverbial modifiers may be
present. In (a), (b) and (c) the predi- cates are printed in bold type.

(a) t

Iv'i

<

Ii

Qo Matsumoto-san wa yoku eiga 0 miTu. (Mr. Matsumoto sees

movies often.)

(b) fLQ)

ni A
A

Iv(/)

I.J if l., L '0 Watashi no ie wa Sumisu-san no YOTi ataTashii. (My

house is newer than Mr. Smith's.)

(c) .y 3

'i8*i!(/)

!!:1:"to Jon wa nihongo no gakusei desu. (J ohn is a student of

Japanese language.)

Prenominal Form The verb / adjective form which immediately

precedes a noun and modifies it. The bold-faced verb and adjectives
in (a), (b), (c) and (d) are prenominal forms.

(a) fLtJ

t; /

t=ffiflfl watashi ga yomu / yonda shinbun (the newspaper I read)

(b) * i! L' / *
tJ\ ? t=. *- okii / okikatta ie (a big house / a house which used to be
big)

(c) :u:

/ :u:

t=? t=.}i4o/J Tippana / Tippadatta tatemono (a magnificent building /

a building which used to be magnificent)

(d) a L' l., i: ? t

/ a L' l., i: ? t= ? t=. -7 -

oishisona / oishisodatta keki (a delicious-looking cake / a cake

which looked delicious)

10 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Punctual Verb A verb that represents a momentary action which

either occurs once, as in (a), or can be repeated continuously, as in
(b).

'get to know'
(a)

0 shiru }Eb ' die' sh in u

ai. 0 ' begin' hajimaru

T 0 C get married' kekkonsuru

o yameru

o niru (b) rt

T otosu t

o mogiru Ito keru m

tobu ty":> utsu

'stop s.t.'

, resemble'

, drop'

'pluck off'
, kick'

C jump'

, hit'

Wi th the auxiliary verb iru (i.e., iru 2 ), the punctual verbs in (a)
express a state after an action was taken, and those as in (b)
express either a repeated action or a state after an action was taken.
(t:) Appendix 2)

Stative Verb A verb which represents a state of something or

someone at some point in time, as in (a). (t:) Appendix 2)

(a) OJ 0 aru (exist (of inanimate things» \1\ 0 ;ru (exist (of animate
things»

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 11

'" Q iru (need) lfi*

dekiru (can do)

Subject The subject is an element of a sentence which indicates an
agent of an action in active sentences (as in (a» or an experiencer of
an action (as in (b» or someone or something that is in a state or a
situation (as in (c), (d), (e) and (f». The subject is normally marked
by the particle ga in Japanese unless it is the sentence topic. (a) :;:1

tJ

!> Iv

1t

t::.. o Jon ga ringo 0 tabeta. (J ohn ate an apple.) (b) )I. 7 1 ) -tJ

96!:E

Jl

tLt::..o MeaT; ga sensei ni homerareta. (Mary was praised by her

teacher.) (c) 7-

:" - 'i

tL 1t' t.: o Nansh; wa kireida. (Nancy is pretty.) (d) t: 7 tJ

rm 1t' t::.. o Doa ga aita. (The door opened.) (e) mtJ

-':>dJOo Tsukue ga hitotsu aru. (Lit. One table exists. (= There is a

table.» (f)

tJ;W1t'o SOTa ga aoi. (The sky is blue.)

Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause
with a subordinate conjunction. Typical subordinate conjunctions are
ba ' if', kara 'because', node' because', keredo 'although' and noni
'although '. Thus, in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the
subordinate conjunction node is embedded into the main clause
Nakayama-san wa gakko 0 yasunda, C Mr. Nakayama was absent
from school.'

12 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(a)

UJ

Iv'iDfJ(.fJ'?t::C1)-c:

1*lvt.:o Nakayama-san wa atama ga itakatta node gakko 0 yasunda.

(Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a
headache.) The informal form of a verb / adjective is usually used in
a subordinate clause.

Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually

expresses an action that acts upon s.o. or s.t. indicated by the direct
object. Actions in- dicated by transitive verbs include real causatives
(such as ikaseru C make / let s.o. go', korosu 'kill', miseru 'show',
nakasu 'make s.o. cry', noseru , put, place '), exchange (such as
ageru 'give', morau 'receive', kureru' give '), creation (such as
tsukuru ' make', kaku 'write', kangaeru 'think '), communica- tion
(such as hanasu 'speak', oshieru 'teach', tsutaeru 'convey a
message ') and others. Note that some English transitive verbs are
intransitive in Japanese.

(a) fL'i1l!tJ

.Qo Watashi wa kuruma ga aTU. (Lit. With me a car exists. (= I have

a car.» (b)

'i id

tJ

L \.Qo Boku wa o-kane ga iTU. (Lit. To me money is necessary. (= I

need money.» (c) A

Iv'i

oomtJ

fJ'.Qo Sumisu-san wa chugokugo ga wakaTU. (Lit. To Mr. Smith

Chinese is understandable. (= Mr. Smith understands Chinese.» (d)
fL'i 7 7

fttJ

p L W*.Qo Watashi wa furansugo ga sukoshi dekiTU. (Lit. To me

French is a bit possible. (= I can speak French a little.» (e) *r-

Iv 'iJtiJi(-C: id
Iv ,=.

? t:: o Kinoshita-san wa Tokyo de o-to-san ni atta. (Mr. Kinoshita met

his father in Tokyo.) (f) fL':"i

Jv

M = ;t.flfJ'? t:: o Watashi ni wa beru ga kikoenakatta. (Lit. To me the

bell wasn't audible. ( = I wasn't able to hear the belL» (

tJ

1j:61:1:UJtJ

;t.

T .to Koko kara wa Fujisan ga miemasu yo. (Lit. From here Mt. Fuji
is visible. (= We can see Mt. Fuji from here.»

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 13

(h) fLiit;J:ffi
':.* I.)

l, t=.o Watashitachi wa shinkansen ni nOTimashita. (We rode a bullet

train.)

(0 fL'ia,:.{1:1"'CL\.Q G L v'o Watashi wa haha ni niteiTu rashii. (It

seems that I resemble my mother.)

Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his will.

The main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).

(a) -mtJ

ft =? / fti!

l, J: ? 0 Boku ga iko / ikimasho. (I will go.)

WH-question A question that asks for information about who, what,

where, which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a) through (f)
below. (Cp. Yes-No Question)

(a) iltJ

* * L t::. tJ

o DaTe ga kimashita ka. (Who came here?)

(b) {PJ

1t

* -t-tJ\o Nani 0 tabemasu ka. (What will you eat?)

(c) C = ':.ff

* -t-tJ\o Doko ni ikimasu ka. (Where are you going?)

(d) L\"J*

li"fiff

* -t-tJ

o Itsu Osaka e kaerimasu ka. (When are you going back to Osaka?)
(e) C? l,"'CR:bt

v'Iv-c:-t-tJ\o Doshite kawanai n desu ka. (How come you don't buy
it?)

(f) JRJX

,,'j: C? ff

* -t-tJ

o Tokyo eki e wa do ikimasu ka. (How can I get to Tokyo Station?)

14 GRAMMATICAL TERMS
WH-word An interrogative word which corresponds to English words
such as who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following
are some ex- amples. (a)

' who ' dare fPJ C what' nani / nan

.:. 'where' doko v' "':) C when' itsu

? L. -C / t

-tf 'how come / why' doshite / naze

? ' how' do Note that Japanese WH-words are not always found in
sentence-initial position; they are frequently found after a topic noun
phrase, as shown in (b) and (c) below. (b)

q) ? q).I{-7;( - ':'Ij:iltJ

*'1 L t::..tJ

o Kino no pati ni wa daTe ga kimashita ka. (Lit. To yesterday's party,

who came there? (= Who came to yesterday's party?» Cpo iltJ

q) ? q).I{ -7 ;( - ,:.* * L t::.. tJ

o DaTe ga kino no pati ni kimashita ka. (Who came to yesterday's

party?) (c) J3 *-c: ,j: {PI

L * L. t::.. tJ

o Nihon de wa nani 0 shimashita ka. (Lit. In Japan what did you do?
(= What did you do in Japan?» Cpo {PI
J3 *-c: L * '- t::.. tJ

o Nani 0 nihon de shimashita ka. (What did you do in Japan?)

Yes-No Question A question that can be answered by hai / e 'yes' or

ie 'no '. (Cp. WH-question) Examples follow: (a) A: J:IB

lv'i*'1 '-t::..tJ

o Veda-san wa kimashita ka. (Did Mr. Ueda come?)

GRAMMATICAL TERMS 15

B: 'iv\, ** Lt::.. o Hai, kimashita. (Yes, he did.) (b) A:

lv'i

!:E-C:TtJ

o Suzuki-san wa gakusei desu ka. (Is Mr. Suzuki a student?) B:

v\v\;t,

?t:.

tb!J*-ttlvo ie, so ja arimasen. (No, he isn't.)

Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 1. Word Order Japanese is

typologically classified as an SO V (Subject + Object + Verb)
language, whereas English is classified as SVO. An important fact
about Japanese word order is that each sentence ends in a verb, an
adjective or a form of the copula, and that the order of the other
sentence elements is rela- tively free, except for the topic noun or
noun phrase, which normally comes at sentence-initial position. A
sample sentence follows. (1) Subject Location Direct Object Verb
(transitive) (topic) A A 1v ,:1: a* ;-c: a*m %i L -C v'-'5 o Sumisu-san
wa Nihon de nihongo 0 benkyoshite iru. (Mr. Smith is studying
Japanese in Japan.) The Location and the Direct Object can be
switched, but the Subject (topic) and the Verb must normally be in
sentence-initial and sentence-final positions, respectively. The word
order principle for Japanese is the modifier precedes what is mod-
ified. This principle holds whether the modified word is dependent or
fully independent. The function of the modifier is to specify the
meaning of the modified word. Thus, in (1), the verb benkyoshite iru
C is studying' is modified by the preceding elements Subject,
Location and Direct Object. Observe the following phrases and
clauses. (2) Adjecti ve Noun v' 11! akai kuruma (a red car) (3) Noun
Phrase Relative Clause Noun tJ q)? Iv t:!. * chichi ga kino yonda hon
(a book which my father read yesterday)

(4)

Noun Particle A

1v ,:t Sumisu-san wa (Mr. Smith (topic» A

1v tJ

Sumisu-san ga (Mr. Smith (subject» A

A
1v

Sumisu-san 0 (Mr. Smith (object» A

1v t Sumisu-san mo (Mr. Smith also) A

1v ,:. Sumisu-san ni (to / by / from Mr. Smith) A

1v tJ

t? Sumisu-san kara (from Mr. Smith) A3:A

1v J:

Sumisu-san yori «more -) than Mr. Smith)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 17

(5)

Subordinate Clause Sentence Conjunction a*

ft< tJ

G Nihon e iku kara (Because I go to Japan) a*

ft< ,t tL
 Nihon e iku keredo (Although I go to Japan) a*

ft<

Nihon e iku to (VVhen I go to Japan) a*

ft< t

t? Nihon e iku nara (If you go to Japan)

Note: A subordinate clause precedes a main clause.

(6)

Nominatized Noun Phrase Sentence N ominatizer .ft

f18< q)/

a' ongaku 0 kiku no / koto (to listen / listening to music)

In (2) and (3) where the modified word is an independent noun the
basic principle holds; in (4) (5) and (6) where the second element is
a dependent word, such as a particle, conjunction, or nominatizer,
the basic modificational principle also holds, because the meaning of
the modified word is fully specified by the mod- ifier. Unlike
independent words, however, dependent words require modifiers. It
is important for students of Japanese to recognize and understand
some of the most basic Japanese sentence types and their word
order. Examples of these basic sentence types are given below:

18 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(7) a. X wa Y da I X ga Y da C Speaking of X, X is Y / It is X that is Y'

X (subject / topic) Prt Y Copula JH

1v 'i

!:E t!. /

To Tanaka-san wa gakusei da / desu. (Mr. Tanaka is a student.)

(In answer to the question: Who is a student?)

X (subject) Prt Y Copula JH

1v tJ

!:E t=. /
To Tanaka -san ga gakusei da / desu. (Lit. It is Mr. Tanaka who is a
student. (= Mr. Tanaka is a student.»

b. =(1) SOV c. S Adj

Subject (topic) Prt Adj (i) UJJI(

Iv 'i

"'\ /

"'\

To Yamakawa-san wa wakai I wakaidesu. (Mr. Yamakawa is young.)

Subject (topic) Prt Adj (na) UJJI(

Iv 'i 7G

t!. / 7G

--c,;T 0 Yamakawa-san wa genkida / genkidesu. (Mr. Yamakawa is

healthy.)

d. X wa Y ga - 'Speaking of X, Y -'

X (topic, experiencer) Prt Y Prt Predicate *JH

1v 'i 7=-A tJ; J:

t!. I J:

--c,;T 0 Honda-san wa tenisu ga jozuda / jozudesu. (Mr. Honda is

good at tennis.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 19

X (topic, possessor) Prt y Prt Predicate

'i .. tJ

:N:"" /

""

To Zo wa hana ga nagai / nagaidesu. (An elephant has a long trunk.)

e. SV (= Subject + Verb)

Subject (topic) Prt Verb (intransitive) A

1v 'i

f3C ,:. n< / n

*To Sumisu-san wa gakko nl iku / ikimasu. (Mr. Smith goes to

school.)
f. LSV (= Location + Subject + Verb)

Location (topic) Prt Prt Subject Prt Quantity Verb (existence)

q)1Uf 0:.) 'i *

tJ

=--:J tb.'5 / tb

*To Kono machi (ni) wa daigaku ga futatsu aru / arimasu. (In this
town there are two universities.)

g. SLV (=Subject + Location + Verb)

Subject (topic) Prt Location Prt Quantity Verb (existence) *

,:t

q)1Uf ,:. =--:J tb.'5 / dJ

*To Daigaku wa kono machi ni fu ta tsu aru / arimasu. (Speaking of

universities, there are two of them in this town.)

Finally, as shown in the following diagram, any major element listed

ver- tically in (1) through (8) can be a topic marked by wa. The
element with a lower number tends to be used towards the beginning
of a sentence. The order of elements within the predicate is usually
much more complex than that , shown below. An adverb, which is
omitted in the chart, can be positioned at any place before the Core
Predicate, as long as it is positioned before or after NP + Prt. The
normal position for an adverb, however, is right before the word it
modifies.

20

- to;S c c.c I -

rn U ---

c :-Q

....

to;S 00 Q.

rn

C to;S u

:.a

....

- be

.... z 0 --- U to;S

:; =' Q. -( 0 u =-5' > -(

ZI

c .9

.... 0 --

.--. ..c 0

U U .... .....

=' c::.!::

] C 00 0 -- z

.-

to;S C u u .0

0 :E'

t;

Q.

C
u C 0 .9

0 --

be 0 t:::'

u .... (brn ....c .Z

c::

.....

OQ.

.- ---e c::to;S O).

......-

(b

u E u ....

.... ....

.-

='
.-

.- zt. z'2 z

zB zB

.....

LO

(0

t-

00
CHARACTEIUSTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 21 2. Topic Topic
is a key concept in understanding Japanese. Roughly speaking, the
topic of a sentence is what the sentence is about. For example, in
(1), the topic is Hanako and the rest of the sentence provides
information about Hanako. (1) -r'i !:E -c:-t- 0 Hanako wa gakusei
desu. (Hanako is a student.) [(Speaking of Hanako,) Hanako is a
student.] Topics are presented using various topic-marking devices.
Among these, wa is the most frequent marker. (For other topic-
markers, see wa 1 Oi).) When a topic is presented it must be
something both the speaker and the hearer can identify from their
knowledge. Usually a topic is something that has been mentioned in
a previous discourse, something the speaker and the hearer
perceive through their five senses, a proper noun or a generic noun,
as seen in (2). (2) a. 1* k , -A (1) t3 t v' Iv tJ;f::l: Iv -c: v' * '- t::.. o t3 t:.
L \ Ai f;t c!:: -r t 1tz. -c: L t::. o (O-ji-san was mentioned previously.)
Mukashimukashi. hitori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita. O-ji-san wa
totemo binbodeshita. (Once upon a time, there lived an old man. The
old man was very poor. ) b. =hf;tfL(1) -t- 0 (Kore is what the speaker
and the hearer see.) KOTe wa watashi no pen desu. (This is my
pen.) c. j * Ai f;t J3 *A -c:-r 0 (Suzuki-san is a proper noun.) Suzuki-
san wa nihonjin desu. (Mr. Suzuki is Japanese.) d. < t:..; f;t
1¥LtJJ4o/J-c: -r 0 (Kujira is a genenc noun.) KujiTa wa honyudobutsu
desu. (Whales are mammals.) In general, any noun phrase (NP) can
be topicalized, although subject NPs are the ones most frequently
topicalized. (3) presents additional examples. As seen below, when
an NP is topicalized, the particle which follows mayor may not be
retained depending on the particle.

22 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) a. A

Ivl;t a *
ff

* '- t.: o Sumisu-san wa Nihon e ikimashita. (Mr. Smith went to

Japan.) b. -t (1)

OOil;t t ? J! * '- t::.. o Sono eiga wa mo mimashita. (I already saw the

movie.) c. a * ('" / 1=) l;t * t.:ff -:J t::..

c!:: tJ;t

v\o Nihon (e / ni) wa mada itta koto ga nai. (I haven't been to Japan
yet.) d. '1!J TI=I;t*

'bJ

ft::..o Mariko ni wa hon 0 ageta. (To Mariko, I gave a book.)

. 7 j.

j] fJ'; l;t A

Iv tJ

*t::..o Amerika kaTa wa Smisu-san ga kita. (As for «lit.) from)

America, Mr. Smith came (from there).) Finally, in discourse, once a
topic is established, it does not need to be re- peated unless another
topic is presented. Consider the following passage, con- sisting of
four sentences (a) - (d) in (4). (4) a. ;!:!BI;t * t.: 7 j.

j] 'c.ff -:J t::.. =- c!:: tJ

v\o TaTo wa mada Amerika ni itta koto ga nai. (Taro has not been to
America yet.) b. v\":) t ff

t::.. v\ c!:: I
' -:J -C v\ -'5 tJ

:td

tJ

v\ tJ

t.J ff

tt

v\o Itsumo ikitai to omotte iru ga o-kane ga nai kara ikenai. (He
always thinks he wants to go, but since he has no money, he cannot
go.) c. 13:><:

Ail;tflbv\-C :td

t::..

v\ c!::

? 0 O-fo-san wa hataraite o-kane 0 tamenasai to iu. (His father tells

him to work and save money.) d. "1: t ;!:!BI;t:td

Iv 'c.:td
tH '- -C Ii '- v\ (1) t.: o Demo TaTo wa o-to-san ni o-kane 0 dashite
hoshii no da. (But Taro wants his father to give him money.) Here,
(4a) introduces a topic, Taro. Since (4b) is a statement about Taro
and Taro is an established topic at this point, Taro wa does not have
to be repeated here. (4c), however, presents a new topic, o-to-san.
Since this topic is still in effect when the topic returns to Taro in (4d),
Taro wa has to be reintroduced. A topic must also be presented if a
sentence is the first sentence of a new para- graph, even if the last
sentence of the preceding paragraph has the same topic.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 23 3. Ellipsis In

language it is universally observed that strategies exist to minimize
the effort of conveying messages. The most common strategies are
ellipsis, contrac- tion, abbreviation and the use of pronouns. Of
these, ellipsis (i.e., the omission of words) is the most efficient and
occurs frequently in Japanese. Generally speaking, elements which
can be understood from the context and / or from the situation can
be omitted in Japanese unless ellipsis makes the sentence
ungrammatical. For example, in (1), B does not repeat Taro wa and
sono mise de because they can be understood. (1) A: :t 'i.;c(1)h5 fPJ
J\v\'1 Lt::..tJ o Taro wa sono mise de nani 0 kaimashita ka. (What did
Taro buy at the store?) B: .Rv\'1 Lt::.. o Pen 0 kaimashita. (He
bought a pen.) Kaimashita, however, cannot be omitted in normal
conversation even though it can be understood here, because
Japanese sentences (or clauses) must end with a core predicate
(that is, either a verb, an adjective or a noun phrase which is
followed by a form of the copula). Therefore, without the core
predicate kai- mashita, this sentence is ungrammatical. (In informal
conversation, B might reply "pen" in answer to A's question, but an
answer of this sort is con- sidered abrupt.) The following are some
general rules of ellipsis in Japanese. (A) If X is the topic of a
sentence (often marked by wa) and it is also the topic of the
sentence which follows it, X can be omitted in the second sentence.
(See (4) in 2. Topic.) (B) In question-and-answer discourse, if an
element X is shared in the question and the answer, X can be
omitted in the answer unless X is the core predicate. Example: (2) A:
Ea Iv 'i if tJ x.. ,=-*-C < n * L t::.. tJ o Tanaka-san wa mukae ni kite
kuremashita ka. (Did Mr. Tanaka come to pick you up?) B: 'i v\, *-C <
n * L t::.. o Hai, kite kuremashita. (Yes, he did.)

24 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) A: 'bJ t

t::.. 'i 7 j.

j]'

v' t::..lt},

!:E -c:- L t::.. tJ

o Anata wa Amerika ni ita toki gakusei deshita ka. (Were you a

student when you were in America?) B: 'i v', .;c? /

1: -c:- L t::.. o (S6 is more commonly used.) Hai, s6 / gakusei

deshita. (Yes, I was.) (Refer again to (1). In yes-no question
situations, even predicates can be omitted in very informal
conversation.) (c) If the referent of X is something very close to the
speaker and the hearer, and X can be understood from the context
and / or the situation, X can be omitted as in (4) - (6). (The
parenthesized words can be omitted.) (4) A: ('bJ t

t.: 'i) ff

* T tJ

o (Anata wa) ikimasu ka. (Are you going?) B: 'i v', (fL'i) ff

* To Hai, (watashi wa) ikimasu. (Yes, I am.) (5) A: (fLJi'i)ff

'1 L.1:? tJ
o (Watashitachi wa) ikimasho ka? (Shall we go?) B: v\

, (fLJi'i) J: L * L.1: ? 0 Iya, (watashitachi wa) yoshimasho. (No, let's

not.) (6) A: (

n'i / .;c n'i) fPJ-C:-T tJ

o (Kore wa / Sore wa) nan desu ka. (What is this / that?) B: (.;c tL 'i /
;: n'i)

TtJ

"-> 7° v -it

" -C:-T 0 (Sore wa / Kore wa) Hanako kara no purezento desu. (That
/ This is a present from Hanako.) (A) - (C) concern the ellipsis of
content words such as nouns and verbs. However, ellipsis in
Japanese is not limited to content words. The following are some
general rules regarding the ellipsis of particles in conversation. (D) If
the referent of X in X wa is psychologically close to the speaker and
the hearer, wa tends to drop unless X is under focus. Examples:

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 25

(7) a . b t::.. < L Oi) IlJ Ea c!:: t ? L * T 0 Watakushi (wa) Yamada to

m6shimasu. (Lit. I call myself Yamada. (= I am Yamada.» b.

Oi) 4'-, fPJlF1:

TtJ

o Kimi (wa) ima nan-nensei desu ka. (What year (in school) are you
in now?) c.
(1)* Oi):IO t L 0 v\.1: o Kono hon (wa) omoshiroi yo. (This book is
interesting.) d. cb (1) A Oi)

TtJ

o An

hi to (wa) dare desu ka. (Who is that person?) (E) The subject
marker ga can be omitted if the sentence conveys informa- tion
which is expected by the hearer or which is very closely related to
the hearer. Examples:

(8) a. cb, m1l!(t,)

)*t:.o A, densha (ga) kita. (Oh, here comes the train.)

b. 'J.). t

lv, :IOft* (tJ

) lfi* * L t::.. o Minasan, o-shokuji (ga) dekimashita. (Folks, the meal

is ready now.) c. 4'- a Ea

Iv tJ

t.J

,:. mu ( tJ;) cb -:J t:. J: 0 Ky6 Tanaka-san kara kimi ni denwa (ga) atta
yo. (There was a phone call for you today from Mr. Tanaka.) d. t L t
L, < ':> (1) {} t (t,)

) II

t -C * T .1: 0 Moshimoshi, kutsu no himo (ga) hodokete masu yo.

(Excuse me, your shoelace is untied.) (F) The direct object marker 0
can be omitted unless the NP 0 is under focus. (0 drops more
frequently in questions.) Examples: (9) a. :3 -

-(

'J.). * oft Iv tJ

o K6hi (0) nomimasen ka. (Wouldn't you like coffee?) b. 1.:

, .;c it (

) t t.J v \ * T 0 Ja, sore (0) moraimasu. (Then, I'll take it.)

26 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

c.

) < t!.
v\o Konban denwa (0) kudasai. (Please give me a call tonight.)
Rules (A) - (F) concern the ellipsis of parts of simple sentences or
clauses. There are, however, cases in which entire clauses are
omitted. (G) is a general rule regarding this sentential ellipsis. (G) If
the message conveyed by a main clause can be understood from
the context and / or the situation, the main clause can be deleted.
Examples: (10) A:

(J) ? .I

-7 ..( - 'I:*t

tJ

-:J t::.. no Kino pati ni konakatta nee (You didn't come to the party
yesterday.) B: ? lv, t.> J: -:J c!:: it '- tJ

-:J t::.. tJ

(ff

tt

tJ

-:J t::..)o Un, chotto isogashikatta kara (ikenakatta). (Yeah, (I couldn't

come) because I was busy.) (11) Ea

961:'

fI8v\t:.

TtJ
) ? Tanaka-sensei ni kiitara (do desu ka)? (Lit. (How will it be) if you
ask Prof. Tanaka? (= Why don't you ask Prof. Tanaka?» (12) to

tJ

'iv\!> * '-t

(v\tJ

tJ

TtJ

)o Q-cha ga hairimashita kedo (ikaga desu ka). (Lit. Tea is ready

now, but (how would you like it?» Additionally, ellipsis can take place
for psychological reasons. That is, the speaker may omit a part of a
sentence either because he considers it rude, because he feels
uncomfortable saying it or because he doesn't know how to say it,
etc. For example, if he is offered food he cannot eat, he may say,
Sore wa chotto, '(lit.) That is, a little,' implying Sore wa chotto
taberaremasen, , I can hardly eat it.' Or, if the speaker hears
someone's unhappy news, he may say, Sore wa d6mo, , (lit.) That is,
very,' meaning Sore wa kanashii koto desu ne, , That is a sad thing.'
Finally, it is noted that since ellipsis is common in Japanese,
Japanese sen- tences are often ambiguous in isolation. They are
interpreted correctly only if they are in proper contexts and / or
situations. Examples: (13) a. f1' < 'i

T'i (b * !>

t:-
t

v\o '- tJ

'- (11' < 'i) Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai. Shikashi (boku wa)
fJT'

tf

t=o HaTuko wa sukida. (I don't like Yukiko very much. But, I like
Haruko.)

CHARACTEIUSTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 27

b. 11' < 'i

T'i cb * !J

v\o '- tJ

L fJTI

Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai. Shikashi Haruko wa (

TtJ

)»
t:.o (Yukiko ga) sukida. (I don't like Yukiko very much. But, Haruko
likes her.) (14) a. fL'j:v\v\.A

Jt':Htt::..(1)-C*,

-:J-t < EB

I:' Watashi wa ii hito 0 mitsuketa node, sassoku Tanaka-san ni ( ':c

(1) .A 'I:. )

? -c t ; ? t= 0 (sono hito ni) atte mOTatta. (I found a good man, so I

asked Mr. Tanaka to see him right away.) b. fL 'i v \ v \.A

jt':Ht t::.. (1) -c* ,

-:J .;c < (.;c (1) .A ,=-) Watashi wa ii hito 0 mitsuketa node, sassoku
(sono hito ni) EB

I:'

? -c t.;? t=o Tanaka-san ni atte mOTatta. (I found a good man, so I

asked him to see Mr. Tanaka right away.)

28 CHARACTEIUSTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAIt 4. Personal

Pronouns One of the peculiarities of Japanese personal pronouns is
that there is more than one pronoun for the first and second person
and that traditionally there have been no third person pronouns. The
most frequently used first and second person pronouns are listed
below: c; E .... o Singular Pronouns Levels of Firs t Person ' I '
Second Person ' You t Formality Very Formal b t::.. < '- none
watakushi bt::.. '- NJ t::.. < '- NJ t t::.. Formal wa tashi a takushi ana
ta (female) Informal ,! < cb t::.. '- 'J.). boku a tashi kimi (male)
(female) (male) Very Informal :IOn :IO'1*- cb Iv t::.. ore omae anta
(male) (male) c; E .... c.E c: c; E .... o Plural Pronouns Levels of First
Person' We t Secon d Person ' You' Formality Very Formal bt::.. < '- t.
none watakushidomo b t:. < '- t= 1b NJ t t::.. fJ(t= Formal
watakushitachi anatagata bt::.. '- t= 1b watashitachi ,1' < t= 1b NJ t::..
'- t= 1b 'J.). t= 1b NJt t::..t= 1b bokutachi atashitachi kimitachi
anatatachi Informal (male) (female) (male) ,!< NJ t:. '- 'J.). bokuTa
atashiTa kimiTa (male) (female) (male) Very Informal :t3 tL t= 1b :10
* *- t= 1b cb Iv t::.. t= 1b oretachi omaetachi antatachi (male) (male)
:IO'1*- cblvt::.. omaeTa ant aT a (male) c; E .... c.E c: Note: (Male) /
(female) means that the particular pronoun is used by a male /
female speaker, respectively.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 29 The first

person singular pronoun watakushi has at least six contracted forms.
The way the contraction (i.e., omission of sounds) takes place is as
follows:

(formal) (formal, female) (informal, female) (very informal/vulgar,

female) (informal, older male) (very informal, adult male of the Bay
area of Tokyo) The fact that there is more than one pronoun for the
first and second person leads us to suspect that Japanese first and
second person pronouns are not pure pronouns but are a kind of
noun. In fact, these 'pronouns' can be freely modified by adjectives
or by relative clauses as in (1) and cannot be re- peated in a single
sentence as in (2), which supports the idea that they are similar to
regular nouns.

watafJl'shi -+ watashi

takushi -+ atakushi

taf

shi -+ atashi ratafyftli -+ atai wallJlJl'shi -+ wash; );V'a#flshi -+ a

shi

(1) a. ftLv\fldi.:r v

.tJ!

tLt

v\o Isogashii watashi wa terebi mo mirarenai. (Lit. Busy me cannot

see even TV. (= I cannot even watch TV because I'm so busy.» b. if

tJ

fldi- a

if

flt1 v\ -C v\.'5 0 Ongaku ga sukina watashi wa ichinichijD ongaku 0

kiite iru. (Lit. I who like music is listening to music all day long. (=
Because I like music, I listen to it all day long.» c.

v\ N> tctt=

'i * t.:

tJ
t

v\ -z; L J: ? 0 Wakai anata ni wa mada wakaranai desho. (Lit. Young

you probably won't understand it. (= Since you are young, you
probably won't understand it.»

(2) a. *fk'ifk(1)

m-Z;fkC1)

Ji c!:: U L -C v\t::.. o *Watashi wa watashi no heya de watashi no

tomodachi to hanashite ita. (I was talking with my friend in my room.)
-+ fk'i 0

m-z; 0

Ji c!::

L -C v\ t:.. o Watashi wa 0 heya de 0 tomodachi to hanashite ita. b. *

N> tct t= 'i

(1) ? N> tct t= (1)

m-z; N> tct t= (1)

Ji c!:: fPJ

L -C v\ * L t::.. t,Po * Anata wa kino anata no heya de anata no

tomodachi to nani 0 shite imashita ka.

30 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR (What were

you doing yesterday with your friend in your room?) -+ N> tct t= 'i
(1)? 0

ii c!:: fPJ

'-"'( \t\ * '- t::.. tJ

o Anata wa kino 0 heya de 0 tomodachi to nani 0 shite imashita ka.

It is also important to note that Japanese first and second person

pronouns are deleted unless it is necessary to emphasize me-ness
or you-ness. Under normal communicative situations, who is
speaking to whom is obvious, so Japanese speakers simply omit
these pronouns. Students of Japanese, therefore, should avoid using
first and second person pronouns whenever possible. In addition to
first and second person pronouns, there are other ways to refer to
the speaker or the addressee, as summarized in the following chart.

Kinds & Self-address Forms Alter-address Forms Conditions Kinshi

p terms :td

1v (your father) :td

1v 0- to-san o-to-san :tdfij:

1v (your mother) :tdfij:

1v o-ka-san o-ka-san :td 1.: \t\

Iv (your grandpa) :td 1.: \t\

Iv o-ji-san o-ji-san :td 'f cb

Iv (your grandma) :td 'f cb

Iv o-ba-san o-ba-san :td1.:

1v (your uncle) :td1.:

1v oji-san oji-san :td 'f

Iv (your aunt) :td'f

Iv oba-san oba-san Social role terms 961: (your teacher) 96!:E

sensei sensei tl

(president of a company) shacho aI

(section chieO kacho Occupational terms none

Iv (fish monger) sakana-ya-san

Iv (butcher) niku-ya-san First / Last names -m.:r -m.:r

1v Hanako Hanako-san EaT

1v Tanaka-san

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 31

Within a family, if the speaker is considered superior (primarily in
terms of age) to the addressee (Speaker>Addressee), he may use a
kinship term as a form of self-address, but if not, he can use only a
first person pronoun in self- address. If the addressee is considered
superior to the speaker (Addressee> Speaker), the speaker has to
employ the kinship term of the addressee when addressing him, or
he must use a second person pronoun or the addressee's name
(optionally with -san or -chan). Outside the family, in an Addressee>
Speaker situation, the speaker has to employ the addressee's social
role term when addressing him. If the situation is Speaker>
Addressee, the speaker cannot use his own social role term as a
form of self-address, except for the term sensei when it refers to
elementary and junior high school teachers. Occupational terms
such as sakana-ya 'fish monger', niku-ya 'butcher' and hana-ya
'florist' are used as address forms by attaching -san to them. (t:) -va)
Also, a female first name is employed by a young girl as a self-
address form in very informal speech as in (3).

(3) cb (1) n,

(1) ? -

Iv c!:: T - " L t:. (1) J: o Ano ne, Kyoko kino Ichiro-san to deto shita no
yo. (You know what? I (= Kyoko) had a date with Ichiro yesterday!)
There is no real third person pronoun in Japanese. As shown in (4),
all English third person pronouns have no corresponding forms in
Japanese. (4) a. IlJEa

Iv'i

lF7 j.
j]'

ff-:Jt::..o

mt,)

fll%iLt::..tJ

-:Jt::..C1)t.:o Yamada-san wa kyonen Amerika ni itta. Eigo ga

benkyoshitakatta no da. (Mr. Yamada went to America last year. He
wanted to study English.) b. l:Ea

lv'i+lFM

M -:J t::..Jf!

* t.:* -:J -C v\ -'5 0 Veda-san wa junen mae ni katta kuruma ni mada

notte iru. (Mr. Ueda is still driving the car which he bought ten years
ago.) c. A:

:7 'i

(1) ? * * L t::.. tJ

o Bobu wa kino kimashita ka. (Did Bob come see you yesterday?) B:
;t;t, *'1 Lt::..J: o E, kimashita yo. (Yes, he did.) d. A: Ea

IvJi,

v\:bn;to Tanaka-san-tachi, osoi wa nee (Miss Tanaka and the people

with her are late, aren't they?)
32 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

B:

tL-C

\ONt

\tJ

'-

o Wasurete iru n 1'a nai ka shira. (I wonder if they have forgotten

about this.) c . :: :: tJ

* ""t: It! ""t: -

rl=t' tJ

tJ

0 0 Koko kara Osaka made kuruma de ichijikan kakaru. (It takes one
hour from here to Osaka.) f . 4' 1::; p-

""t: -;- 0 Ima shichi1'i desu. (It is seven now.) During the past century
or so, however, the third person pronouns kare , he " kano1'o 'she',
karera 'they (male)' and kano1'ora 'they (female)' have begun to be
employed primarily in novels translated into Japanese and in
Japanese novels. These pronouns are also fairly widely used in
current spoken Japanese. Like first and second person pronouns,
they are treated very much like nouns, as seen in (5).

(5) a.

fJt3(, c-ct

tL

\t

/vt.:o Boku no kanojo. totemo kireina n da. (My girl friend is very
pretty, you know.) b. *

tii t::..fJt'i -;- <*

l., t::.. o Daigaku 0 deta kaTe wa sugu kekkonshita. (Lit. He who

finished college got married right away. (= He got married right after
graduation from college.» There is one condition governing the use
of third person pronouns: The speaker / writer is psychologically
somewhat distant from the ref- erent of the pronoun.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 33 5. Passive The

concept of passive in Japanese, which is called ukemi ( -!t) (lit. body
which receives something), is considerably different from its English
counter- part. The Japanese passive contains two elements: an
event (i.e., an action by someone / something) and a person or thing
which is affected by that event. For example, if someone runs away
and it affects someone else, that action can be expressed by the
passive construction. Or, if someone smokes and it affects someone
else, that can be a passive situation. In other words, the common
characteristic of the Japanese passive is that the event is not under
the control of those affected by it. Note that the person in the first
situation above has no control over someone's running away and the
one in the second has no control over someone's smoking. Passive
situations are expressed in various ways according to the situation.
The most common way is to use the passive forms of verbs. (t:)
TaTeTu 1 ) For instance, the above situations can be expressed as in
(1), using passive verb forms. (1) a. IlJ III N 'i N j ; n t= 0 Yamada-
san wa okusan ni nigeTaTeta. (Lit. Mr. Yamada's wife ran away on
him.) b. 'i -r :' t::.. 'f::: T bn t=o Taro wa Haruko ni tabako 0 suwaTeta.
(Lit. Taro had a cigarette smoked by Haruko on him.) Notice here
that in (1a) the verb nigeru ' run away' is intransitive and in (1 b)
there is a direct object tabako 'cigarette'. Neither (1a) nor (1 b) can
be ex- pressed using the English passive construction U be + past
participle". This type of construction, however, is frequently found in
Japanese and is called 'the indirect passive'. In indirect passive
sentences the thing affected by the event is usually human and how
the person is affected is interpretable only from the context. The
sentences in (1) show situations where someone is negatively
affected. The following is an example where the person is positively
affected. (2) *f1" N'i A :.fIt :.I* n -c ? tL l.,.:t? t!.o Kimura-san wa bijin
ni yoko ni suwaraTete ureshi soda. (Lit. Mr. Kimura, having a pretty
woman sit beside him, looks happy.) In indirect passive sentences
the agent of the event is usually animate and the action is volitional.
Therefore, the following examples are all unacceptable.

34 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) a. *fL'i

:.
,:.fj:

nt=o *Watashi wa ishi ni atama ni ochiraTeta. (*My head was fallen

on by a rock.) b. *" A li

* Nr:p""t:.

:.l1: * tJnt=o *Tomu wa kosaten no mannaka de kuruma ni

tomaraTeta. (*Tom was stopped in the middle of the intersection by
his car.) There are, however, a very few exceptions, as seen in (4).

(4) m'im';:

nt=o Boku wa ame ni furaTeta. (Lit. It rained on me.)

The passive forms of verbs can also express what is called direct
passive. (5) presents some examples.

(5) a. .y 3

'i }:* )Ld:.

t::..nt=o Jon wa Biru ni butaTeta. (J ohn was hit by Bill.) b.

'i+1t;tIt
:.tNitJ

nt=o Kono e wa jukyu-seiki ni kakaTeta. (This picture was painted in

the nineteenth century.)

c. rm'i*tJ

t"f

n.Qo Sake wa kome kara tsukuraTeTU. (Sake is made from rice.) As

seen in (5), direct passive sentences have passive equivalents in
English. It is noted that in direct passive sentences, too, the
conditions mentioned above are satisfied. That is, in (Sa) there is a
person, John, who was affected by an event, Bill's hitting, and the
event was not under John's control. The difference between direct
passive and indirect passive is that in direct passive sentences a
person / thing is directly affected by an event (i.e., a person / thing is
the direct receiver of someone's / something's action) as in (5), while
in indirect passive sentences the effect of an event on a person is
indirect (i.e., a person is not the direct receiver of someone's /
something's action), as seen in (1) - (4). In general, when a passive
sentence is used, it is about the person / thing which is affected by
the event, and when what is affected is human, the sentence takes
the viewpoint of the person rather than the agent of the event. (See
9. Viewpoint.) Some passive situations are also expressed by the
verb morau ' get', as in (6).

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 35

(6) a. -;" - 'if v ':I "'i

- )Ld:.'{ ..y !J

t ; -:> t=.o Magaretto wa Poru ni iyaringu 0 mOTatta. (Margaret got a

pair of earrings from Paul.) b. ;) 7 !J - 'i A 7" 1" -7'

7/

- " ':.*--r t ; -:> t=.o Meari wa Sutibu ni apato ni kite mOTatta. (Mary
had Steve come to her apartment. ( = Steve came to Mary's
apartment for her.» c. fL'i

,:. 'jJ ;) 7

J( -:J --r t ; -:> t=.o Watashi wa chichi ni kamera 0 katte mOTatta. (I

had my father buy me a camera. (= My father bought a camera for
me.» When morau is used, the event always affects the person
positively. (This is not the case with sentences with rareru.) In this
case, also, the speaker's view- point is that of the person affected by
the event. (t:) mOTau l ,2) Naru ' become' can also express some
passive situations. Compare the fol- lowing pairs of sentences with
suru 'do' and naru.

(7) a. IlJ t=1

'i 7 ;) !J 'jJ

n < .:. C ,:. l., t=.o Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni iku koto ni shita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi has decided to go to America.) b. IlJ t=1
'i 7 ;) !J 'jJ

:.n < .:. c ,:. tti. -:> t=.o Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni iku koto ni
natta. (It's been decided that Mr. Yamaguchi is going to America.) (8)
a. 96!:E'i 7 v ':I F

,:. l., t=.o Sensei wa Fureddo 0 teigaku ni shita. (The teacher

suspended Fred from school.) b. 7 v ':I F 'i

:.tti. -:> t=.o Fureddo wa teigaku ni natta. (Fred was suspended from
school.) Here, again, the viewpoint in the (b) sentences is that of the
person affected by the event, and the agent of the event is not the
speaker's main concern. (t:) koto ni naTU; naTu)

36 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 6. Politeness

and Formality All languages are equipped with polite expressions
and Japanese is no exception. What makes Japanese polite
expressions distinctly different from those of other languages is that
the Japanese system involves grammar as well as lexical items.
Basically, there are two ways to be polite in Japanese; one is to
elevate the speaker's superior, i.e., a person who is older and higher
in social status than the speaker. Expressions of this type are called
Honorific Polite Expressions. The other method is to lower the
speaker or his in-group members, and thus elevate his superior
indirectly. Expressions of this type are called Humble Polite
Expressions. With Honorific Polite Expressions, the subject of the
sentence is the speaker's superior and the form of the main
predicate is an honorific form, as shown below: (A) Honorific Polite
Verbs Regular Formation N onpolite Honorific Polite (Dictionary
Form) 0- V masu ni naTU Passive Form g -;- (talk) t3 L 1= tti..Q n.Q
hanasu o -hanashi ni naTU hanasaTeTU ;tQ (teach) t3 ;t 1= tti. .Q ;t
n.Q osh i eru o -oshie ni naTU oshieTaTeTu Irregular Forms N
onpolite Honorific Polite (Dictionary Form) J!Q (see) -= ,;: tet. Q miru
goran ni naru (Gr. 1) ?a1-:J""( \ Q (know) ff?a1 t shitte iru gozonji da
ir5'Q/*Q/n< (be / come / go) \rJ-:J'- Q iru / kuru / iku irassharu (Gr. 1)
<tLQ (give (to me» < t Q kureru kudasaru (Gr. 1) ft-:Q (eat) £ Ll:tJ;Q
taberu meshiagaru (Gr. 1) TQ (do) tet. Q suru nasaru (Gr. 1) *Q /n< /
ir5'Q (come / go / be) :Jo \ 'co tet. Q (Gr. 1) kuru / iku / iru oide ni
naru

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 37

Q (wear) jo-BL ,:. tet. Q (Gr. 1) kiru omeshi ni naru JE

(die) jotet. < tet.!J ,:. tet.Q (Gr. 1) shinu o-nakunari ni naru ::=r . (say)
jo-:JL

Q (Gr. 1) s:::I? iu ossharu

The following are typical examples of sentences using honorific

polite verbs:

(1) a. 96!:E'i7}!J jJ

""t:E*m

t3ti:.i,=t

I.J*To Sensei wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo 0 o-oshie ni

naTimasu. (The professor will teach Japanese at an American
college.) b. 96!:E'i 7 } !J jJ
*

""t: E *m

ti:.i ;h*T 0 Sensei wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo 0

oshieTaTemasu. (The professor will teach Japanese at an American
college.)

c. 961: 'i ::f)V 7

.Q C t3"':) l., '¥» L \ * l., t=o Sensei wa gorufu 0 nasaTU to

osshaimashita. (The professor told me that he's going to play golf.)
Sentence (la) with its longer honorific expression, is more polite than
(lb), which has a shorter honorific expression. Notice also that the
honorific form in (lb) is the same as the passive form. An important
characteristic of the honorific and passive form is indirectness, the
origin of honorific politeness. Sentence (lc) includes the irregular
verbs nasaru ' do' and ossharu ' say'. Such verbs as nasaru and
ossharu which are irregular must be memorized one by one. Note
that the following honorific polite verbs are Gr. 1 verbs, but are
irregular in their conjugations of formal nonpast and imperative
forms.

Inf Neg Fml Nonpast Inf N onpast Conditional Imperative 1t\

-:J L

tet.
\

-:J L

L\'1-;-

-:J L

-:J L

tL

-:J '-

L\ irassharanai irasshaimasu irassharu irasshareba irasshai < t!.

\ < t!.

L \ * -;- < t!.

Q < t!.
tLl-! < t!.

L \ kudasaranai kudasaimasu kudasaru kudasareba kudasai tet.

tet.

\ tet.

L \ * -;- tet.

Q tet.

tL,! tet.

L \ nasaranai nasaimasu nasaru nasareba nasai jo -:J '-

tet.

\ jo-:J l.,

L\'1T jo-:JL

Q jo -:J L

tL

i jo-:J '-

L\ ossharanai osshaimasu ossharu osshareba ossha i

38 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The honorific polite form of Vte iru is formed as shown in the
following chart. Honorific Polite Forms of V te iru.

Nonpolite Honorific Polite V te iTasshaTU 0- Vmasu da / de

iTasshaTu MeN""t*

\O (be reading) Me N ""t* L , ; "':) l.,

.Q

Mr.Jj. f=. / 1: L' ; "':) l.,

.Q yonde iru yonde iTasshaTU o -yomi da / de iTasshaTu

;t ""(

\ 0 (be teaching)

;t ""( L'; "':) l.,

.Q t3

;t f=. / 1:L'; "':) l.,

.Q oshiete iru oshiete iTasshaTu o -oshie da / de iTasshaTu

The use of the honorific polite Vte iru is exemplified by (2) below.
Here again the longer version is more polite than the shorter one.
Thus, the hierarchy of politeness is: 0- V masu de irassharu > V te
;rassharu > 0- V masu da.

(2) a. 96!:E'i
*

t3

3I-1:L';"':) l.,'¥»L'*To Sensei wa ima go-hon 0 0 -yomi de

iTasshaimasu. (The professor is reading a book.) b. 96!:E'i

N1:L';"':) l., '¥» L'*T 0 Sensei wa ima go-hon 0 yon de iTasshaimasu.

c. 96!:Ett

t31Jr.3I-f=.o Sensei wa ima go-hon 0 o-yomi da. (8) Honorific Polite

Adjectives Regular Formation (Adj(i»

N on polite Honorific Polite (Dictionary Form) 0- Adj (i) inf

\ (young) t3

\ wakai o -wakai %l

\ (strong) t3%t
\ tsuyoi o -tsuyoi

Irregular Forms

N onpolite Honori fic Polite

\ / J:

\ (good) t3 J: 0 L

\ ;; / yoi o -yoroshii

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAU 39

Regular Formation (Adj(na»

Honorific Polite Nonpolite 0- Adj(na)stem Ida / de iTasshaTu} 7G 1l\

t.: (healthy) t3 7G 1l\ {f: / 1: L \ ; "':) l.,

.Q} genkida o-genki Ida / de iTasshaTu}

tL

\ t.: (pretty) t3

tL

\ (f: / 1: L \ ; "':) l.,

.Q } kireida o-kirei Ida / de iTasshaTu}

There are additional polite adjectival forms (such as o-wako

gozaimasu (from wakai 'young '), o-tsuyo gozaimasu (from tsuyoi
'strong '», but such hyperpolite forms are now seldom used by
younger native speakers, except in greetings such as o-hayo
gozaimasu (from hayai ' early'), o-medeto gozaimasu ,
Congratulations! ' (from medetai ' auspicious ') and arigato
gozaimasu ' Thank you very much' (from arigatai 'grateful ').
Adjectives which can be used in honorific polite sentences are
limited to those which refer to personal charac- teristics. Examples
follow:

(3) a. t3

L \1:T tJ o O-wakaidesu nee (You are young, aren't you?) b. 13

N 'i t3 :rc

-c L \; "':) l., '¥» L \ * T tJ

o O-to-san wa o-genkide iTasshaimasu ka. (Lit. Is your father

healthy? (= How is your father's health?» In terms of humble polite
expressions, the subject of the sentence is the speaker or someone
in his in-group rather than the speaker's superior. The humble polite
predicates are listed below: (c) Humble Polite Verbs Regular
Formation

Nonpolite Humble Polite (Dictionary Form) 0- V masu SUTU / itasu

T (talk) t3
T.Q / L\f=.T hanasu o-hanashi SUTU / itasu

;to (teach) t3

;t T.Q / L\f=.T oshieru o -oshie SUTU / itasu

40 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Irregular Formation

N on polite Humble Polite (Dictionary Form) J!Q (see)

J!TQ /

\t::"T miru haiken suru / itasu (Gr. 1) 1

Q (borrow)

TQ/

\ t::.. T kariru haishaku suru / itasu

tJ / it"...: Q / t t?? (drink / eat / receive)

\ t::.. t!. < nomu / taberu / morau itadaku (Gr. 1) TQ (do)

\ t::.. T suru itasu (Gr. 1) *Q/fi< (go) *

\Q kuru / iku mairu (Gr. 1) -3- · (say)

T 1=1? iu mosu (Gr. 1) ..6.. · (meet) :J:3

'Co tJ

tJ

? au o-me ni kakaru (Gr. 1) (:J:3

\T Q I

\ t::.. T) (o-ai suru / itasu)

\Q (be) :J:3Q iru oru (Gr. 1)

Q / OJ

j Q (give)

L OJ

j Q yaru / ageru sashiageru (Gr. 2) ?a1-:J ""(

\ Q (know) ff 1.:- ""(

\ Q shitte iru zonjite iru (Gr. 2)

Typical sentences containing humble polite expressions follow:

(4) a. fLtJ

.:t
:J:3m¥JJ

t3

l.,*To Watashi ga sono o-nimotsu 0 0 -mochi shimasu. (I will carry

your luggage.) b. ro:tJ

t3i1nL\t= l., *T 0 Haha ga 0 -tsuTe itashimasu. (My mother will take

you there.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 41

Sentence (4b) with its longer humble expression is more humble

than (4a) with a shorter humble expression. In addition to the two
major polite expressions (i.e., Honorific Polite and Humble Polite
Expressions), there is what might be called Neutral Polite Ex-
pression. It is called 'neutral' because its predicate de gozaimasu
can be honorific-, humble- or neutral-polite, as shown in the following
chart.

(D) Neutral Polite Form of Copula' da'

Nonpolite Neutral Polite Speaker's superior wa / ga 0- / go- - de go-

(a) 96!£'i

1l\t.:o zaimasu. Sensei wa byoki da. (Honori fic) (The professor is ill.)
96!:E'i .::

1l\"t!'::
L' * 1" 0 Sensei wa go-by6ki de gozaimasu. Speaker wa / ga - de
gozaimasu. (b) fLli

!£t.:o (Humble) Watashi wa gakusei da. (I am a student.) fL'i

!:E"t!.::

L' * 1" 0 Watakushi wa gakusei de gozaimasu. Inanimate object wa /

ga - de gozaimasu. (c) ;btL'ia.

-r:-;- 0 (Neutral) Are wa gljido desu. (That's the Diet building.) ;btL'ia.

1:'::

L '*1" 0 Are wa gijido de gozaimasu.

In (Da) the speaker is being polite to the person referred to by the

subject. In (Db) the speaker is being humble towards the addressee
and in (Dc) the speaker is just using polite speech; it is not directed
towards the inanimate object referred to by the subject.

In the case of honorific polite expressions in general, the polite prefix

0- or go- is attached to someone or something belonging to the
human subject of a sentence. Although the prefixes 0- and go- are
normally attached to J apa- nese and Sino-Japanese nouns,
respectively, the prefix 0- can be attached to highly J apanized
nouns such as benkyo (

%t) 'study', cha (*) , tea' and den- wa (.

IS) 'telephone'. G 0-, however, is never attached to traditional

Japanese nouns. Example sentences in which 0- or go- are used are
given below:
42 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(5) a. 96!:E'i

jo

tJ

TtJ

o Sensei wa o-kuruma 0 o-mochi desu ka. (Do you have a car,

Professor?) b. JB q:t96!:E'i

jotf

,:. t.t -:J t::.. o Tanaka-sensei wa go-hon 0 o-kaki ni natta. (Prof.

Tanaka has written a book.)

The prefixes 0- and go- can also be attached to things which are not
related to the speaker's superior, especially to basic items related to
clothing, food and housing. The purpose of such usage is to make a
sentence sound more elegant. Female speakers tend to use 0- and
go- in this way more frequently than males. Example sentences
follow:

(6) a. 4-

'i
jfitJ-!t

,:. L

L J: ; tJ

o Konban wa o-sashimi to o-suimono ni shimasho ka. (Shall we

make it sashimi and clear soup tonight?) b.

\'i E

TtJ

. O-tearai wa doko desu ka. (Where is the washroom?)

It is also important to note that there is a stylistic distinction between

the informal and formal styles, independent of the honorific-,
humble-, and neutral- polite distinctions. The formal style is normally
used when one is NOT speak- ing intimately or personally with
someone who belongs to his in-group. The informal style is used
when one is speaking with one's own in-group or when a verb, an
adjective or the copula is used in specific grammatical positions,
such as right before hazu da C be expected to' or tsumori da C
intend to', as shown in (7). (t:) Appendix 4 (C), (D), (E), (I), (J) and
(K» (7) a. 96!:E'i4-J3liJf

':'L'i;":)
g /* L'i;":)

L'*T'i-r-c,;To Sensei wa kyo kenkyushitsu ni iTssshsTU I

*iTssshsimssu hazu desu. (The professor is expected to be at his
office today.) b. fLtJ;96!:E':'

i!

TgI*

i!

*T0 b !J -c,;T 0 Watashi ga sensei ni gO-TenTskusuTU / *go-

TenTskushimssu tsumori desu. (I intend to contact you, Professor.)

The formal style is marked by -mas- or -des- as shown in the

following chart.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 43

Informal Formal Predicates Nonpast Past N onpast Past 1t

Q 1t

t::.. 1t

:tT it
:t L t::.. Verb taberu tabeta tabemasu tabemashi ta (eat) (ate) (eat)
(ate) Verbals

'"

tJ

-:J t:-

"'-C:T

tJ

-:J t::.. -c: T Adj (i) hiroi hirokatta hiroidesu hirokattadesu (is wide)
(was wide) (is wide) (was wide)

tL '" t.:

tL '" t.: -:J t:-

tL"'-C:T

tL '" -c: L t:- Adj (na) kireida kireida tta kireidesu kireideshita (is
pretty) (was pretty) (is pretty) (was pretty) Nominals *t.: * t.: -:J t::.. *-
C:T *-c: L t::.. Noun hon da hon datta hon desu hon deshita (is a
book) (was a book) (is a book) (was a book)

Students of Japanese will usually be exposed to the formal style in

their beginning textbook, because it is the proper stylistic register for
adults. They should be aware, however, that the informal style is
more basic than the formal style, as evidenced by the fact that native
children master the informal style fi rs t .

It is interesting to note that whenever the speaker takes a speaker-

oriented position he switches his style from formal to informal, even
in a formal situation. For example, a student speaking with his
professor would use the formal style during conversation. But, if he
were stung by a bee while talking, he would use the informal itai
'ouch', rather than the formal form itaidesu, because getting stung is
purely a speaker-oriented matter. This is an extreme case, but there
are many situations where the informal style must be used due to
speaker- orientation. This results in a formal discourse interspersed
with informal ver- bals and nomi nals. Finally, in practical terms, what
are the appropriate situations for polite sentences? Generally
speaking, an inferior uses polite speech to an addressee or to the
person presented as the topic of a sentence. Typical situations are
the following:

44 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

You are: Your addressee is: student teacher, professor subordinate

boss sales person customer junior senior

Sometimes, an older person uses polite expressions when he is

asking a favor of a younger person. Under such circumstances, the
older person feels psy- chologically inferior to the person he is
addressing. Another appropriate situation for polite speech involves
discourse among adults of equal status who do not know each other
well. Formal Japanese is also used at such occasions as
ceremonies, public speeches and public announce- ments. The
informal style, then, is normally reserved for communication among
equals who are on intimate terms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 45 7. Sentence-

final Particles In Japanese there is a group of particles called
sentence-final particles. In non-inverted sentences, sentence-final
particles are placed at the end of a main clause and indicate the
function of the sentence or express the speakerts emotion or attitude
toward the hearer in a conversational situation. (Personal letters,
which are a sort of conversation between the sender and the
receiver, may also contain sentence-final particles.) Some of these
particles are used, exclusively by male or exclusively by female
speakers, so they also function to mark the speakerts sex. In what
follows, we will take some common sentence-final par- ticles and see
how they are used. (1) is a declarative sentence. If the sentence-final
particles ka and ne are affixed to (1), as in (2) and (3), the sentence
becomes a question «2)) and a sentence of confirmation «3)). (1) a3
lv'i;t!:E T 0 Yamada -san wa sensei desu. (Mr. Yamada is a teacher.)
(2) a3 lv'i;t!:E TfJ'o Yamada-san wa sensei desu ks. (Is Mr. Yamada
a teacher?) (3) a3 lv'i;t!:E i.Qo Yamada-san wa sensei desu nee (Mr.
Yamada is a teacher, isntt he?) Ne is also used to soften requests
and invitations, and it often expresses the speakerts friendliness. (4)
* ( < t.: ,) no Kite (kudasal) nee (Please come.) (5) - ':.ff :t L J: ; no
Isshoni ikimasho nee (Lees go together, shall we?) Ne can be used
with polite imperatives but not with plain imperatives. (6) f3C-..ff t,t
'no Gakko e ikinasai nee (Go to school, okay?)

46 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(7) *

f3C"ffftno *Gakk6 e ike nee

Na functions as the negative imperative marker when it IS used with

informal nonpast verbs.

(8) a.
-:Jt:>"*Qflo Kotchi e kuru ns. (Dontt come this way.) b. tJJ < flo
Ugoku ns. (Dontt move.)

When na is affixed to informal declarative or invitational sentences, it

some- times functions like ne, with the limitation that it is used only
by men.

(9) a. -

'i-

!:Et.:flo Ichiro wa ichi-nensei da ns. (Ichiro is a freshman, isntt he?)

b. -

';:ff

; fl o Isshoni iko ns. (Lees go together, shall we?) Na is also used by

men in monologue situations.

(10) a. jotJ

\flo ttb

\t.t

\o }!; Lt::..lvt.:o;o Okashii ns. Dare mo inai. Do shita n daro. (Ies

strange. Therets nobody. Whaes wrong, I wonder?)
Sometimes na is used with formal sentences in older ments speech.
This na conveys the feeling of weak assertion.

(11) a. :t tL'i t:> J: -:J

;I L

Tflo Sore wa chotto muzukashii desu ns. (Thaes a bit difficult.)

Yo, zo and ze are used for assertion. Some English equivalents are"
I tell you u, "you know u, "believe me u, and" rd say U. ZO and ze
are exclusively used in informal male speech.

(12) a. fL'i

!J:t it lvJ:. o Watashi wa shirimasen yo. (I dontt know. Believe me.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 47

b. jotL'i

Jt tet

\-F 0 Ore wa makenai zoo (I wontt lose!) c.

tL'i
t.:1f 0 Kore wa kin da ze. (Hey, this is gold!) Yo and ze are also used
with invitational sentences.

(13) 4-

'itx t ; J: /1f 0 Konban wa nomo yo / ze. (Lees drink tonight!) Wa is

affixed only to declarative sentences by female speakers. It gives
sentences a feminine flavor and sometimes expresses a light
assertion. It is used in both formal and informal speech. (14) a.
fL'i:tt':+J\

Tt>o Watashi wa mada jtJhachi desu wa. (I am still eighteen.) b. d.> t

,-, ; tL '-

\ t> 0 Atashi, ureshii wa. (Pm happy.) Wa can be used with ne and yo
but not with ka, as in (15). (15) a.

tLt ;Wi

\t>no Kore, takai wa nee (This is expensive, isntt it?) b. fL tff < t>J:o
Watashi mo iku wa yo. (Pm going, too.) c. * a3 q:t

Iv t * Q t> fJ'. *Tanaka-san mo kuru wa ka. (Is Mr. Tanaka coming,

too?) Ne, na and wa are used in exclamatory sentences. Ne can
also convey the idea of confirmation. Na is usually used by men, but
can be heard in conversa- tions by younger women. Wa is used onl y
by women. (16) a.

tL

\t.:nxo (Male) Kireida nee (Isntt it pretty!)

48 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

b.

\ t:. bn;(.o (Female) Kireida wa nee (Isntt it pretty!) c. ff;*

'i J: < 1jJJ < f,i."8:Jo (Male) Suzuki-kun wa yoku hataraku ns. (Boy,
Mr. Suzuki works hard!) d. T

t.:V"8:Jo (Female) Sutekida ws. (Ies wonderful!) Some sentence-final

particles appear in questions in informal speech. For example, in
informal male speech kai and dai mark yes I no questions and WH-
questions, respectively. (

dai; kat) (17) a.

tL'i

q)*fJ'L '0 (Male) Kore wa kimi no hon kai. (Is this your book?) b.

tL'it:.tLq)*t=L'o (Male) K ore wa dare no hon dai. (Whose book is

this?) In informal female speech the sentence-final n(o) desu ka
becomes no spoken with rising intonation. In this use no is almost a
female question marker. Ex- amples follow: (18) a. Q:.T

Ivt /{-r

-':.ff;O

t.t

\O)? (Female) T omoko-san, pat; ni ikanai no? (Arentt you going to

the party, Tomoko?) b. fP1
J\ ; O)? (Female) Nani 0 kau no? (What are you going to buy?)
Kashira and kana also appear in sentence-final pOSItion and
express the speakerts uncertainty about a proposition. The former is
usually used by female speakers and the latter by male speakers.
(19) a. fL':'blfi*QfJ'

;o (Female) Watashi ni mo dekiru kashiTa. (Can I do it, too, I

wonder?) b. d.> L t

'imfJ'f,i."8:Jo (Male) Ashita wa ame kana.

CHARACTERISTICS OF J AP ANESE GRAMMAR 49 (Will it rain

tomorrow, I wonder?) As we have seen in the various examples
above, sentence-final particles play an important role in determining
the function of a sentence. Also, by using these particles in
conversation, a speaker expresses his / her emotion or attitude
toward the hearer as well as his / her masculinity / femininity.

50 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 8. Sound

Symbolisms-giseigo and gitaigo Japanese is abundant in sound
symbolisms in the form of phonomimes (= onomatopoeia, giseigo),
phenomimes (= gitaigo) and psychomimes (= gitaigo). All languages
have phonomimes or direct phonetic representations of actual
sounds in every day life, such as the English bang, bowwow, cock-a-
doodle-do and meow. English phonomimes are normally considered
childrents language and are not fully integrated into adult language.
In Japanese, however, not only phonomimes but also phenomimes
(phonetic representations of phenomena perceptible by non-auditory
senses) and psycho mimes (phonetic representations of human
psychological states) are an integral part of adult spoken and written
Japanese. Therefore, it is of vital importance that students of
Japanese learn these sound symbolisms as part of their ordinary
vocabulary. A summary of sound symbolisms is given below. Each
sound symbolism is an adverb associated with a specific verb. The
adverb is normally followed by the quote marker to, because the
sound symbolism is perceived as a quotation. The examples contain
the verb that typically co-occurs with the given sound symbolism. (A)
Voiceless and Voiced Consonants V oiced consonants tend to
represent something big, heavy, dull or dirty; whereas voiceless
consonants represent something small, light, sharp or pretty. a. i! i! «
) J't ) «shine) sparklingly) kirakira «to) hikaru) b. 0 0 « ) tJ ) «small
object) rolls) korokoro «to) korogaru) c. l£t l£t « )it ) «small amount of
liquid) drips) potapota «to) ochiru) d. < < « ) Wi ) «cut) a thin, light
object) sakusaku «to) kiru) a'. « ) J't ) «shine) dazzlingly) giragira «to)
hikaru) b'. 0 0 « ) tJ ) «heavy object) rolls) gorogoro «to) korogaru) c'.
1£ t::..l£ t::.. « ) it ) «large amount of liquid) drips) botabota «to)
ochiru)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 51

d'.

<

< « c) tJJ Q) «cut) a thick, heavy object) zakuzaku «to) kiru) (B)
Velar Consonants-k and g The velar consonants [k] and [g] tend to
represent hardness, sharpness, clear-cutness, separation,
detachment or sudden change. a. fJ\ t:>fJ\ t:> O:'

Q) «freeze) hard) kachikachi (ni koru) b. < -:J i! !J «

) J! *- .'5) «be visible) clearly) kukkiri «to) mieru) c. i! -:J ,t !J «

) 5JIJtL Q) «separate from people) once and for all) kippari «to)
wakareru) d. fJ(

-:J(

bQ) «completely) change) garat (to kawaru)

e. <.-:J(

51<) gut (to hiku) f. f! -:J < !J «

) 9E

) «die) suddenly) pokkuri «to) shinu)

«pull) with a jerk)

(c) Dental Fricative Consonant-s The dental fricative consonant [s]

tends to represent a quiet state or a quiet and quick motion. [sh] in
particular seems to represent some quiet human emotion.

a.

-:J (

3L t:>J:tJ; Q) «stand up) quickly) sat (to tachiagaru) b. T.'5TQ «

)mQ) «slide) smoothly) surusuru «to) suberu) c.

« c)

Q) «it rains) quietly) shitoshito (to furu) d.

1vJJ. !J « c)
T) «talk) quietly and intimately) shinmiri «to) hanasu) e.

1v(

TQ) «be) quiet) shin (to suru) f.

J: Iv f£ !J «

) T Q) «be) despondent) shonbori «to) suru)

52 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

g.

i"

i" «

.f

) «escape) secretly) kosokoso «to) nigeru) h. L

Iv (

) «be) dispirited) shun (to suru)

I. "{} -:J i" !J «

)) T

) hissori «to) suru) (D) Liquid Consonant-r The liquid consonant [r]
tends to represent fluidity, smoothness or slip-

«be) quiet)

pertness.

a. T;-:J(

L",(v'

) SUTat (to shite iru) b. T; T; «

;t i,) «answer) with great ease) SUTaSUTa «to) kotaeru)

«figure) is slim)

c. <.Q < .Q «

)*b

) ((turn) round and round) kUTUkuTU «to) mawaru) d. -J.Q -J.Q ( L

"'( v'

) «be) slippery) tSUTUtSUTU (shite iru) e.

.Q

.Q (L "'( v'

) «be) slimy) nUTunUTU (shite iru) f.

; «(

)VfftL

) (flow) smoothly) saTasaTa «to) nagareru) g. t::..; t::..; «

) VfftL

) «sweat or blood) drip continuously) taTataTa «to) nagareru) (E)

Nasal Consonants-m and n The nasal sounds tend to represent
tactuality, warmth and softness. a. C < C < (L"'( v'

) «of a dog or a cat) is plump) mukumuku (shite iru)

b. C t.:> C t.:> ( L "'( v'

) ((be) plump) muchimuchi (shite iru) c. f

J: f

J: «

) L "'( v'

) «be) slender and delicate) nayonayo «to) shite iru) d. f= t.:>

f= t.:>

(T
) «be) sticky) nichanicha (suru)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 53 e. f=

f=

( L "'( ",

) «be) slimy) nyurunyuru (shite iru) f.

(L",("'

) «be) slimy) nurunuru (shite iru) g. n 't.:>n 't.:> ( L "'( ",

) «be) sticky) nechinechi (shite iru) (F) Voiceless Bilabial Plosive-p

The voiceless bilabial plosive (=stop) [p] tends to represent
explosiveness, crispiness, strength and suddenness. a. f;t -:J (

ijJJ

<t

) «become bright) suddenly) pat (to akaruku naru) b.

!J (

pn < ) (whack) pishari (to tataku) c.

Iv(

<

) (come to (me) in a flash) pin (to kuru) d. "G" G «

)L

) (gibber, speak fluently) perapera «to) shaberu) e.

1v

1v (L"'( "'

) «be) peppy) pinpin (shite iru) f. ,S

", (

ill "'( ff < ) «leave) suddenly) pui (to dete iku) g. ,S

'::> -:J (

Wit

) «break) suddenly) putsut (to kireru) h. It -:J tJ

!J «

) r$tJ

) «float) suddenly) pokkari «(to) ukabu) (G) Semi-vowel-y The semi-

vowel [y] tends to represent weakness, slowness and softness. a. J:
", J: ", 0:. t
) (have locomotor ataxia, loss of reflexes) yoiyoi (ni naru) b. J: It J: It
(

=. t

) «become) senile) yoboyobo (ni naru) c. J: it J: it ( ,=. t

) «become) worn-out) yoreyore (ni naru)

54 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR d. tP G tP G «

l= )

It -'5 ) «sway) like waves) yurayura «to) yureru) e. tP -:J <

T) «speak) slowly) yukkuri (hanasu) f.

lvb!J (l=-g?) «tell) softly) yanwari (to iu)

g.

't:J

't:J « l= )

< ) «walk) totteringly) yochiyochi «to) aruku) (II) Back High Vowel-u
The back high vowel [u] tends to represent something that has to do
with human physiology or psychology.
a.

? l=? l= (T-'5) (doze) utouto (suru) ?

(T-'5) «be) buoyant) ukiuki (suru) ?T?T(

-J <) «perceive) dimly) usuusu (kanzuku) ?f?f(T-'5) (itch for action)

uzuuzu (suru) ? "? G? ':) G (T-'5) (doze) utsurautsura (suru) ?-:JtJ

!J (T-'5) «be) off guard) ukkari (suru) ?-:Jl=!J (T-'5) «be) enchanted)
uttor; (suru) ? G(

al.,v') (somewhat (lonely» ura (sabishil) ?Iv

(T

) «be) fed up with) unzar; (suru)

b.

c.

d.

e.
f.

g.

h.

I.

(I) Back Vowel-o The back vowel [0] tends to represent something
basically negative with regard to human psychology.

a. 13f13f(L"'Cv'-'5) ozuozu (shite ;ru)

«be) nervous and timid)

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 55

b. 13

13

(L-"'( v'
) «be) very nervous) odoodo (shite iru) c. 13

13

(1-

) «be) in a dither) orooro (suru) d. i)t::..13t::..(1-

) (don't know what to do) otaota (suru) e. i)b?i)b? (

t.='!

tL

) «be deceived) in a shameless manner) omeome (to damasareru)

(J) Front Vowel-e The front vowel [e] tends to represent something
vulgar.

a. "

n It (,:. tet

) «become) dead drunk) hebereke (ni naru) b. " ;" ; «

? ) «laugh) meaninglessly when embarrassed) herahera «to) warau)

c. -C ; -C ; (J't

) (be glossy) teratera (hikaru) d. N.>

N.>

)i'iI <) (sob) mesomeso «to) naku)

In addition to the regular sound symbolisms there are some basic
words that can be explained in terms of (B) and (E) above. Consider
the following se- mantically similar words that are indispensable in
Japanese grammar.

Vel ars Nasals fJ( (J) ga no (subject marker) (subject marker in

relative and nominalized clauses) fJ\ ; (J)-r:/t(J) kara node / mono
(because) (because) fJ\ ; (1t ? ) I:: Cit ? ) kara (morau) ni (morau)
«recei ve) from) «receive) from)

56 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

fJ\ (J) ka no (or) (a particle for combining nouns) It tL

/ fJ( (J) f= keredo I ga noni (although / but) (although)

(J) koto no (nominalizer) (nominalizer)

=t,(J) koto mono (an intangible thing) (a tangible thing)

The words with the nasal [n] sound more personal, subjective and
speaker- oriented than their counterparts with the velar [k] or [g]. It is
also to be noted that (C) above would tend to explain why i-type
adjectives that end in -shi as in kanashii 'sad', sabishii ' lonely',
tanoshii ' en- joyable " ureshii ' happy' represent human emotive
psychological states. Also note that the glottal stop is often used to
create more emphatic and / or more emotive versions of a given
sound, as in pitari vs. pittari 'tightly', ya- hari vs. yappari 'as
expected', bakari vs. bakkari ' only', yohodo vs. yoppodo 'to a great
extent', to vs. tte 'that', i-type adj. stem + kute (e.g., sabishikute 'be
lonely and - ') vs. i-type adj. stem + kutte (e.g., sabishikutte), etc. It is
important for students of Japanese to learn basic sound symbolisms,
(especially, phenomimes and psychomimes) relatively early in their
Japanese language study. These words are an indispensable part of
the basic vocabulary of any adult speaker. More importantly, the
acquisition, use and understanding of Japanese sound symbolisms
allow the student to appreciate the keen sensibility of Japanese
language and culture toward directly perceptible objects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 57 9. Viewpoint

There is more than one way to describe a state or an event, and the
choice of expressions depends, in part, on the viewpoint from which
the state or event is described. To illustrate this, let us suppose that
a person A hit a person B. This event can be expressed by either
(1a) or (1b). (1) a. A hit B. b. B was hit by A. Both (1a) and (1 b) state
the same fact, but the speaker's (or writer's) viewpoint is different.
That is, when (1a) is chosen, the speaker is describing the event
from A's point of view or a neutral viewpoint, and when (1b) is used,
the speaker's description is from B's point of view. There are several
principles and rules concerning viewpoint; some are universal and
others are specific to Japanese. The following are rather universal
principles: (A) Within a single sentence (excluding coordinate
sentences) the viewpoint should be consistent. (B) When a sentence
includes the structure A's B, (e.g., John's wife) the speaker is taking
A's viewpoint rather than B's. (c) When the speaker (or writer)
empathizes with someone, the speaker tends to take that person's
viewpoint. (D) The speaker usually describes a situation or an event
from his own view- point rather than from others' when he is involved
in the situation or the event. (E) It is easier for the speaker to take
the viewpoint of the person in a sen- tence subject position than to
take the viewpoint of a person in other positions. (F) It is easier for
the speaker to take the viewpoint of the person who has been
established as a discourse topic than to take the viewpoint of some-
one who has just been introduced in the discourse. (G) Under
normal circumstances the speaker cannot take the viewpoint of a
dead person. Although many of the grammatical principles
concerning viewpoint are rather universal, as seen above, there are
a number of viewpoint-related expressions which are important and
specific to Japanese. Some rules concerning these

58 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

expressions are listed below: (II) The following giving / receiving

verbs require the viewpoints shown in (2).

(2) a.

, &;

,l., &;

j Q (give): the giver's or a neutral viewpoint yaru ageru sashiageru

(when they are used as auxiliary verbs, only the giver's viewpoint) b.
< tL

, < t=.
(give): the receiver's viewpoint kureru kudasaru c. t G?, " , fr:. t!. <
(get; receive): the receiver's viewpoint morau itadaku

(H), together with (A) and (D), explains the un acceptability of the
following sentences. (t:) ageTu t ,2; kUTeTu l ,2; mOTau t ,2)

(3) a. *-

fifAI=.I

I-It=:o */chir6 wa watashi ni pan 0 ageta. (Ichiro gave me some

bread.) b. *fAf

fQ:Jj ,:.

< nt=:o *Watashi wa Kazuo ni pen 0 kUTeta. (I gave Kazuo a pen.) c.

*:tE.:rfifAr= ;llva

":) t=:o *Hanako wa watashi ni enpitsu 0 mOTatta. (Hanako received

a pencil from me.) (I) The passive construction, whether direct or
indirect, requires the view- point of the referent of the subject. (Cp.
(E» Together with (A), (B) and (D), this explains the unnaturalness of
sentences like (4). (

TaTeTu t ) (4) a. *fLQ) U-r

fifLf;:: l., tJ

G tLt::.. o *Watashi no musuko wa watashi ni shikaTaTeta. (My son

was scolded by me.) b. *fLQ)*Pi'ifLf:'

*Q)

m*nt=:o *Watashi no kanai wa watashi ni himitsu no tegami 0

yomaTeta. (My wife had her secret letter read by me.) (J) When the
verb kuru 'come' is used, the speaker's viewpoint is some- where
close to the arrival point. When kuru is used as an auxiliary verb, the
viewpoint is the point to which an action is directed or a change
proceeds.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 59

(K) When the verb iku ' go' is used, the speaker's viewpoint is
somewhere close to the departure point. When iku is used as an
auxiliary verb, the viewpoint is the point from which an action is
directed or a change proceeds. (J) and (K) explain the
unacceptability of the sentences in (5) and (6) under the given
conditions. (t:) iku l ,2; kUTU 1 ,2)

(5) a. [The speaker is in Japan.] *fL'i*lp7' j !1 :b ---**T 0 *Watashi wa

rainen Amerika e kimasu. (I will come to America next year.) b. [The
speaker is in America.] *fLfi

lp7' j !1 :b---ft

* Lt:: o *Watashi wa kyonen Amerika e ikimashita. (I went to America

last year.)
(6) a. *fLfi c!!

It? ,;:. id

v' tJ

tJ

-:J"'( *t:: o *Watashi wa dorobo ni osoikakatte kita. (Lit. I came to

attack the robber.) b. * c!!

It ? fifL';:. id

v' tJ

tJ

-:J "'( ft":) t:: o *Dorobo wa watashi ni osoikakatte itta. (Lit. The
robber went to attack me.) (L) When adjectives like hoshii ' want' (lit.
desirable), ureshii ' happy' and kanashii 'sad' which describe one's
personal feelings are used with the third person subject, the speaker
empathizes with that person, which usually implies that the speaker
is taking the viewpoint of that person. (Cp. (C»

Thus, if the subject is someone the speaker is unable to empathize

with, the adjectives mentioned in (L) cannot be used, as in (7). (t:)
gaTu; hoshii; tal)

(7) a. * J!

G 'tJJ.A tJ

t::.. fi
tJ

L L '0 *Mishiranu hito ga tabako ga hoshii. (A stranger wants a

cigarette.) b. *jffi!J tJ

tJ

!J Q) A tJ

? n L L '0 *Torigakari no hito ga uTeshii. (A passerby is happy.) (M)

Kinship terms can be used for the first person and (less commonly)
the second person. In this case the proper kinship term for the first
person

60 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(or the second person) is selected from the viewpoint of someone X

with whom the speaker empathizes. The person X is usually lower in
status than the person for whom a kinship term is used. (e.g., one's
little brother) (Cp. 4. Personal Pronouns) (8) a. [From an elder
brother to his younger brother] £

Iv ,:.J!it"'( ::: G No Ni-san ni misete goran. (Let me see it.) b. [From

an uncle to his niece] a L:.

Iv tJ

l., "'( &;

j J: ? 0 Oji-san ga shite ageyo. (I'll do it for you.) c. [Spoken by a

mother to her daughter Y oshiko from the viewpoint of the daughter's
little brother Hiroshi] atifi 1:>
lv, V.

L ':.jt L "'( &;

jt

"'0 O-ne-chan, Hiroshi ni kashite agenasai. (Yoshiko, let Hiroshi have

it.) (N) When a reflexive pronoun jibun 'self' is used, the speaker
tends to em- pathize with the referent of jibun, which implies that the
speaker's view- point is that of the referent. (t:) jibun l ) In (9) the
referent of jibun is Hanako and the speaker is taking Hanako's
viewpoint.

(9) :mT'i

t,)

f3

L "'( ",

rn- t"'( ", t.:: o Hanako wa Taro ga jibun 0 aishite iru to shinjite ita.
(Hanako believed that Taro loved her.) (10) is unnatural because the
viewpoint is inconsistent.

(10) *. fifLt,)
f3

L "'( ",

rn- t "'( ",

0 *Tsuma wa watashi ga jibun 0 ima demo aishite iru to shinjite iru.

(My wife believes that I still love her.)

A DICTIONARY OF BASIC JAPANESE GRAMMAR (Main Entries)

Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui B* *X !$ft

ageru 1 63 -=== A = = = i ageru 1 11 Q v. (Gr. 2) S.o. gives s.t. to a

person who is not a member of the giver's in-group but whose status
is about equal to that of the giver. give [REL. kUTeTu l (morau 1 )] .
Key Sentence Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object fL - 'i -r ,:.
:IE dJ jt::.. I dJ j'1 '- t::.. o Watashi wa Yoshiko ni hana 0 ageta I
agemashita. - - - (I gave Y oshiko flowers.) Examples (a) *Jf lv'iJ.lpi
Iv':'* cb jt::..o Ono-san wa Yamamoto-san ni hon 0 ageta. (Ms. Ono
gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.) (b) fi 7 ,:. fPJ cb j * '- t::.. tJ o Kimi wa
An ni nani 0 agemashita ka. (What did you give to Ann?) em 1.
Ageru is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is C
give '. However, ageru cannot be used when the indirect object is the
first person (i.e., I or we) or a person with whom the speaker em-
pathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (la)
and (1 b) are ungrammatical. (1) a. * -r'ifl"=* i) 11t.: o *Hanako wa
watashi ni hon 0 ageta. (Hanako gave me a book.) b. * -r'ifk(/)t.;T 1=*
i) 11t.:o *Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon 0 ageta. (Hanako
gave my son a book.) The reason for this is as follows: Ageru
requires the giver's point of view or a neutral point of view when
describing an event. When an event involves the first person or a
person the speaker empathizes with,

AI

64 ageru 1

however, the event is normally described from that person's point of

view. (See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 9. Viewpoint.)
There- fore, if the first person or a person the speaker empathizes
with is a re- cipient in ageru-sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises,
making the sentences ungrammatical. The grammatical sentences
for (la) and (lb) are (2a) and (2b), respectively. (t:) kUTeTu 1 ) (2) a.
1E-rfifLf:'*

< nt.: o Hanako wa watashi ni hon 0 kUTeta. (Hanako gave me a

book.) b. 1E-r'ifLq) UT =-

:.*

< nt.: o Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon 0 kUTeta. (Hanako

gave my son a book.) 2. The humble polite version of ageru is
sashiageru. Example: (3) fLfi96!:E

:'*

1,i)11

l,t.: o Watashi wa sensei ni hon 0 sashiagemashita. (I gave my

teacher a book.) The degree of politeness expressed in sashiageru
is higher than that of kudasaru and itadaku, which are the polite
versions of kureru and morau, respectively. (t:) kUTeTu 1 , REL. II) 3.
When the giver is in a higher position than the recipient or the
recipient is a person very close to the speaker, yaru is used instead
of ageru. Examples: (4) a. fL'i«H:.*

":) t.: o Watashi wa ot6to ni hon 0 yatta. (I gave my little brother a

book.) b. '(} 0 '- 'i Wi

:.

Iv 11

":) t.: o Hiroshi wa neko ni miruku 0 yatta. (Hiroshi gave milk to the
cat.) c. [Tom is the speaker's intimate friend.] fL'i " A f:. ?" -

l, t.: 0 Watashi wa Tomu ni keki 0 yaTimashita. (I gave a cake to

Tom.)

ageru 2 65

-=- A = = -= !:!! -= .... =

ageru'

f1Q
aux. v. (Gr. 2)

........................( S.o. gives some action as a favor to

a person who is not a member of the ) ) giver's in-group but whose

status is

about equal to that of the gi ver. ( >

do s.t. for s.o.; do s.o. a favor by doing s.t. [REL. kUTeTu 2 (morau 2
)]

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vte fL 'i m!1J

Iv

:. *

.{
J!":)-C NJ

j t::. / NJ

j * '- t::.. o Watashi

wa Nobuo-san

ni nekutai E 0 katte ageta / agemashita. (I bought a tie for Nobuo.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vte

'i

1v .

fJ. <.

N)-C NJ

jt::.. / NJ

j'1 '- t::.. o Boku wa Haruko-san

0 nagusamete ageta / agemashita. . (I consoled Haruko.)

Fermatien
Vte NJ

j Q ageru

! '- "'( NJ

j Q (talk for s.o.'s sake) hanashite ageru 1t

"'( NJ

f Q (eat for s.o.'s sake) tabete ageru

Examples

(a)

'i id£}

Iv

:' fPJ

'-"'( NJ

:f * '- t::.. tJ

o Kimi wa o-ka-san ni nani 0 shite agemashita ka. (What did you do

for your mother?) (b) a3 Jf3

Iv'i A

Iv

:.*
'- -r NJ

jt::..o Tanaka-san wa Sumisu-san ni hon 0 kashite ageta. (Mr.

Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith.)

Ai 66 ageru 2 CD 1. Ageru is used as an auxiliary verb with the te-

form of verbs. The meaning of V te ageru is C do s.t. for s.o.' or C do
s.o. a favor by doing s.t.' The restriction which applies to ageru l also
applies to agefL /2 . Namely, sentences with Vte ageru are
descriptions from the viewpoint of the benefactor (i.e., the person in
subject position); therefore, the indirect object must not be the first
person or a person the speaker empathizes with. (t:) ageTu l , Note
1) Thus, (1a) and (1b) are ungram- matical.

(1) a. *:ffi.:r'ifkl= a *m

;t "'(

1ft:: 0 *Hanako wa watashi ni nihongo 0 oshiete ageta. (Hanako

taught me Japanese.) b. * ) 7 !J - 'ifkO)CT cY.> I=

J\ -:J"'(

1ft:: 0 *Mear; wa watashi no musume ni pen 0 katte ageta. (Mary

bought a pen for my daughter.) The grammatical sentences for (1 a)
and (1b) are (2a) and (2b), respectively. (t:) kUTeTu 2 )
(2) a. 1E.:r'ifL

:. a *m

;t "'( < nt:: o Hanako wa watashi ni nihongo 0 oshiete kUTeta.

b. ) 7 !J - 'ifLq) UT

:.

J\ -:J"'( < nt:: o Mear; wa watashi no musume ni pen 0 katte kUTeta.

2. As in KS (B), if the person receiving the benefit is the direct object
of the sentence, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and
(3b) are ungrammatical.

(3) a. *mfi.:r

NI=

.:r

Iv

<*
"'(

ft::..o *Boku wa HaTuko-san ni Haruko-san 0 nagusamete ageta.

b. *mfi.:r

NI=t

<*

"'(

ft::..o *Boku wa HaTuko-san ni nagusamete ageta. 3. When the main

verb is intransitive, ageru is not used along with ni. The following
sentence is ungrammatical,

(4) *fLJtfi

I=1t'J

\"'(

Ift::o *Watashitachi wa Jon ni hataraite ageta. (We worked for John.)

In this case, no tame ni ' for the sake of' is used, as in (5). (t:) tame
(ni»
ageru 2 / aida (nt) 67 IA (5) fLJi'i.y 3 (/)t:: '=1I1J,,\t::..o Watashitachi
wa Jon no tame ni hataraita. (We worked for John's sake.) 4. The
humble polite version of Vte ageru is Vte sashiageru. Example: (6)
fL'i96!:E :' t07 J l} ,,\"'( l, i) 11 l, t:: o Watashi wa sensei ni piano 0
hiite sashiagemashita. (I played the piano for my teacher.) The
degree of politeness expressed in V te sashiageru is higher than that
of V te kudasaru and V te itadaku, which are the polite versions of V
te kureru and Vte morau, respectively. (t:) kUTeTu l , REL. II) 5.
When the benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of
equal status and his relationship to the recipient. is close, V te yaru
is used instead of Vte ageru. Examples: (1) a. fL'i :' v::r - t: .R -:J"'( ":)
t:: o Watashi wa imoto ni rekodo 0 katte yatta. (I bought my little
sister a record.) b. 1.:. Iv 'i Wi :. t1f" \ "'( ":) t:: 0 Jun wa neko ni
sakana 0 yaite yatta. (J un roasted fish for his cat.) c. [John is the
speaker's close friend.] fL'i .y 3 :. 7 .y *" '- -r J l, t:: 0 Watashi wa Jon
ni rajio 0 kashite yaTimashita. (I lent John my radio.) aida (ni) rd1 (I )
phr. G 1 physical points -. "'J"V"' """ during (the time when); while
[REL. nagara; uchi nil

:: A ;;:z . = i

:: iCi

68 aida (ni)

. Key Sentences (A)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vte fL tJ

!1i
:f4:

-C v\ -5 rn' 11Ja3

1v 'i 7 v 1::' t!: Watashi ga gohan 0 tsbete iru aida Yamada-san wa

terebi 0 J!"( v't::.. / v\ * '- t::..o mite ita / imashita. (While I was eating
my meal, Mr. Yamada was watching TV.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vte fA tJ

fJi

:f4:

-C v\ Q rn' ,:. 11Ja3

1v tJ

*t::.. / Watashi ga gohan 0 tsbete iru aida ni Yamada-san ga ki ta / *!

'- t::.. o kimashita. (While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came
in.)

Fermatien

( i) Vte v' Q rn' (,

) iru aida (ni)

i5 '- "( v' -"> r

' (':.) (while s.o. is talking) hanashite iru aida (ni) ft

"(

'Q r

' (':.) (while s.o. is eating) tabete iru aida (ni) (ii) Adj (i) rfl' (':.) aida (ni)

v' rn' (':.) (while s.t. is expensive) takai aida (ni) (iii) Adj (na) stem t

rn' 0:.) na aida (ni)

aida (nl) 69

-=- A = == i !::!! i iCi ::

r;1J

' (,

) shizukana aida (ni) (i v) N (/) rn' (,=.) no aida (ni) :l1*Jj. (/) rR

('.:) natsuyasumi no aida (ni)

(while s.t. is quiet)

(during the summer vacation)

Examples

(a) .A -3: .A

Iv'i f3 *'

'" Q rn'

m a:

;t "'(",

'- t::.. o Sumisu-san wa Nihon ni iru aida eigo 0 oshiete imashita. (Mr.
Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in
Japan.) (b) -rfjtiin

7- v t:'

J! -C '" Q rn'fL'i*

"t lv "'t:",

'- t::.. o Kodomotachi ga terebi 0 mite iru aida watashi wa hon 0

yonde ima- shita. (I was reading a book (all during the time) while my
children were watching TV.) (c) iNif.t

Iv'i 7 } !J 11 ,
'" Q rn' ,.:. ::z" Iv 7 a: Jt;t * '- t::.. o Takahashi-san wa Amerika ni iru
aida ni gorufu 0 oboemashita. (Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he
was in America.)

(d) Jf:1 J II

Iv 0) t3 fa:

Iv'i Jf:1 J II

Iv tJ

!J ,.:. Wi

'- "'( '"

rn' ':.1(1i

,.:. t

* '- t::.. o Nakagawa-san no o-ka-san wa Nakagawa-san ga Pari ni

ryugakushite iru aida ni byoki ni narimashita. (Mr. Nakagawa's
mother became ill while he was studying in Paris.) (e) tk-r 'j:-rfjttJ

'" t

'" rn' ,.:.* a:

"t tr 0 Akiko wa kodomo ga inai aida ni hon 0 yomu. (Akiko reads

books while her children are not at home.)
em

1. The subjects for the aida-clause (=subordinate clause) and the

main clause can be different as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e) or can be the
same as in Exs. (a) and (c). When the subjects are different, the
subject in the aida-clause is marked not by wa but by ga. 2. The verb
before aida is normally nonpast V te iru or iru, regardless of the
tense of the main clause.

All

70 aida (ni)

3. Aida, if followed by ni, a particle of specific time point, means that

the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within
the time span of an event identified by the aida-clause, as in Exs. (c),
(d) and (e). Aida without ni, as in Exs. (a) and (b), indicates that the
two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the
main verb is a punctual verb, aida should be used with ni. The fol-
lowing sentence, therefore, is ungrammatical. (1) *11HB

Iv tJ

!J '

&'$ '- "'( '" Q rEi' :t3fa:

IvtJ
1

j(\,C. f

-:J t

o *Yamada-san ga Pari ni ryugakushite iru aida o-ka-san ga byoki ni

natta. (*Mr. Yamada's mother became ill (all during the time) while he
was studying in Paris.) The di fference between aida ni and aida can
be diagrammed as follows: Event 1

aida ni

(main clause) Event 2 I ( - \ (subordinate clause) Event 1 (main

clause) Event 2

aida

(subordinate clause) 4. A noun or an adjective can be used before

aida. (2) !i 1*Jj. 0) rEi' V.A " 7

"'t: 7 Iv /'..{ "

'- * '- t::.. o Natsuyasumi no aida resutoran de arubaito 0 shimashita.

(During the summer vacation I worked part time at a restaurant.) (3)
}t f

Jj. 0) rEi' 1= jl- Iv 7 v

J-: tJ
l:i:B1E

'- t::..o Natsuyasumi no aida ni garufurendo ga dekimashita. (During

the summer vacation I found a girl friend.) (4) *"'rEl'fI},c.-=¥

t!:1}"\"'( '"

-tt Iv o Nagai aida haha ni tegami 0 kaite imasen. (I haven't written to

my mother for a long time.) (5) ti", rd1 r=*

l:i:i* Q t

,t t::.. <

IvfJCJ.). f

"'0 Wakai aida ni hon 0 dekiru dake takusan yominasai. (Read as

many books as you can while you are young.)

aida (ni) 71

;;:z A ==

iCi ::

5. The non-temporal aida which means 'space between' or

'relationship' is used in the structure A to B (to) no aida' between A
and B ' as in: (6) f3*t 7 ) !J j} (t) O)rEl],='j:m'-tJ
t

v'o Nihon to Amerika (to) no aida ni wa umi shika nai. (There is only
ocean between Japan and America.) (1) III 1=1 t m ( t) 0) rEi'

i lR: '- "'(

<t

v' 0 Yamaguchi to boku (to) no aida wa kesshite warukunai. (The

relationship between Yamaguchi and me is not bad at all.) The
usage of aida meaning C relationship' in (7) is a metaphorical ex-
tension of physical space between two persons. 6. The verb iru C
(an animate object) exists' can be used by itself, as in Ex. (c), due to
its stative nature. Some adjectives such as takai C expen- sive',
yasui C cheap', atatakai ' warm', suzushii ' cool', wakai C young' can
also be used in this way, as follows: (8) ti v ' rEI] , = .A

- 'Y

v' 0 v' 0 '- t::..15 tJ

v' V \ -c: To Wakai aida ni supotsu 0 iroiro shita ho ga iidesu. (It's

better to do various sports while you are young.) These adjectives,
however, sound a little more natural with uchi nl C while'. (t:) uchi nt)

[Related Expression] If the subjects of the main and subordinate

clauses are identical and if the verbs are action verbs, aida can be
replaced by nagara, but with different meaning.

[1]

=r'i;::!Jj

1t
"'( v' Q rEI] 7- v 1:" a: J! "'( v' t::.. o Yukiko wa gohan 0 tabete iru aida
terebi 0 mite ita. (Yukiko was watching TV while she was eating her
meal.) [2]

=r'i ::'!Jj a: ft.

ti..IJ<; 7- v 1:'"

J! "'( v' t::.. o Yukiko wa gohan 0 tabenagaTa terebi 0 mite ita. (Lit.
Yukiko was primarily watching TV, although simultaneously she was
eating her meal. (= Yukiko was eating her meal while watching TV.) )

[1] and [2] focus on ' duration of some action/state' and C

accompanying minor action', respectively. (t:) nagaTa)

' A -- i = 72 amafl amari 6; £ adv. j e (not) very much; (not) very . Key
Sentence Topic (subject) Predicate (negative) -::'q) * 'i &;'£ J:<t ",\/ J:
<&; '£itNo Kono hon wa amari yokunai / yokuarimasen. . (This book
is not very good.) Examples (a) ff1* N'i &; '£ 1t t ""0 Suzuki-san wa
amari tabenai. (Miss Suzuki does not eat much.) (b) fL'i &; '£ )! < tL
'£ it No Watashi wa amari hayaku hashiremasen. (I cannot run very
fast.) em 1. The adverb amari usually occurs in negative sentences,
meaning C not very (much) t. Amari is one of a group of adverbs
which co-occur with nega- tive predicates. They include: (1) zenzen
C (not) at all t; mettani C rarely, seldom t; kesshite C never, by no
means t; sappari C (not) at all t; sukoshimo C (not) a bit'; chittomo C
(not) a bit' 2. Anmari is a phonological variant of amari and usually
used in conversation. 3. In limited situations, amari can be used in
affirmative sentences, too. In this case, it means every; too' with a
negative implication. Examples: (2) a. A :3 ':I "tJ t¥.> * LJ tL t -::. ? q)
-c,; !J - 'i -:J -C -:J -C '- * -:J t::.. o Sukotto ga amaTi shitsureina koto
0 iu node Sari wa okotte kaette shimatta. (Since Scott was very rude
(lit. said very rude things), Sally got mad and went home.) b. # 1: N'i
t¥.> * LJ iW Nt.: q) -c,; 1f4 .U:. t -:J t::.. 0 Inoue-san wa amaTi sake 0
nonda node byokl ni natta.

amari / aru l 73 s= A = -- == (Mr. Inoue drank too much and became

ill.) c. .:t tL'i t¥.> Iv * LJ -c,; To Sore wa anmaTi desu. (You're (lit.
That's) too cruel.) aru 1 «>.Q v. (Gr. 1) A ni hir;;xi s. J be; exist; have
[REL. iru l ; motte iru] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (location) Subject
Quantifier -::'q) lIfT 0:.) 'i * tJ =:""':) &;Q / &;!) '£To Kono machi - (ni)
wa daigaku - mittsu aru / arimasu. ga (Lit. In this town are three
universities. (= There are three universities in this town.» (B) Topic
(subject) Noun (location) .:r. '/ 7 .x. Iv!t - 'i .r': !J ,:. &;Q / &;!) '£To
Efferut6 wa Pari ni aru / arimasu. - (The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.)
Examples (a) f.L.q)/ / - " 0:.) 'iT v l::"tJ =ii&;Qo Watashi no apato (ni)
wa terebi ga nidai aru. (There are two TV sets in my apartment.) (b)
T" 1:1 "'i if 1'IH:. &; !) '£ T 0 Detoroito wa Mishigan-shu ni arimasu.
(Detroit is in the State of Michigan.)

AI

74 aru 1

(c) ft1fB

Iv q) ?

0:.) 'i

- 7 - tJ;'rt ""0 Wada-san no uchi (ni) wa kura ga nai. (There is no air-

conditioner at Mr. Wada's.)

em 1. Aru expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate

things including abstract things such as events and problems. Thus,
(1) is ungrammatical.
(1) *

q)1HT

:. 'i 8 *AtJ; t¥.>

0 *Kono machi ni wa nihonjin ga BTU. (There are Japanese in this

town.) For animate things, iru l is used. 2. The negative informal form
of aru is not aranai but nai. 3. Two sentence patterns can be used
with aru. The KS (A) pattern is used when a location is presented as
a topic. In this case, what exists is under focus. In this pattern, the
location marker ni can optionally drop. The KS (B) pattern is used
when something which exists is presented as a topic. In this case,
where it exists is under focus. Compare the two patterns in (2).

(t:) iTU I )

(2) A: !f.

1i fB*

fj:

,:. &; !) '£ T tJ

o Waseda Daigaku wa doko ni arimasu ka. (Where is Waseda

University?) B : !f.

-afB*
fj:JRJj(':.&;!) '£To Waseda Daigaku wa Tokyo ni arimasu. (Waseda
University is in Tokyo.) A : JRJj( ,:. fi 1f!fi1i fB *

'- tJ

&; !) '£ -tt Iv tJ

0 Tokyo ni wa Waseda Daigaku shika arimasen ka. (Lit. Are there no

universities in Tokyo but Waseda Uni- versity? (= Is Waseda
University the only university in To- kyo?» B : """"x., JRJj(

:"i*

tJ

t::.. <

Iv&;!) '£To fe, Tokyo ni wa daigaku ga takusan arimasu. (No, there

are many universities in Tokyo.) 4. A thing (whether animate or
inanimate) can also occur in the location position of KS (A). In this
case, the sentence expresses possession rather than existence.
Examples:

aru 1 75

= -- A = - .. = iii

(3) a.

(1)
(I::)I;tj}-. A=;-V:;ttJ;t¥.>

o Kana kUTuma (ni) wa ka sutereo ga aTU. (Lit. There is a car

stereo in this car. (= This car has a car stereo.» b. fk (I::) 1;t1f!tJ; t¥.>

0 Watashi (ni) wa kuruma ga aTU. (Lit. There is a car with me. (= I

have a car.» Note that even if aru expresses the idea of possession,
possessed things are marked not by 0 but by ga. This is because 8ru
essentially indicates existence.

5. When aru is used to express the idea of having and the object is
animate, that object must be someone who maintains a very close
relationship with the possessor, such as a family member, a relative
or a friend. Thus, (4) is acceptable, but (5) is odd. (4) fL 0:.) 'i-
=f#ttJ;=:A &; Q 0 Watashi (ni) wa kodomo ga sannin aru. (I have
three children.) (5) ? ?fL 0:.) 'iimfi

tJ; &; Q 0 ? ?Watashi (ni) wa untenshu ga aru. (I have a chauffeur.)

Since aru in this usage is a possessive expression, it cannot be used
in situations where the idea indicates existence. Thus, (6) is
unacceptable.

{6) *fL 0:.) 'ifS:tJ; b ? &; !) '£ -tt No *Watashi (nl) wa haha ga mo
arimasen. (I don't have my mother now.) In this case, iru must be
used. 6. When aru is used for events such as parties and concerts,
the particle marking locations must be de as in (7). (t:) del; ni 6 ) (7) l;
13

A (7) ?

1: / * I:: /

-=;- .., - tJ; &; Q 0 Kyo Samu no uchi de I *ni pati ga aru. (There is a
party at Sam's today.) [Related Expressions] I. There is another
possessive expression, motte iru, which is the te-form of motsu C
hold' followed by the auxiliary verb iru. However, motte iru is used
only when the possessor is animate and the possessed thing

AI

76 aru 1 / aru 2

is inanimate. Thus, [1] is acceptable, but [2] and [3] are not. [1] .y 3

'i

'

'.

?-CL'

o Jon wa ii kuruma 0 matte iTU. (J ohn has a good car.) [2] *.y 3

'i9-*

?-CL'

0 *Jon wa imoto 0 matte iTU. (John has a younger sister.) [3] *

q). 'i

-7-
? -C L ,

0 *Kono kuruma wa kura 0 matte iTU. (This car has an air-

conditioner.) Groups and organizations of people such as political
parties, countries, institutions and companies can also be
possessors in sentences with motte iru, as in [4-]. [4]

q)*

'i

.tif

? -CL'

o Kono daigaku wa ii toshokan 0 matte iTU. (This university has a

good library.) II. Iru l is also used to express existence. However, iru l
IS used only for animate objects. (See Note 1.)

aru 2 «>.Q

aux. v. (Gr. 1)

S.t. has been done to s.t. and the

 resultant state of that action remai

have been done; be done [REL. iru 2 ; oku]

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Vte .:ttL 'i b? .y 3

,:. i! l, -C &;Q / &;!) '£-;-0 Sore - wa mo Jon ni hanashite aru / ari

masu . . (It's been told to John already.)

Formatien

aru 2 77 I A - -== - - - =

V te OJ Q aru

L -C OJ Q (has been told) hanashite aru

it"..;: -C OJ Q (has been eaten) tabete aru

Examples

(a)

Jj.

'i b ? M -:J -C OJ

'£ -;- 0 Nomimono wa mo katte arimasu. (Drinks have already been

bought.)

(b)

tJ

f*Ht -C OJ Q 0 Mado ga akete aru. (The window has been open I is

open.)

CD 1. Aru is used with V te as an auxiliary verb. Two points are

indicated by the V te aru expression: (A) Someone did something to
X. (Thus, Vte is usually a transitive verb.) (B) X is still in that state. X
is most frequently marked by the topic marker wa or the subject
marker ga; occasionally it is marked by the direct object marker o. 2.
The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or
obvious.

[Related Expressions] There are expressions similar to Vte aru,

namely, Vte iru and Vte oku. Let us compare [1] and [2] with Ex. (b).
[1]

tJ
OO

'-CL\

o Mado ga aite iTU. (The window is open.)

[2] fL 'i

mHt -C

< 0 Watashi wa mado 0 akete- oku. (I open / will open the window (in
advance).)

A : 78 aru 2 / ato de [1] simply means that the window is open. It

doesn't imply that someone opened it. Aite, the te-form of aku
copen', is an intransitive verb. As seen in [2], V te oku means C do
s.t. in advance for future convenience'. An im- portant difference
between V te aru and V te oku is that the former expresses a state,
while the latter expresses an action. Note that in V te oku sentences,
the agent is not omitted unless it is known. ato de «> c conj. Some
state or action takes place at a ::: : ways immediately) after another
state or action has taken place. after [REL. tara; te kara] (ANT. mae
ni) I -.. -",..... ."..... - ...,....,. ,..... ,.....,, . Key Sentences (A)
Subordinate Clause Topic (subject) Predicate Vinf. past j .{ '/ './ Iv 'i
13 * -... ij? t=. &; 1f4 3lt :. t,t. -:J t::.. / Meison-san wa Nihon e itta ato
de b yoki ni natta / trt '£ '- t::.. o narimashita. (Mr. Mason became ill
after he went to Japan.) (B) Topic (subject) Noun (event) fL 'i ti. q) bJ
. :. ff -:J t::.. / Watashi wa jug yo no ato de toshokan ni itta / ff '£ '- t::..
o ikimashita. (After the class I went to the library.)

ato de 79
-- A ==

=====

Formatien

KS( A) : Vinf. past bJ

ato de

15 L t::.. bJ

(after s.o. has talked/had talked) hanashita ato de

it'" t::.. &;

(after s.o. has eaten/had eaten) tabeta ato de

KS(B) : N q) bJ
 no ato de

Ml%! q) &;

benkyo no ato de

(after study)

Examples

(a)

!&

it'" t::.. &;

) -;- <

Ml%! L '£ L t::.. o Gohan 0 tabeta ato (de) sugu benkyoshimashita. (I

studied right after I had eaten my meal.)

(b)

lHB

N Ii 1::" -Iv
N t.: &;

-c L'£ -:J t::.. o Yamada-san wa biru 0 nonda ato (de) nete shimatta.
(Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.)

(c)

!fttJ

b-:Jt::..&;

)J'tjj(':, b

"

'£ Lt::.. o Senso ga owatta ato (de) Tokyo ni modorimashita. (I went

back to Tokyo after the war ended.)

(d) it$q) &;

7 =- A
Lt::.. o Shokuji no ato de tenisu 0 shita. (I played tennis after my
meal.)

CD

The particle de may be omitted in informal speech.

[Related Expressions] I. Vinf.past ato de is crucially different from

Vte kara in two respects: Vte kara is very awkward if the main clause
expresses something beyond the control of the subject or the
speaker of the sentence. Vinf.past ato de is free from such
restriction.

' A --

: ...

80 ato de

[1] fLtJ

---
-:Jt.:t¥.>c!::\! / ???

-:J-CtJ';fijtJ

-:Jt::..o Watashi ga uchi e kaetta ata de / ???kaette kaTa ame ga

futta. (It rained after I came home.) Secondl y, V te kara indicates C
the space of time following after', but Vinf.past ato de indicates C any
space of time after '. Thus,

[2] a*---*-ctJ'; / **t':t¥.>c!::\!{PJ

,:.t.t

'!-;-tJ\o Nihon e kite kaTa / *kita ata de nannen ni narimasu ka? (How
many years have passed since you came to Japan?) (t:) kaTa 2 ) II.
Vinf.past ato de can be replaced by Vinf.past ra when the latter is
used with a purely temporal meaning (i.e., C after', C when '). Thus,
Exs. (a), (b) and (c) can be rephrased as [3a], [3b] and [3c],
respectively. [3] a.

!!i

1t

t.:;-;- <

Ml%l L'! Lt::.. o Gohan 0 tabetaTa sugu benkyoshimashita. b.

fB

Iv'i ]::" - Iv

Iv t=. ;
-C L '! -:J t::.. 0 Yamada-san wa biru 0 nondaTa nete shimatta.

c.

!fttJ

b -:J t.:; JRJj( ,:. b

!) '! L t::.. o Senso ga owattaTa Tokyo ni modorimashita. However, if

Vinf. past ra has a non-temporal meaning (i.e., C if '), it can- not be
replaced by Vinf.past ato de, as illustrated by [4]. [4] a. a *---fT -:J t.:;
/ *fT -:J t.: t¥.> c!:: \!

, -c.* L.t ? 0 Nihon e ittaTa / *itta ata de ii desho. (Lit. It would be nice
if you go to Japan. ( = You should go to Japan.» b.

tL

lvt=.; / *

lvt=.t¥.>c!::\!}!? -c.*-;-tJ

o Kore 0 yondaTa / *yonda ata de do desuka. (Lit. How would it be if

you read this. (= Why don't you read this?»

(t:) taTa)
ba 81 ba It conj. the preceding clause expresses a con- dition . '-"" .
Key Sentence if [REL. taTa (nara, t0 4 )] = 0 = iiiiii == Subordinate
Clause (condition) Main Clause (7) iX If .t< trt Q / trt !) '£ -;- 0 Kono
kusuri 0 nome ba yoku naru / nari masu. (If you take this medicine,
you'll get well.) Fermatien (i) Gr. 1 verbs: Vcond Ii ba -ttli (if s.o. talks)
hanaseba (ii) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem tLlf reba (iii) Irr. verbs: (i v) Adjs (i): (
v) Adjs (na): (vi) N +cop.: (if s.o. eats) itA:tL'i tabereba *G -+ * tli kuru
kureba (if s.o. comes) -;- Q -+ -;- tL If suru sureba (if s.o. does) Adj (i)
stem ,t tL Ii kereba rBi ,t tL'i (if s.t. is expensive) takakereba Adj (na)
stem (trt Oi) / -e,; OJtLlf} (nara(ba) / de areba} (fittJ trt Of) / 1ffttJ -e,;
OJnlf} (shizukanara{ba) / shizukade areba} N (trt Of) /""t<' OJnlf}
(nara(ba) / de areba} (if s.t. is quiet)

82 ba

=0=

== -- -

(%!:E t.t G Of) / %!:E

;bh

f} (if s.o. is a teacher) (sensei nara(ba) / sensei de areba}

Exan1ples
(a)

it

*%!:E':.r18

t ,f7ttJ

* To Kore wa Matsumoto-sensei ni kikeba wakarimasu. (You'll

understand it if you ask Prof. Matsumoto.) W

ffn

+7t

ffn

o Sono machi wa kuruma de ikeba sanjuppun de ikeru. (You can get

to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.) (c) :t(

th

fJ( "" * To Yasukereba kaimasu. (I'll buy it if it's cheap. I I would buy it
if it were cheap.) (d)

' tJ
;b tL 'fJj{m-.. t ff

t::.. ""0 Jikan ga areba Kyoto e mo ikitai. (If I have time, I want to go
to Kyoto, too. / If I had time, I would want to go to Kyoto, too.) (e)
j!t::..

t hlij!t.t

""0 Mitakereba minasai. (If you want to see it, see it.)

(f) lfi*h

ht

-:J -C < t!.

""0 Dekireba kore mo yatte kudasai. (Please do this, too, if you can.)

em 1. "SI ba S2" basically expresses a general conditional

relationship between the two propositions represented by SI and S2.
SI represents a condition and S2 a proposition which holds or will
hold true under the condition. (Ba is, in fact, the origin of the topic
marker wa.) 2. S2 can be a statement of the speaker's volition or
hope, as in Exs. (c) and (d). (t:) to 4 ) 3. S2 can be a command, a
request or a suggestion, as in Exs. (e) and (f). In this case, however,
Sl cannot be an action. Thus, in (1) and (2) ba is ungrammatical. (t:)
naTa; tara)

(1) UJ*

Iv tJ
*t.:

/ **tLI:nt G -it-C < t!.

""0 Yamamoto-san ga kitaTa I *kuTeba shirasete kudasai. (If Mr.

Yamamoto comes in, please let me know.)

ba 83

(2)

:fJ ::f -"17 < (0)) tl

/ *i7lt r;t/{ A ""t:ff -:J t::.. r::,

? ""t:-riPo Shikago e iku (no) naTa I *ikeba basu de ittara do desu ka.
(If you go to Chicago, why don't you go by bus?) 4. SI can express
both factual and counterfactual conditions. Thus, Exs. (c) and (d) can
be either factual or counterfactual statements. (t:) ba yokatta) 5. Sl
can be a state or an event in the past if it is counterfactual or
habitual. Examples: (3) t -:J !: :t(.t h

iJ( \-'\ * '- t::.. o Motto yasukereba kaimashita. (I would have bought it
if it had been much cheaper.) (4) mtJ

tLfi J: < *""t:*

i1Clvt.: t (/) t.: o Ame ga fureba yoku ie de hon 0 yonda mono da.
(When it rained, I often read at home.) However, SI cannot be a
single factual event in the past even if it rep- resents a condition, as
seen in (5). (t:) taTa)
=0=------------

(5) J3 *-..ff":) t=.

/ *fjlt ';f J3 *mtJ

l:-=F':' t.t -:J t::.. o Nihon e ittaTa I *ikeba nihongo ga jozuni natta. (I
became good at Japanese when I went to Japan.) 6. "SI ba S2" does
not mean more than a conditional relationship; therefore, this
construction cannot be used when the speaker wants to suggest
some thing by a conditional sentence. For example, (6) does not
suggest that one should not approach the cage. It is acceptable only
when it means, as a mere conditional statement, that one is in
danger under the condition that one gets close to the cage. (6) .:t (/)
to

,:.)[[-3.t

i;b

t.t \-'\""t: T J: 0 Sono ori ni chikazukeba abunaidesu yo. (It is

dangerous if you get close to the cage.) (In order to suggest that one
should not approach the cage, chikazuku to or chikazuitara is used
instead of chikazukeba.) 7. There are some idiomatic expressions
which utilize the "SI ba S2" construction. (t:) ba yokatta; nakeTeba
naTanai; to ieba)

84 bakar; bakari rtfJ'!J prt. = 0 = I == iiii a particle which indicates

that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o.
will take, takes, is taking or took only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have
just done s.t. ; just did s.t. ; be just doing s.t.; about [REL. hodo
(kurai); shika (dake); tOkOTO da 2 ] """"""' ...-. . Key Sentences (A)
Topic (subject) Vinf.nonpast :r-t!-r - i tt .Q i tJ r:. t.t -:J '"'( \-" \-""1To D
eza to wa tabeTU bakari ni na tte iru imasu. (Lit. The only thing left to
do with the dessert is to eat it. ( = The dessert is ready to eat.» (B)
Topic (subject) Vte -Jj:=f i N-C: 'i tJ \-" / \-""1To T omoko wa asonde
bakari iru / imasu. (Lit. The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing.
(=Tomoko is doing nothing but playing.» (C) Topic (subject) Vinf. past
fL 'i !!i tt t= 'i tJ t!. / To Watashi wa hirugohan 0 t abet a bakari da /
desu. . (Lit. I had my lunch and haven't done anything else since
then. (=1 have just eaten my lunch.» (D) Topic (subject) Adj -::..(/)
vAr7 i itL' i tJ t!. / To K ono resutoran . wa yasui bakari da / desu. .
(Lit. The only merit of this restaurant is that the food IS inexpensive.
(= This restaurant is just cheap.»

bakari 85

(E)

Topic (subject) Noun T=-A - 'i I::" - Jif

itJ

Iv

\-"

/ \-"*1-0 Denisu wa biTU bakari nonde iru I imasu. . (Dennis is

drinking only beer.)

= 0 = !!!!

-- ::::::::
(F)

Topic (subject) Quantifier fL 'i u.t:JJ

i tJ

..I':

r:. \-" t::.. / \-" * '- t::.. o Watashi wa hitotsuki bakari Pari ni ita /
imashita. (I was in Paris for about a month.)

Formation

( i) Vinf. nonpast

i tJ

bakari

881""

i tJ

hanasu bakari
(be ready to talk)

1t

itJ

taberu bakari (ii) Vte

itJ

bakari 81S '- -C 'i tJ

(be just talking) hanashite bakari

(be ready to eat)

it'" -C

!tJ

(be just eating) tabete bakari (iii) Vinf.past ,!tJ

 bakari

.5 '- t.: (i tJ

(have just talked) hanashita bakari 1t."'t.: 'itJ

(have just eaten) tab eta bakari (iv) {Adj (i) inf.nonpast I Adj (na)
stem t

iip

na bakari

86 bakari

BI

rt1jv\ 'itJ

!J (just expensive) takai bakari fit tJ

t,t

i tJ

(just quiet) shizukana bakari ( v) N 'i tJ

 bakari

:%!:E

i tJ

!J sensei bakari

(only teachers)

(vi) N Prt 'itJ

bakari

!:E ,.:

itJ

(only to students) gakusei ni bakari (vii) Quantifier 'itJ

bakari -

rfl' 'itJ
(about an hour) ichijikan bakari

Examples

(a)

- " ':1;b c!::

.<

itJ

t.: o Kono repoto wa ato ketsuron 0 kaku bakari da. (The only thing
left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.) (b) :{fiI'inr\-'\-c

itJ

\-'\-cfPJt

iS.:t? c!:: '-t

v\o Harue wa naite bakari ite nanimo hanaso to shinai. (Harue is just
crying and won't talk about anything.) (c) t

UJ
Iv

:fJ ::f ,:.tf \-'\ t::..

i tJ

To Matsuyama-san wa ima Shikago ni tsuita bakari desu. (Mr.

Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.) (d)

tt$'i

Iv c!::* ? t

'itJ

;b *

t ? tJ

* it Iv o Kono shigoto wa mendona bakari de amari m6karimasen.

(This job is just troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.) (e)

,:.{tlv

\-'\;;'
'i

!:E

itJ

t.: o Kono ry6 ni sunde iru no wa danshi gakusei bakari da. (The
students who are living in this dorm are all boys.) (f) 7.{ ':I

-\" -96!:E

i !J

c!::

itJ

'- -c \-,\;;' 0 Fissha-sensei wa Risa to bakari hanashite iru. (Prof.

Fisher is talking only with Lisa.)

bakari / ba yokatta 87 (go) + A 1.tJ ittJ -=F -:J -C < h * '- t::.. o Junin
bakari no tomodachi ga tetsudatte kuremashita. (About ten friends
helped me.) CD 1. The basic idea which bakari expresses is that
there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf.nonpast precedes
bakari, the whole expres- sion means there is nothing left to do (to
complete something) but what is stated by the verb. In some
contexts, Vinf. nonpast bakari means that someone does nothing but
what is stated. Example: (1) 1&:'i ? ':fJ' I.) -C*{iiJ t ijJJ '- -C < ht \-"0
Kare wa WSTSU bsksTi de nanimo setsumeishite kurenai. (He just
laughs and doesn't explain anything to me.) 2. When Vinf. past
precedes bakari, the whole expression means that there has been
almost no time for anything to happen since what is stated took
place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just
done something. 3. When bakari follows" N ga" or " No", ga or 0
drops. The directional e and ni may be either deleted or retained.
Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by bakari. 4.
Bakari in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and
this usage is still seen in the "Quantifier bakari" pattern, where bakari
means 'about'. _ 0 = = = - - - - == -- == ba yokatta It J: fJ\ -::> t:. phr. I
a phrase which expresses the speak- er's regret I '" I wish - had done
s.t. [REL. te yokatta] . Key Sentence Subordinate Clause (condition)
Main Clause 96!:E ,:. Pl,1lt 1. J:. tJ -:J t:. / J:. tJ -:J t::.. -c* T 0 Sensei
ni kike ba yokatta / yokattadesu. (I wish I had asked my teacher.)

88 ba yokatta

Formatien

-B

== iiiii

( i) Gr. 1 verbs: Vcond 'i J: tJ

-:J t::.. ba yokatta :

-tt

i J: tJ

-:J t::.. hanase ba yokatta (ii) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem h

i J: tJ
-:J t::.. reba yokatta tt.r.:::it

i J: tJ

-:J t::.. (I wish s.o. had eaten) tabereba yokatta

(I wish s.o. had talked)

(iii) Irr. verbs:

-+ *tL

i J: tJ

-:J t::.. kuru kureba yokatta T

-+ TtL

! J:. tJ

-:J t::.. suru sureba yokatta

(I wish s.o. had come)

(I wish s.o. had done)

Examples

(a) tb

ME

i J: tJ

-:J t::.. o Ano hon 0 yomeba yokatta. (I wish I had read that book.) (b)
rj.:r. /v:X

Iv'i J3 *-..ff

i J: tJ

-:J t::..b o Ueruzu-san wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta nee (I wish Mr.

Wells had gone to Japan, don't you?) (c) tb tb, t -:J c!::

%i '- -C to

t 'i J: tJ

-:J t::.. t

tbo A, motto eigo 0 benkyoshite okeba yokatta na. (Oh, I wish I had
studied English harder!)
.. 1. V cond ba yokatta is an idiomatic expression which means' I
wish - had done s.t.' It consists of a conditional clause with ba and
yokatta ' was good' and literally means' It would have been good if -
had done s.t.' 2. When there is no subject in a ba-clause sentence,
the first person IS the implicit subject. 3. This expression is often
used with exclamatory words such as a 'oh' and the sentence-final
particle of exclamation na, as in Ex. (c). 4. "S.o. (other than the first
person) wishes - had done s.t." is expressed using this phrase and
the verb omou 'think', as in (1). (t:)iTU 2 , Note 4; to 3 )

ba yokatta 89

(1) 1:. Iv 'i J3 * -.. ff.t

:f J: tJ

-:J t::.. c!:: 1Fi!!.. -:J ""( \-' \

0 Biru wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta to omotte iru. (Lit. Bill thinks that it
would have been good if he had gone to Japan. ( = Bill wishes he
had gone to Japan.»

=0=------------

iiji; ==

[Rela ted Ex pression] In U Vcond ba yakatta ", Vcond ba expresses

a counterfactual action or state in the past. In a similar expression U
Vte yokatta ", Vte expresses a factual action or state in the past.
Compare [1] with Ex. (a). [1] ;b

MtIv

J: tJ

-:J t::.. o Ano hon 0 yonde yokatta. (Lit. It was good that I read that
book. (= I'm glad I read that book.»)

90 dai :====" 0 - i I dai t::. L \ prt. f ; particle which indi- j ( cates a

WH-question in informal male speech [REL. ka 2 ; kai] . Key
Sentences (A) Subject Adj (na) stem / N }! .,.. : tJ IffJ' t!. \-' \ 0 '- :
Doko ga shizuka dai. (What place is quiet?) (B) Sentence (informal)t
t!.h tJ ff < Iv t!. \-' \ 0 Dare ga iku n dai. (Who is going?) tDa after Adj
(na) stem and N changes to na. Formatien ( i) {Adj (na) stem / N} t!.\-
'\ dai 1f/t1J\ t!.\-'\ (s.t. is quiet?) shizuka dai 96!£ t!. \-' \ (s.o. is a
teacher?) sensei dai ( ii) {V I Adj (i)} inf Iv t!. \-'\ n dai { iSt" I '-t } Iv t!.\-
'\ (s.o. talks / talked?) {hanasu / hanashita} n dai {rwi \-' \ / rwi tJ '? t }
Iv t!. \-'\ (s. t. is / was expensive?) {takai / takakatta} n dai (iii) {Adj
(na) stem / N} {t / t!. -:J t::..} Iv t!. \-'\ {na / datta } n dai

n"t

l1fjtn"t

-:J t::..} (shizukana I shizukadatta) {%

t.t, I:%!:E t

-:J t::.. } {sensei na I sensei datta}

Iv t!. ", n dai Iv t!." , n dai

Examples

(a) ffi '- ,,'ft*,:!

?t

"'0 A earashii shigoeo wa do dai. (How's your new job?) (b) d:>

A 'i t!. h t

"'0 Ano hito wa dare dai. (Who is that person?) (c) fiiJtJ

tdtJ

'- "'lvt

"'o Nani ga okashii n dai. (What's funny?) (d)

A tJ

Ki96!:E t

Iv t!.'" 0 Dono hi eo ga Sa to-sensei na n dai. (Which person is Prof.

Sa to?)

...
dai 91

(s.t. is I was quiet?)

(s.o. is I was a teacher?)

=0==-

1. Dai can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in

boys' speech, as in (1) (1) a.

h'i

"'o Kore wa boku no dai. (This is mine.) b.

t ff < Iv t

'" 0 Boku mo iku n dai. (I will go, too.) 2. When dai is used with
interrogative sentences, the sentences must be WH-questions.
Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical. (2) a. *;b

A':!96!:Et

"'o *Ano hito wa sensei dai. (Is that person a teacher?) b. *ftaI

Iv t ff < Iv t
"'0 *Murata-san mo iku n dai. (Is Mr. Murata going, too?) For yes-no
questions, kai is used.

(t:) ksi)

' 0 = i II

92 dai

3. Questions with dai, as in KS (A), and those with n dai, as in KS

(B), cor- respond to questions without no desu and those with no
desu in formal speech, respectively. (c:> no da) 4. Dai actually
consists of the copula da and the particle i. Thus, it can follow only
na-type adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents. The following
sentences are ungrammatical because dai follows a verb or an i-type
adjective. (3) a. * t.: tL tJ;fT < t.: "\0 *Dare ga iku dai. (Who is going?)
b . * l: tL tJ

.t3 t '- 0 ,,\ t.: " \ 0 *Dore ga omoshiroi dai. (Which one is interesting?)
N dai can follow verbs and i-type adjectives, as in KS (B) and Ex. (c),
because n is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of n0 3 ) and it
changes the preceding sentence into a noun equivalent. 5. In
informal male speech, questions as in (3) are expressed as in (4),
with rising intonation.

(4) a. t.: tL tJ;fT < ? Dare ga iku? (Who is going?) b. l: tLtJ

.t3 t '- 0 ,,\? Dore ga omoshiroi? (Which one is interesting?) 6. The

past form of dai is dattai, but it IS not frequently used. The more
frequently used past form of dai is datta with rising intonation, as
seen in (5). (5) a. ffi '- "\tf::

tHi l: ? t.: -:J t::.. ? Atarashii shigoto wa do datta? (How was your new
job?) b . l:

tJ

1fft tJ

t.: -:J t:. ? Doko ga shizukadatta? (What place was quiet?) [Related
Expression] In informal speech, the question marker ka (i.e., ka 2 )
IS not usually used.

dai / dake 93 The following chart summarizes the endings for

informal questions. Formal Male, informal Female, Note informal
yes-no Sinf tJ \; Sinf Sinf Da after Adj (na) question kai stem and N
drops. yes-no Sinf (f) tJ \; Sinf (f) Sinf (f) Da after Adj (na) question
no kai no no stem and N changes with no desu to na. WH-question
Sinf; Sinf Da after Adj (na) {Adj (na) stem / N} t!. \ stem and N drops.
dai WH-question Sinf Iv t!. \; Sinf (f) S inf (f) Da after Adj (na) wi th no
desu n dai no no stem and N changes to na. = 0 = ;; i Sinf ka is used
in very informal speech or in vulgar speech. Female informal endings
can also be used by male speakers. dake t=(j prt. > a particle which
expresses a limit im- ( ) posed upon something that IS grow- > ing
and expanding ) only; just; alone; merely; that's all [REL. shika
(bakar;)] . Key Sentences (A) Subject Predicate A.'=:A. A, t!. It ( tJ;)
*t::.. / ** Lt::.. o Sumisu-san dake (ga) kita / kimashita. (Only Mr.
Smith came.)

94 dake

(B)
=-=-== 01

Number-Counter fL 'i a* -- -Ii t.: It fi -:J t::.. / fi

"1 '- t::.. 0 Watashi wa Nihon e ichido dake itta / ikimashita. (I went to
Japan only once.)

(C)

Sentence Vinf 1'1-r

1v c!: 'i T- ,.. t, t;: t.: It t.: / "t:-r 0 Yukiko-san to wa dito shita dake da /
desu. (I just dated Yukiko, that's all.)

(D)

Sentence Adj (i) inf ::'(1) * 'i *

L' t.: It t!. / "t:-r 0 Kono ie wa 6kii dake da / desu. (This house is big,
that's all.)

(E)
Sentence Adj (na) stem ::'(1) id

-r 'i

tJ

t1.L' fJ. t!. It t!. / "t:-r 0 Kono o-kashi wa "0 ga kiTei na dake da / desu.
(This cake has pretty colors, that's all.)

Formatien

( i) N t!. It (tJ

) / (a:) dake (ga) / (0) 96!:E tf. It (tJ

) / (a:) sensei dake (ga) / (0) ( i i) N It!. ,t Prt / Prt tf. ,t } {dake Prt / Prt
dake } 96!:E {t!. It ,:. / ,:. t!. It } sensei 'dake ni / ni dake}

(the teacher alone (subject) / (direct object»

(where Prt = particles other than ga, 0, and wa) (only to the teacher /
to the teacher alone)

dake 95
(iii) {V / Adj (i)} inf t!. ,t It!. /""(* -r} dake Ida / desu} {g5-r / g5 L t::..} t!.
,t It!. / ""(*-r} (s.o. talks / talked, that's all) {hanasu / hanshita} dake
Ida / desu} {rwi

\ / rNitJ

-:Jt::..} t!.,t {t.: / ""(*-r} (s.t. is / was expensive, that's all) {takai /
takakatta} dake Ida / desu} (iv) Adj (na) stem {t

/ t!.-:Jt::..} t.:,t It!. / ""(*-r) {na / datta} dake Ida / desu} {r;tJ

/ 1ffttJ

t!. -:J t::..} t!..t It!. /""(*-r} (s.t. is / was quiet, that's {shizukana /
shizukoclatta} dake Ida / desu} all)

= ==---= 0 . = .

Examples

(a) {£Ki

Ivt!.lt (i1

m':.m* Lt::.. o Sat6-san dake (ga) kaigi ni demashita. (Only Mr. Sato
attended the conference.) (b) IJ'
\fl]

At!.lt(

)R

\* Lt::.. o Chisai waeijiten dake (0) kaimashita. (I bought only a small

Japanese-English dictionary.) (c)

,:. t!. ,t / t!. ,t ,:. a5 L -C r

\o Boku ni dake / dake ni hanashite kudasai. (Please tell it only to me

/ to me alone.) W

7N

-N""(*

""(*

*-ro Kono kuruma wa aruk6ru de dake / dake de ugokimasu. (This

car runs only on alcohol (and on nothing else) / on alcohol alone (so
it needs nothing else).) (e) cb
96!:E':":t-lflt.:'t

\* L-t::.. o Ano sensei ni wa ichido dake aimashita. (I met that

professor only once.) (f)

Hi

-1:: -a:-

trt!"t""(*-ro Asa wa k6hi 0 ippai nomu dake desu. (In the morning I
just drink a cup of coffee, that's all.) (g)

*,:trr6

\t.:,t""(*.t3 t L0 < t

\o K ono hon wa taka; dake de omoshirokunai. (This book is just

expensive and is not interesting.) (h) T'::' A fin-

t!. It""(* l:-=¥ t:

\o Tenisu wa sukina dake de j6zuja nai. (I just like tennis, and I'm not
good at it.)
DI

96 dake (0

tL 'j:

!:E t.: ,t Q).I

- T .-( - t.: -:J t::.. o Sore wa gakusei dake no pat; datta. (It was a
party for students only.) (j) m*o t.:lt '9> -:J <

5 '- -Cr

\o Dekiru dake yukkuri hanashite kudasai. (Please speak as slowly

as possible.)

CD 1. When dake modifies a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c),

and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned
before or after dake, except for the particles ga, 0 and wa, which can
be optionally used only after dake. 2. The optional positionings of the
particles other than ga, 0 and wa create a subtle semantic
difference. Distinctive emphasis is placed on the particle, yielding a
meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N + Prt + dake. No meaning
of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N +dake + Prt. 3. If dake is
used in: { {V / Adj (i)} inf } - . +dake Ida / desu} {AdJ (na) stem {na /
datta} as illustrated by KSs (C), (D) and (E), dake modifies the entire
pre- ceding part and means ' -, that's all.' Compare (la) and (lb)
below: (1) a. 1I.\f:lt(

)itA-t::.o Sakana dake (0) tabeta. (I ate only fish.) b. 11.\

it A- t::.. f: It t.: 0 Sakana 0 tabeta dake da. (I ate fish, that's all.) In (1
a) dake modifies only the preceding noun sakana 'fish', while in (1 b)
dake modifies the entire preceding part of the sentence sakana o
tabeta ' I ate fish.'

4. V(Potential)+dake as in Ex. (j) means' as much as one can (2) a.

itA- tJ tL 0 f: It itA- t::..

\o Taberareru dake tabetai. (I'd like to eat as much as I can (eat).)

,-.

dake / dake de (wa) naku - (mo) 97 b. MtLQ t:.:ltM 0 ? 0 Odoreru

dake odoro. (Let's dance as much as we can (dance).) = = 0 = I i
dake de (wa) naku - (mo) f= (j 1:' (1;1:) < - (t» phr. not only X but also
Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, an adjecti ve not only
- but also - [REL. bakari de (wa) naku - (mo)] . Key Sentences (A)
Topic (subject) Vinf 'bJ(f) A ,:1 J:< M Tg tf. It -c: Oi) t < J:< Ano hito
wa yoku benkyosuTU dake de (wa) naku yoku jQf / irf{} * To asobu /
asobimasu. (He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.) (B) Topic
(subject) Adj (i) inf 'bJ(f) A 'i jj1 tJ L'L' tf. It -c: ('i) t < J:< fll%i Ano hi to
wa atama ga ii dake de (wa) naku yoku benkyo (t) TQ / L*To (mo)
suru / shimasu. (He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.)

98 dake de (wa) naku - (mo)

(C)

iii
Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem ::'(1) ;'tj fi

tLL' fJ. t

ft -c: Oi) t

< c-ct Kono uchi wa kiTei na dake de (wa) naku totemo ii:

\ (-c:-r)o yasui (desu). (This house is not only beautiful but it is also
inexpensive.)

(D)

Subject Predicate Noun Noun

3/ t!. ft -c: ('i) t

< ;1.71)- t *t.:. / ** Lt::.. o Jon dake de (wa) naku MeaT; mo kita /
kimashita. (Not only John but also Mary came here.)

Formatien

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf t.: ,t -c: (Ii) t

< (not only -) dake de (wa) naku {

5-r /

Lt::..} t.:,t -c: Oi) t

< (s.o. not only speaks / {hanasu / hanashita} dake de (wa) naku
spoke -) {iNi

\/rr6tJ

-:Jt::..} t.:ft -c: (Ii) t

< (s.t. is/was not only {takai / takakatta} dake de (wa) naku
expensive -)

(ii)

Adj (na) stem (tJ: / f.="') t::..} {na / datta} {Jtt tJ

t.t / t(; tJ' t!. -:J t::..} {shizukana / shizukadatta}

t.: ,t -c: (Ii) t.t < dake de (wa) naku t.: ft -c: Oi) t.t < dake de (wa) naku

(not only -)

(s. t. is / was not only quiet -)

(iii) N {0 / f'="'J t::..} t!.ft -c: Oi) t.t < (not only -) {0 / datta} dake de
(wa) naku {96!:E /96!:E t':-:Jt::..} t!"t -c: <'i) t.t< (not only teachers /
not {sensei / sensei datta} dake de (wa) naku only s.o. was a
teacher)
dake de (wa) naku - (mo) 99

Examples

(a) £YJQ)A'i/J'

a:Mftrt.:lt-c:,:tt

<.

*To Ano hito wa sh6setsu 0 yomu dake de wa naku kakimasu. (He

not only reads novels but also writes them.) (b) 7

=j ?

Iv'i f3 *-..fj' -:J t::.. t.: It -c: ,:t t

< fi:1v t.:

c t cb

* To Buraun-san wa Nihon e itta dake de wa naku sunda koto mo

arimasu. (Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has also lived
there.) (c)

Q)7 .I

- "'i
\t.:lt-c:t

<*

\-C:To Kono apato wa takai dake de naku taihen semaidesu. (This

apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.) (d) $-r'i

tJ

J: tJ

-:J t::.. t.: It -c: 'i t

<, c -c t tJl m-c: L t::.. o Sachiko wa atama ga yokatta dake de wa

naku, totemo shinsetsu- deshita. (Sachiko was not only bright but
was also very kind.) (e)

Q).,:t

tL

\t

t.:,t-c:,:tt

<, J: <

*To Kono kuruma wa kireina dake de wa naku, yoku hashirimasu.

(This car is not only pretty but also runs well.) (f) f3 *A t.: It -c: t

< 7 ;) !J -j} A t J: < fjlj

* To Nihonjin dake de naku amerikajin mo yoku hatarakimasu. (Not

only Japanese but also Americans work hard.) (g)
f;j"

Iv'i 7 ;) !J -j}

3-p

.I

t.:,t-c:,:tt

< JRm7.y7 ,:. t J: < m

L * To Nakamura-san wa Amerika ya Y6roppa dake de wa naku

T6nan Ajia ni mo yoku shutch6shimasu. (Mr. Nakamura makes a
business trip not only to America and Europe but also to Southeast
Asia.) (h) .y 3

'/

Iv':t f1 *

ft t!. It -c: IJ: t

< tp oom t

i51t * To Jonson-san wa nihongo dake de wa naku chtJgokugo mo

hanasemasu. (Mr. Johnson can speak not only Japanese but also
Chinese.) CD

== o ==:! - - - - - - = ==- - - - - - -

In " Noun - dake de (wa) naku Noun - mo", the two nouns can be fol-
lowed by various particles.
(1) .:pkiH:t

}i(tJ\;) t.:lt-c:'it

< 96!:EtJ\; t** Lt::.. o Tegami wa tomodachi (kaTa) dake de wa naku

sensei kaTa mo kimashita. (Letters came not only from my friends
but also from my teachers.)

100 dake de (wa) naku - (mo) / daro ' 0 = ! !! (2) .:pkiHi }i(f::) t.:Jt-C:'it
< 96!:EI:: t * Lt::.. o Tegami wa tomodachi (ni) dake de wa naku
sensei ni mo kakimashita. (I wrote letters not only to my friends, but
also to my teachers.) [Related Expression] In the majority of cases
dake can be replaced by bakari. When one needs to define limitation
in a rigid way, however, dake is preferable. For example: [1] [Teacher
to his student.] cb L t::.. * -c: ,:. + t:: It /?? r:tJ'''J -c: t < +- t fll%t L -
C.t3 t \o Ashita made ni jukka dake / ?? bakaTi de naku jtJikka mo
benkyo- shite okinasai. (Study not only Lesson 10 but also Lesson
11 by tomorrow.) (c:> dake) dare t:.. '5 -5 allX. j ;: ;i1 i i ak j
conjecture which is not based on any particular information or
evidence ( ,.... ...... "...... .............. ! probabl y [REL. kamoshiTenai (ni
chi- gainai); yoda (rashii, soda 2 )] . Key Sentence Sentence
(informal)t 7 . - '/ Iv 'i a* i< t!. 0? / -c: L J: ? 0 Andason-san wa Nihon
e iku daro / desho. (Ms. Anderson will probably go to Japan.) tDa
after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

daro 101

Fermation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf t!. 0 ? daro

{aiS-r / giS Lt::..} {hanasu / hanashita}

t!. 0 ? daro

= (s.o. will probably talk / probably talked) = 0 =

v\ / iNitJ

-:J t.:.} {takai / takakatta} (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N}

t:. 0 ? daro

(s.t. is / was probably expensive)

{0 / t!. -:J t::..} {0 / datta} (fit t,p / r;;/)\ t!. -:J t::..} t!. 0 ? {shizuka /
shizukadatta} daro

t!. 0 ? daro (s.t. is / was probably quiet)

{JIG!:E /:%!:E t!. -:J t::..} {sensei / sensei datta}

t!. 0 ? daro

(s.o. is / was probably a teacher)

Examples

(a) cb (f) 7 .I

- " ':1if6v\-C: L J: ? 0 Ano apato wa takai desho. (That apartment is

probably expensive.) (b) p.y -y - 'i A

- tJU-=Ft!. 0 ? 0 Roja wa ski ga jozu daro. (Roger is probably good at

skiing.) (c) cb (f) A ,:1 tp OOA t!. 0 ? 0 Ano hi to wa chugokujin daro.
(That man is probably Chinese.) CD

1. Daro is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula da, but
it is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is desho.
2. Probability adverbs such as tabun, osoraku and kitto are
sometimes used with daro or desho. The speaker's conjecture
sounds more certain with tabun or osoraku, and even more certain
with kitto. Examples: (1) 7

1/" - '/

lv'it;:,5
N f3 *-..tT < t:. 0 ? 0 Andason-san wa tabun Nihon e iku daro. (Ms.
Anderson will most probably go to Japan.) (2) 7

- '/

Iv ,:1

f3 *-..fi < t!. 0 ? 0 Andason-san wa kitto Nihon e iku daro. (I'm almost
certain that Ms. Anderson will go to Japan.)

:== 0 = ! - 102 daro / -dasu 3. Daro / desho with the question marker
ka makes questions softer or less direct. Compare (3) and (4). (3) *
t:. .t ? 1: T b'o Daijobu desu ka. (Is it all right?) (4) * t:. .t ? 1: I., J: ?
b'o Daijobu desha ka. (I wonder if it's all right.) 4. S daro / desho with
rising intonation asks for the hearer's agreement. (5) a. b rr < f=. ? ?
Kimi mo iku daTa? (You will go too, (am I) right?) b. ;:, tL, tL '1: I., J: ?
? Kore, kirei desha? (Isn't this pretty?) The sentence-final particle ne
also asks for the hearer's agreement, but S daro / desho with rising
intonation is softer or less direct. (t:) ne) Compare (5a) with (6). (6)
brr<no Kimi mo iku nee (You will go too, won't you?) -dasu -W-r aux.
'V. (Gr. 1) ....... out; begin to; start to [REL. -hajimeru] (ANT. -owaru)

-dasu 103

. Key Sentence

Subject V masu 1ff tJ

IJJ

ttl L t::.. / ttl L * L t::.. o Kuruma ga ugoki dashita / dashimashita. .

(The car started to move.)

-=-==0

D ' = , = , = : == :

Fermation

Vmasu ttl-r- dasu t

Lttl-r- (s.o. starts to talk) hanashidasu

1t

ttl-r- tabedasu

(s.o. starts to eat)

Examples

(a)
:. mtJ

!J ttl L t::.. o KytJni ame ga furidashita. (Suddenly it began to rain.)

(b) -

:.t

-:J-Cm

-CtJ;;

ttl Lt::.. o /ssai ni natte hajimete arukidashita. (Lit. He started to walk

only after he became a year old. (= He didn't start to walk until he
was a year old.» (c) .:c (/) 7 .{ 7 .-{ 7 Ii t!. tL 'IJ

;t ttl L t::..lv"'t* -r- tJ\o Sono aidia wa dare ga kangaedashita n desu

ka. (Who thought out that idea?) (d) -Jtjr

' (* 6

,tJ

t-c

? .:c(/)*m
Lttl Lt::.. o /chljikan gurai kakete toto sono hon- ya 0 sagashidashita.
(After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.)

em

1. Dasu in V masu+dasu is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is

used as a full verb, it means 'cause something to become visible'. 2.
Vmasu+dasu is normally ambiguous; one meaning is '- out' and the
other is 'begin to -'. Thus, tsukuridasu means 'turn out' or ' begin to
make '.

104 -dasu

3. V masu + dasu conj ugates as a Gr. 1 Verb.

==-= DI

tet

, (inf, neg, nonpast) sana; L*-r (fml, nonpast) shimasu T (inf,

nonpast)

Llfj- su hanashida- it'i (conditional) 1t

lfj- seba tabeda- .:t? (volitional) s6 L-C (te-form) shite Lt::.. (inf, past)
sh; ta

4. Vmasu+owaru' finish -ing' is an antonym of Vmasu+dasu /

hajimeru. [Related Expression] -dasu in the sense of 'begin to -' is
different from -hajimeru in that the former indicates a non-volitional
and abrupt beginning while the latter is more broadly used. Thus, [1]
.:to.:t0tJ;;

tfjcY)* I., J:? / *tJ;;

W 1.,* I., J:? tJ

o Sorosoro aTukihajimemasho / *aTukidashimasho ka. (It's getting

late. Shall we begin to walk?) [2] f.Litt,}

tJ;;

tfjcY) t= /

W I., t= JtjJlJ fB it t,};* t.: o Watashitachi ga aTukihajimeta /

aTukidashita tok; Yamada-tach; ga kita. (When we started to walk,
Yamada and his company came.) [3]

? L-CtJ

7ttJ

6tettJ

-:Jt::..tJ

, .9Jfi

f;:t3
I.JWl.,t= I?? t3

I.JtfjcY)t=o D6shite ka wakaranakatta ga. otoko wa kytJni

okoTidashita / ??okori- hajimeta. (I don't know why, but the man
suddenly started to get angry.)

del 105 del -c' prt. ! hiC h ! except for location of existence ( I at. in.
on , , [RE L. ni 4 ; ni 6 ; 0 2 ] D :!! I I . Key Sentence Topic (subject)
Noun (location) Predicate (non-existential) fLJM 'i m -r: ::l- - fA Iv t!. /
fA1!- * '- t.:: o Watashitachi wa kissaten de kohi o nonda /
nomimashita. . . (We drank coffee at a coffee shop.) Examples (a)
!JT'i7.1 - -r:1t'1 \-C"'\*To Yuriko wa depato de hataraite imasu.
(Yuriko is working at a department store.) *- 97-r:ti+=n . 0 Osutoraria
de wa jtJnigatsu wa natsu da. (In Australia it is summer in
December.) (c) 1ih Iv'i a *-r: 'i 7C m -r: '- t.:: o Shimazaki-san wa
Nihon de wa genkideshita. (Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.) (d)
v 'i m 'jJ -C. 11 -r: Gfk -:J t.:: 0 Heren wa hajimete butai de utatta.
(Helen sang on the stage for the first time.) aD Del cannot be used to
indicate location of existence. (t:) nl"6) However, if the existential
verb aru ' (inanimate things) exist' occurs with an event, de is used,
as in (1). (1) a. 1!t.yAQ)*"'C! / *1:'.I -7..( -t,) cb!J *To Konban Jimu no
ie de / *ni pati ga arimasu. (There's a party at Jim's tonight.) b. Q) ? :.
Q) m"'C! / * I:. 7 -( 96!:E Q) rIi t,); cb -:J t.:: 0 Kino kono heya de / *ni
Puraisu-sensei no koen ga atta. (We had Prof. Price's lecture in this
room yesterday.)

106 de 2

de 2 -c' prt.

['.
"""""""-

a particle which indicates the use of

s.t. for doing s.t. ?

by; for; from; in; on; uSing; with [REL. 0 tsukatte]

Di =====

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (means) '8*

1v fi

a /-( A -r:

t-f: -.. ff< / ff

*To Miyamoto-san wa mainichi basu de kai sha e iku / ikimasu. . -

(Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.)
Examples

(a) a*Afi'i '--r:

1t

Go Nihonjin wa hashi de gohan 0 taberu. (J apanese people eat rice

with chopsticks.)

(b) fL)ifi a *m-r:

'- t::.. o Watashitachi wa nihongo de hanashita. (We talked in

Japanese.) (c) fL'i .:t:" Q)

roo

7' v

-r: J! * '- t::.. 0 Watashi wa sono eiga 0 terebi de mimashita. (I saw

the movie on TV.) (d)

'i* 11.. -r:f1:: !J * To Tofu wa daizu de tsukurimasu. (We make tofu

from soybeans.) (e) 7

- 'i

Q)

'T
+ J: /v -r: J( -:J t::.. 0 Rar; wa kono isu 0 jtJdoru de katta. (Larry
bought this chair for ten dollars.) (f)

':I 'Y.-( -'i.:t:"Q) v

-a-r:.

't::...:t:"? t:. o Betts; wa sono repoto 0 ichinichi de kaita soda. (I heard

that Betsy wrote the report in one day.)

em 1. In general, de 2 indicates something which is used when

someone or something does something. Typically, it indicates means
and instruments as in KS and Exs. (a) - (c).

de 2 / de 3 107

2. Since de also indicates reason and cause, the phrase nan de,
which con- sists of nan ' what' and de, is ambiguous: One meaning is
'by means of what (=how)' and the other is ' for what reason (=why) '.
Thus, (1) can be interpreted in two ways.

==---= 0 . = .. == i

(1) *JIJ
lv'ifiiJ

-"rr < Iv

TtJ

o Honda-san wa nan de Osaka e iku n desu ka. (How / Why is Mr.

Honda going to Osaka?) [Related Expression] De 2 can be used
instead of the phrase - 0 tsukatte 'by using -', except when the
preceding noun refers to a human being. Examples:

[1] fLJi'i?1!l

"":) 1:" I -c: * * '- t::.. o Watashitachi wa takushi 0 tsukatte / de

kimashita. (We came by taxi.) [2] fL'iT#t

"":) 1:" / *-c:*Jt

j/JtJ

L.t::.. o Watashi wa kodomo 0 tsukatte / *de kagu 0 ugokashita. (Lit. I

moved the furniture using my children.)

de 3 -c' prt. '

;m

the te-form of desu) that indicates j

a weak causal relationship ...............

..........."/............

and; because of; due to ; because [RE L. kara 3 ; node]

. Key Sentence

Noun (cause)

Iv 'j: JIij

BC

1* Iv t.: 11*;1j. * '- t::.. o Yamaguchi -san wa byoki de gakk6 0

yasunda / yasumimashita. (Lit. Mr. Yamaguchi was ill and absented
himself from school. ( = Be- cause Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn't
come to school.))

Exa m pies
(a) cb '-t

'iWJ*

To Ashita wa kimatsushiken de taihen desu. (I'm having an awful

time because of tomorrow's final exam.)

108 de a

D!

(b) * m"'t* trt tJ; =- b tL t::.. 0 Game de hash; ga kowareta. (Lit.

Because of heavy rain the bridge broke down. (= Heavy rain
destroyed the bridge.»

(c)

fJ) ? 'i

, tt:."'t*

-C b
tLt=.o Kino wa yoru. shigoto de totemo tsukareta. (Lit. Because of
my work I got very tired last night. (= I worked so hard last night that
I got very tired.»

(d)

'j:

im*tX"'t* A

L * Lt=.o Chichi wa kotstJjiko de nytJinshimashita. (My father was

hospitalized due to a traffic accident.)

em

1. Some of the uses of de 3 (such as KS and Ex. (a» are very close
to the te-form of desu. For example, KS can be paraphrased into two
sentences (1 a) and (1 b) : (1) a.

/V'j:m1l\"'t* Lt::.. o Yamaguchi-san wa byoki deshita. (Mr. Yamaguchi

was ill.) b.

Iv 'i

BC

1*;1j. * L t::.. 0 Yamaguchi-san wa gakko 0 yasumimashita. (Mr .

Yamaguchi was absent from school.) And KS can be considered to
be the result of combining the two sen- tences using the te-form of
desu which basically means 'be - and'. 2. A noun that precedes de 3
expresses something that is beyond human control (such as illness,
flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be noted that de 3 co-
occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses some- thing that is
beyond human control. If the co-occurring predicate expresses
something that is controllable, the particle de is no longer de 3 ; it is
de 2 of means. (t:) de 2 ) Compare (2a) and (2b) below: (2) a.

-c: 7 v Iv:¥ -

:. let Go Tamago de arerugi ni naru. (Lit. Eggs cause me allergy. (==

I'm allergic to eggs.» b.

-C:*A v

f1:Go Tamago de omuretsu 0 tsukuru. (I make an omelette with

eggs.)

de 3 / de

109

(2a) and (2b) contain a noncontrollable predicate arerugi ni naru 'be-

come allergic' and a controllable predicate omuretsu 0 tsukuru '
make an omelette', respectively. Therefore, de in (2a) and (2b) are
de 3 and de 2 , respectively. [Related Expression] The particle de 3
is a very )oose marker of cause due to its origin; in contrast, kara 3
and node are clear subordinate conjunctions of cause / reason. (t:)
kaTa 3 ; node)
= 0 = = z=

de 4 -c' prt.

icl;

hi;hi;di

a;e

? ? ? when s.t. terminates or the amount S

of time a period of activity has taken

"""

............................,......,,'-"""

at. O n. in , ,
[REL. nil]

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (time)

WJ 'j: liJJ +B -r: *

bG / *

b!J *To Harugakki wa gogatsu taka de owaru / owarimasu. . (The

spring term ends on May 10.)

Examples.

w=

-r:

b!J*To Kono konsato wa jilji de owarimasu. (This concert will be over

at ten o'clock.) (b) fL
r

fi

jJ -r:

tLo o Watashi no pasupoto wa rokugatsu de kireru. (My passport

expires in June.) (c) 7 j.

:fJ

:'*-CtJ

a -r:=:

:.tct Go Amerika ni kite kara kyo de sannen ni naru. (It's been three
years since I came to America.)

110 de 4

em

1. In general, X de 4 indicates that something lasts for a period of

time up to X.
===- : D:: 2. When X in X de refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it
is the de

of means rather than the de of termination time. (c:> de 2 ) (1)

lHIJ

lv'i-Jmr

'

.:cQ) v

,t::..o Yamada-san wa isshDkan de sono rep6to 0 kaita. (Mr. Yamada

wrote the report in a week (lit. using a week).) [Related Expression]
Nil can be used in place of de 4 in KS and Exs. (a) and (b), as in [1].
[1]

WHi1LjJ + a -c: / I=i

b Qo Harugakki wa gogatsu toka de / ni owaru. (The spring term

ends on May 10.) When de is used, the nuance is that the spring
term lasts up to May 10. When ni is used, however, the sentence
simply indicates the time when the s pring term ends.

*Semantic Derivations of De
de ' using'

< Instrument> de 2 : .y 3

'i. -c:

:fJ ::I -.. ff -:J t::.. 0 Jon wa kuruma de Shikago e itta. (John went to
Chicago by car.)

< Means> de 2 : f.Lit'i

ilt-c:

'- t::.. o Watashitachi wa eigo de hanashita. (We talked in English.) <

Cause> de 3 : :c Q) * 'i am -c: :. b

'L t:. 0

Sono ie wa tadD de kowareta. (That house collapsed due to the

typhoon.) < Reason> de 3 : y

'i

-c:ff.t t.t. tJ

-:J t::.. o Boku wa shiken de ikenakatta. (I couldn't go (there)

because of the exam.)
de 4 / demo 111 < Material > de 2 : -+ fL 'i =e * -c: < "':) r cb Iv t!. 0
Watashi wa keito de kutsushita 0 anda. (I knit socks with wool.) <
Place> del: -+ mT'i "',"':) t . -c:f1l%tT G 0 Michiko wa itsumo
toshokan de benkyosuru. (Michiko usually studies at the library.) <
Required time> de 2 : *ft Iv 'j: =: a 1: =- Q) v - . "" t::.. o -+ Kimura-san
wa mikka de kono repoto 0 kaita. (Mr. Kimura wrote this report in
three days.) < Time> de 4 : -t ft*'i1LJtj-C: b !J * To Shigoto wa goji de
owarimasu. (My work ends at five o'clock.) < Required cost> de 2 :
fLfi;: Q)* + J: IV-C: J( -:J t::.. o ...... Watashi wa kono hon 0 jtJdoru de
katta. (I bought this book for ten dollars.) demo -c't'> prt. f the te-form
of desu plus mo 'even' even . = = D ""' I i

112 demo

. Key Sentences

(A)

=0=i;

Subject Predicate ;t

t :t

tJ

? / :t

tJ
v\ :t To Sensei demo machigau / machigaimasu. . (Even a teacher
makes mistakes.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Verb fL 'j: IIL.t,' ft.

t TQ/I-:tTo - Watashi wa muzukashii shigoto demo suru / shimasu. . .

(I will even do a difficult job.)

(C)

Noun Prt - - fJ\

:f:

tJ

J!*.Q / J!*.:tTo

Koko kaTa demo FUJisan ga mieru / mlemasu. (Even from here

you can see Mt. Fuji.)
Formation'

(i) N

t demo

96!:E tJ

(subject) -+ 96!:E

t (even a teacher) sensei ga sensei demo

96!:E

(object) -+ 96!:E

t (even a teacher) sensei 0 sensei demo

(ii) N + Prt

t demo

96!:E 1::

t (even with a teacher) sensei to demo

Jfi);( tJ
t>

t (even from Tokyo) Tokyo kara demo

demo 113

Example-s

(a) T#t

t .:t Iv t.t.

'j:7ttJ

!J :t T J: 0 Kodomo demo sonna koto wa wakarimasu yo. (Even a

child can understand that sort of thing.) (b) ;td

v\ '- t::.. v\ Iv

TtJ;, J3 PI J3

t tJ

:t v\:t -tt Iv n

o Q-ai shitai n desu ga. nichiyobi demo kamaimasen ka. (I'd like to
see you, but is it all right to see you even on Sunday?)

=0===
(c) £b (/) )..Jj:f!J.

t 1t

:t To Ano hito wa sakana demo niku demo tabemasu. (Lit. He eats

anything, whether it be fish or meat. (= He eats both fish and meat.»

em

1. WH-word+demo yields the following meaning depending on which

WH- word is used.

t.:tL

t dare demo (no matter who it is; anyone) fPJ-c: t nan demo (no
matter what it is; anything) v\"'?

t itsu demo (no matter when; any time)

t doko demo (no matter where it is; any place)

tL
t dore demo (no matter which it is) (1) £b (/)

.M'j: t.:tL

t AtL :t To Ano toshokan wa dare demo hairemasu. (Anyone can

enter that library.) (2) v\ "'?

t tJ

:t v\:t -tt Iv J: 0 Itsu demo kamaimasen yo. (Any time will be fine.) 2.
The particle demo should not be confused with the particle
combination de + mo, as in (1) below where de is a particle of
location (= del), and in (2) where de is a particle of means (= de 2 ).
(1) J3*-c:t-1

7 vtJ;*

t.t.r

'J.fH:.t.t.-:J-Cv\Qo Nihon de mo infure ga okina mondai ni natte iru.

(In Japan, too, inflation is a big problem.) (2) .:t

'j:.I

.A -c: t ff.t:t TtJ

o Soko wa basu de mo ikemasu ka. (Can you also get there by

bus?)

(t:) del; de 2 )

:==' 0 - .. = 114 do do ? adv. :;; in ;r - ;i:e;b k ! about the state of s.o. /

s.t. or the < way of doing s. t. I I \ -... '" -- ........... '-" how; in what way
. Key Sentence Topic (subject) j3ro: 1v 'j: E? (1:T tJ )o Q-ka-san wa
do (desu ka). (How's your mother?) Examples (a) ffi '- "" 7 ,,. - " Ij: E
? 1: T tJ o Atarashi; apato wa do desu ka. (How's your new
apartment?) (b) :1 -1:: - Ii E ? 1:TtJ o Kohi wa do desu ka. (How is
the coffee? / Would you like coffee? / How about coffee?) (c) :f:PI J3
,j: E ? ? Doyobi wa do? (How about Saturday?) em 1. The polite
version of do is ikaga. In very informal speech desu ka is omitted
after do or ikaga. 2. Do and ikaga are also used to offer or suggest
something, as in Exs. (b) and (c). In this case, do or ikaga are asking
about the state of the hearer's mind regarding the offer or suggestion
rather than about the state of what is being offered or suggested. 3.
Do is also used to ask the way of doing something. In this case,
ikaga is usually not used. Example: (1) Q) .Ij: * ? Mfc7j.:t TtJ o Kono
kotoba wa do yomimasu ka. (How do you read this word?)

do 115

4. The idiomatic expression do shite 'lit. doing what' IS used to ask

manners, reasons or causes. Examples:

(2)

? '- -C J3 *m

tll%l '- -C \t' Q Iv 1: T tJ

o Do shite nihongo 0 benkyoshite iru n desuka. (How (= In what way)

are you studying Japanese? / Why are you studying Japanese?) (3)

Q)*'j:

? '- -Ct5tLt::..Iv1:TtJ

o Kono ki wa do shite kareta n desu ka. (Why did this tree die?) As
seen in (2), unless the context is clear, do shite is sometimes am-
biguous. (The interrogative adverb naze 'why t is unambiguous but
less colloquial than do shite.)
D == - - - - - - = -=- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

116 e e prt. a particle that indicates the direction toward which some
directional move- S ment or action proceeds ) ( . -...--...- to; towards
[REL. made; ni 4 ; n;7) = E = == . Key Sentence Noun (location) fL 'j:
96jIM ts .-.. n ff ,:. ff -:J t::.. / ff :t '- t::.. o Watashi wa senshu Kyoto e
ryoko ni itta / ikimashita. - (I went on a trip to Kyoto last week.) Exa
m pies (a) fL,j:fLIfl!Q)? .-..mff 1: -:J t::.. o Watashi wa Sapporo no
uchi e hikoki de kaetta. (I went back home to Sapporo by plane.) (b)
!&. t.: -:J t::.. Q) 1: '" \.:t '" \ 1: 7}'-" m t::.. 0 Jishin datta node isoide so
to e deta. (It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.) (c) .-.. m
'- t::..tJ;, :t t.: *tJ;*t "'\0 Chichi e tegami 0 dashita ga. mada hen}i ga
konai. (I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.)
(Related Expressions] I. The particles e, made, and nP focus on
direction, course (up to -), and point of contact, respectively. Thus,
(1] 'j: Q Ii QJfi);(' -c: / ?I= / ? *t::..o Harubaru Tokyo made / ?ni / ?e
kita. (I came all the way to Tokyo.) [2] Jfi);(1= / / **-c:+= ,:. "'\t::..o
Tokyo ni / e / *made }uniji ni tsuita. (I arrived in Tokyo at 12: 00
o'clock.) [3] '::'.:J. - 3 - / * '"C! / * 1= Q)fjHj: t ? £b !J :t -tt No Nyuyoku
e / made / *ni no bin wa mo arimasen. (There isn't any flight to / as
far as New York any more.)

e 117

[4]

*-c: / *

/ *1::Q)m'j:
tJ

-:J t::..1: '- J: ? 0 Koko made / *e / *ni no michi wa warukatta desho.

(Your way here must have been rough.) In actuality, native speakers
use e and ni1 (of point of contact) almost interchangeably except in
the case of [3] (i.e., ni cannot be followed by no). II. Even the ni 4 of
direct contact meaning , into; onto t can be replaced by e as In:

=E

= :::::

[5] :tdM8 I:: /

A -:J t::.. o Q-furo ni / e haitta. (Lit. I entered into a bath. (= I took a

bath.» [6] fJLQ) 1:1:: /

* -:J t::.. o T sukue no ue ni / e notta. (I got onto the table.) [7]

fil:: /

."'\t::..o Kokuban ni / e kanji 0 kaita. (I wrote kanji on the blackboard.)

118 gal gal"/J<' prt. ;;cicl; whkh d h '-- """' ............... ......!. [REL. wa l
('i)) . Key Sentence :: G z= . = Subject Predicate ffi tJ I -:J -C ""-3 /
"""1To . . Arne ga fu tte iru / imasu. (Lit. Rain is falling (= It's raining.»
Example-s (a) fLQ) m.MH=. ,j: A 7 v;t tJ N; !J :t To Watashi no heya
ni wa sutereo ga arimasu. (There is a stereo in my room.) (b) tb, Q)
TtJ; -:J -C "" -3 0 A, Noriko ga hashitte iru. (Oh, Noriko is running.)
(c) A: Q) v A " =} 'i{PJtJ ;td "" L """"fTtJ\o Kono resutoran wa nani ga
oishiidesu ka. (What is good in this restaurant?) B: A7- tJ ""LIt' To
Suteki ga oishiidesu. (Steak is good.) CD 1. Ga marks the subject of
a sentence when the information expressed by the subject is first
introduced in a discourse. When the subject is presented as the topic
(that is, the information has already been intro- duced into the
discourse), however, the topic marker wa replaces ga. ( wal « »
Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in folktales,
which illustrates the different uses of ga and wa. (1) 1f k -A Q) 1"3 t.:
"" Iv f.J({j: Iv 1:' It'"1 L t::.. o ;td t.: "" Iv I -C b J(Z 1: Lt::.. o
Mukashimukashi hitori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita. O-ji-san wa
totemo binbodeshita. (Once upon a time there lived an old man. He
(lit. the old man) was very poor.)

ga 1 119

In the first sentence, o-ii-san 'old man' appears for the first time in
the discourse; o-ii-san is the subject but not the topic in this
sentence. There- fore, it is marked by ga. The second sentence tells
something about the old man introduced in the first sentence. O-ii-
san is now the topic; therefore, it is marked by wa rather than ga.
Note the parallelism here between ga and wa in Japanese and a and
the in English. 2. Ga is also replaced by wa if the subject is in
contrast with another element. For example, in Ex. (c), B could also
say:

(2) A 7- -

'j:;td "" '- "" 1: To Suteki wa oishiidesu. (Steak is good (but other food
is not). / (I don't know about other food but at least) Steak is good.)

== G ==
i

Here, suteki 'steak' is newly introduced in the discourse and is not

the topic; yet it is marked by wa. This is because suteki, in this case,
IS being contrasted with other food.

3. Since WH-words like nani ' what', dare ' who' and doko 'what
place' can never be topics, they are never marked by wa, as in (3).

(3)

l!$ft.:tLfJ( / *1

*:tTtJ\o Konban dare ga / *wa kimasu ka. (Who is coming tonight?)

4. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is a

con- trasted element, as seen in (4).

(4) a. fL'j:7'1::.-fJ( / *1

77

A-..ff<

1d1

t
tJ

-:Jt::..o Watashi wa Debi ga / *wa Furansu e iku koto 0 shiranakatta.

(I didn't know that Debbie was going to France.)

b. .y -

.j:mfJ( / *I

7r

-"

lfit::..

:t t.:

-C ""t::.. o Jin wa boku ga / *wa apato 0 deta toki mada nete ita.
(Gene was still in bed when I left my apartment.)

c. fLfJ( / *I

(/) ? J!t::..

OOHj: t: .{

(/)

Ii!Ht.: -:J t::.. o Watashi ga / *wa kino mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga
datta. (The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.) Note that
topics are not presented in subordinate clauses.
5. In relative clauses, the subject may be marked by no, as in (5). (

Relative Clause, Note 3)

:G==

120 gal / ga 2

(5) fLO)

Q) ? J!t::..

OOHj: t: -{

Q)

nmt.: -:J t::.. o Watashi no kino mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga datta.
(The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.) 6. In some
expressions, elements which are considered to be direct objects are
presented as subjects and are marked by ga. (t::),." wa ,." ga) (6) a.
m'i A

:b - f.J(W\ '- "'\0 Boku wa supotsuka ga hoshii. (I want a sports car.

(Lit. To me, a sports car is desirable.» b.

T'j: A

-{
gfJ()ttJ

Q 0 Haruko wa supeingo ga wakaru. (Haruko understands Spanish.

(Lit. To Haruko, Spanish IS understandable.» 7. To sum up the
important rules concerning ga, (A) Ga marks the subject when it is
newly introduced in a discourse. (B) Wa replaces ga when the
subject is a topic or a contrasted element. (c) WH-words are always
marked by ga when they are the subject of a sentence. (D) The
subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is a
contrasted element. (E) When predicates are transitive adjectives or
stative transitive verbs, the elements which correspond to the direct
object in English are marked by ga.

[Related Expression] The topic marker wa is often mistaken for a

subject marker. It appears to be a subject marker because it often
replaces ga. (See Notes 1 and 2, and Characteristics of Japanese
Grammar, 2. Topic.) (t::) wa l «

ga 2 "/J<. con}.

-"""

! a disjunctive coordinate conjunction !

that combines two sentences (

but [RE L. daga; dakedo; demo; keredomo; shikashi)

ga 2 121

. Key Sentence

Sentence 1 Sentence2 .y3

,j: * t::.. / *

'- t::.. tJ

;J. 7 !J - 'j: *t

tJ

-:J t::.. / *:t -it Iv

'- t::.. o Jon wa kita / kimashita ga Meari wa konakatta /

kimasendeshita. (J ohn came but Mary didn't (come).)

Fermatien

SI tJ

S2 ga

1!

'i i*""t.: tJ
tX1!

'i i*tJ

tJ\-:Jt::.o Taro wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta.

== G = == ==

(Taro swam but Jiro didn't swim.)

Examples

(a) fL'j: 1::" -Iv .j:

U tJ

i!

Hj:

:t t

""0 Watashi wa b;ru wa nomu ga sake wa nomanai. (I drink beer but

don't drink sake.) (b)

ff

'- t::.. "" tJ

jo
tJ;t

""0 Ryoko 0 shitai ga o-kane ga nai. (I want to travel but I don't have
money.) em 1. Ga 2 , like but in English, combines two sentences
which express contrastive ideas. However, ga is much weaker than
but in that it is sometimes used simply to combine two sentences for
stylistic reasons even if those two sentences do not represent
contrastive ideas. For example, the ga in (1) is used simply as a
transition word to connect two sentences. ( 1) a. /

- 7- .{ -

'- :t T fJ( * :t -it Iv tJ

0 Pat; 0 shimasu ga kimasen ka. (We'll have a party. Wouldn't you

like to come?) b. EB r:p

lv'ifLQ) ?

,:. t Jfifk *"1 TIJ<jo t '- 0 ""A

Tho Tanaka-san wa watashi no uchi ni mo tokidoki kimasu ga

omoshiroi hito desu nee (Mr. Tanaka sometimes comes to my place,
too. He is an interesting person, isn't he?) 2. Ga 2 makes a sentence
unit with the preceding sentence, not with the following sentence.
Thus, it is wrong to place a comma before ga or to start a sentence
with ga, as in (2) and (3).

GI

122 ga 2

(2) *.y 3
'i * t::.. , tJ; J. '7

- 'i * tel tJ

-:J t::.. o *Jon wa kita, ga Mear; wa konakatta. (J ohn came, but Mary
didn't come.) (3) *.y 3

'i*t::.. o tJ; J. '7

- 'i*tel tJ

-:J t::.. o *Jon wa kita. Ga Mear; wa konakatta. (J ohn came. But

Mary didn't come.) 3. SI and S2 in "SI ga 8 2 " must be in the same
form whether formal or informal, because they are both independent
clauses. (4) and (5) are stylistically awkward. (t:) keTedomo) (4) ? ?:t

'i

i< i!* L t.: tJ;tX

'i

i<1J( fl1J' -:) t.: o ??Taro wa oyogimashita ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta.

(Taro swam but Jiro didn't (swim).) (5) ?:t

'i

L\t.:tJ;tX

'i
i!*1tN-C: Lt.: o ?Taro wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyogimasendeshita. (Taro
swam but Jiro didn't (swim).) 4. S2 in "SI ga S2" is often omitted
when it is understandable from the context and / or the situation, or
when the speaker doesn't want to con- tinue for some reason (e.g.,
the sentence is too direct, impolite, embar- rassing, etc.). Examples:
(6) :* t:- .t ?

t.:

, """£ -t tJ;o Daijobuda to omoimasu ga. (I think it's all right but. . . )
(7) "A 'i J: < i1ll%i-t Q 1v""(*-ttJ

o Tomu wa yoku benkyosuru n desu ga. (Tom studies hard but. . . )

5. When U SI ga S2" expresses contrastive ideas, the contrastive wa
typi- cally appears in SI and S2, as in KS and Ex. (a). (t:) wa 1 ((;t»)

(Related Expressions] Daga, dakedo, demo, shikashi and keredomo

express the same idea as ga. However, the first four cannot make
compound sentences like ga does; they must occur at the beginning
of a sentence, as in [1]. (See Note 2.) [1] a. SI ga S2. b. *Sl daga /
dakedo / demo / shikashi S2. c. SI. Daga / Dakedo / Demo / Shikashi
S2. Keredomo differs from ga in that keredomo is a subordinate
conjunction

ga 2 / -garu 123 meaning C although'. That is, in U SI keredomo S2",

SI keredomo IS a subordinate clause and S2 is a main clause. In U
SI ga S2", on the other hand, both SI and S2 are independent
clauses. -garu -1J'{Q aux. 'D. (Gr. 1) ) ) an auxiliary verb attached to
a psy- > chological / physiological adjective ; < meaning a person
other than the ( k h . / ? spea er sows signs of - .-.. """"-....., ,,. show
signs of - -- G == = . . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Direct
Object Adj (i) stem - 'i A - 7J- l, tJ -:J t::.. / tJ !J "£ L t::.. o Kazuo wa
supo tsuka 0 hash; gatta / garimashita. . I (Lit. Kazuo showed signs
of wanting a sports car. ( = Kazuo wanted a I sports car.» (B) Topic
(subject) Adj (i) stem Direct Object V masu l:EE Iv 'i / A -A . t=. tJ -:J
t=. / tJ !J "£ L t.: o Veda-san wa aisukurimu 0 tabe ta ga tta /
garimashi ta. (Lit. Mr. Ueda showed signs of wanting to eat ice
cream. (= Mr. Ueda wanted to eat ice cream.» Fermation Adj (i / na)
stem tJ Q garu (s.o. shows signs of being glad) ? tL '-tJ Q ureshigaru
Iv C ? tJ Q mend6garu (s.o. shows signs of being bothered)

124 -garu

Examples

(a) A - -f

'i- A -c:-

L tJ

-:J -C "" "£ To StJzan wa hitori de sabishigatte imasu. (Susan feels

lonely by herself.) (b) -r

tJ

t::.. tJ

-:J -C "" Q 0 Kodomo ga nemutagatte iru. (My child wants to go to

sleep.)

Gi
laD 1. There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense,
usually re- quires the first person (or a person with whom the
speaker can empathize) as subject. If the subject of a sentence in
which these adjectives occur is not the first person (or one with
whom the speaker can empathize), then garu is attached to the
adjective. Observe the accompanying change of particles from ga
into o. (1) a.

'i*1J(:: b ""0 Boku wa inu ga kowai. (Lit. To me dogs are scary. (= I

am scared of dogs.» b.

JIJ

Iv 'i*

:: b tJ

-:J -C "" Q 0 Fukada-san wa inu 0 kowagatte iru. (Mr. Fukada fears

dogs.) (2) a. m'i A

7J -1J(W\ '- ""0 Boku wa supotsuka ga hoshii. (I want a sports car.)

b. -!JJ 'i A

7J -

W\ '- tJ

-:J -C "" Q 0 Kazuo wa .supotsuka 0 hoshigatte iru. (Kazuo wants a

sports car.) If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a
nominalized clause), the garu attachment is unnecessary even if the
tense is nonpast and the subject is a person with whom the speaker
cannot empathize. Thus, (3) a.
JIJ

Iv 'i* tJ

t> L \

A -:J t.: o Fukada-san wa inu ga kowai to itta. (Mr. Fukada said that
he is scared of dogs.) b. -!JJ 'i A

7J -tJ

L L \:t ? t.: o Kazuo wa supotsuka ga hoshii soda. (I heard that

Kazuo wants a sports car.) (

hoshiP, Note 3)

-garu 125 2. Garu conjugates as a Gr. 1 verb. Thus, L?t.l

' (inf, neg, nonpast) ranai

*T (fml, nonpast) nmasu Q (inf, nonpast) ru W\ L tJ

- tL,;f (conditional)

G= hoshiga - reba 05 (volitional) ro -:J-C (te-form) tte -:J t::.. (inf,

past) tta 3. The following psychological and physiological adjecti ves
are commonl y used with garu.
Psychology Physiology (Adj (i» (Adj (i») W\ L

, (want)-+W\ LtJ<

1Jfi

, (painful)-+1JfitJ<

hoshii hoshigSTu ita; itagsTu 5 tL L

' (happy)-+ 5 tL LtJ<

1; L

, (painful)-+1; LtJ<

ureshii ureshigsTu kurushii kurushigsTu

' (Ionely)-+

LtJ<

tJ

, (itchy)-+ tJ

tJ<

sabishii sabishigsTu kayui kayugsTu -t::..

\ (want to)-+- t.:tJ<

*
, (cold)-+*tJ<

-tai - tagsTu samui samugsTu

, (scary)-+

vtJ<

Ji

' (hot)-+JitJ<

kowai kowagsTu atsu; atsugsTU

' (envious)-+

LtJ<

t!. Q

, (Ianguid)-+ t!. Q tJ<

urayamashii urayamashigsTu darui darugsTu j:d b L 0

' (amusing)-+j:d b L 0tJ<

< T <' -:J t::..

' (ticklish)-+ < T <' -:J t::..tJ<

omoshiroi omoshirogsTu kusuguttai kusuguttagsTu

126 -garu / goro (Adj (na» J! t.: (troublesome)-+J! tJ< meiwakuda

meiwakugaTu , t!. iyada (dislike)-+ , tJ< iyagaTu G i - -- 4. A limited
number of -garu forms have derived noun forms. The form IS - gari
(ya), meaning' a person who shows signs of being (t:) -va) '-tJ C )
sabishigari (ya) (a person who always feels lonely) :: btJ C )
kowagari (ya) (a person who is easily frightened) *tJ C ) samugari
(ya) (a person who is sensitive to cold) tJ ( ) atsugari (ya) (a person
who is sensitive to heat) goro suf. ;iili s; i oi of time) / '-"" "''''''''''''''''''
about; around [REL. kurai / gurai] . Key Sentence Topic (subject)
Noun (time) Predicate * Iv 'i WI -i: =:0 ?tJ tl:iQ / tI:i*To Suzuki-san wa
asa shichiji goro uchi o deru / demasu. (Mr. Suzuki leaves home at
about 7: 00 o'clock in the morning.)

goro 127

Formatien

N (time) :::: is O

) goro (ni)

.=:

:::: is O

) sanji goro (ni)

(at about 3 o'clock)

Examples
(a) A: """?:::: iS

tJj('

fT

"£ TtJ

o Itsu goro Pekin ni ikimasu ka. (About when are you going to
Beijing?)

-- G = II I

B:*

Q)AJJ

iSfT

"£ To Rainen no rokugatsu goro ikimasu. (rm going there around

June of next year.)

(b) A:

WHifiiJ

iS"£-c.*ti""("""£ '-t::..tJ
o Kesa wa .nanji goro made nete imashita ka. (Until about what time
were you asleep this morning?)

B:+

is "£ -c.*

""( """£ '- t::.. 0 Jiiji goro made nete imashita. (I was asleep until about
10 o'clock.)

(c)

Q)

:::: is 'i*

-c.* L t::..tJ o Kyonen no ima goro wa oyuki deshita nee (About this
time last year it snowed heavily, didn't it?)

C!D

1. Goro is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the following

sentence is unacceptable.

(1)*
'7 v 1:#

J! ""( """£ '- t::.. 0 *Yoru gOTO terebi 0 mite imashita. (*1 was
watching TV about at night.)

2. Depending on the speakerts perspective, time expressions other

than exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time.
Thus, in Ex. (a), the month of June is a point in time from the
speaker's viewpoint. In these cases, goro seems easier to use
grammatically if there is some distance between the time of the
event and the time of speech, as seen in the following examples.

128 goro / goto ni (2) ??* Q)![ JlJrp 1v'=' \"£To ??Rainen no natsu
gOTO Yamanaka-san ni aimasu. (*1 will see Mr. Yamanaka around
next summer.) (3) 1f* Q)![ JlJ rp Iv ,:. "'\ "£ To Sarainen no natsu
gOTO Yamanaka-san ni aimasu. (I will see Mr. Yamanaka in the
summer in a couple of years.) = G = ! ;; (4) ?? Q)![ JlJ rp Iv ,:. "'\"£ l.,
t::.. o ??Kyonen no natsu gOTO Yamanaka-san ni aimashita. (*1 met
Mr. Yamanaka around the summer of last year.) (5) j:3 '- q)![ JlJ rp Iv
,:. "'\"£ '- t::.. o Ototoshi no natsu gOTO Yamanaka-san ni aimashita.
(I met Mr. Yamanaka sometime during the summer of the year
before last.) (Related Expression] Goro is different from kurai / gurai
C about' in that the latter IS used with specific quantity expressions.
Thus, [1] 'i'=: ,=. "£ l.,t::.. o Boku wa sanji gOTO ni nemashita. (I went
to sleep at about 3 o'clock.) [2] 'i .::. rp' <.; L'ti"£ l., t::.. o Boku wa
sanjikan gUTai nemashita. (I slept about three hours.) goto ni ::: c f='
prt. ) S.t. takes place regularly in succession after a certain temporal
or spatial interval. every [REL. mai; oki ni]

goto ni 129
. Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Number-Counter fL 'i

ra' ::

,.:

-bXlvt!. / -bX1-J."£ Lt::.. o Watashi wa san-jikan goto ni kusuri 0

nonda / nomimashita. (I took medicine every three hours.)

=:G=

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun JEJJ 'i

,.: r

t
"iL-cG / "iL-c"£To Shogatsu - ie goto ni kadomatsu 0 tateru /
tatemasu. wa (They put up pine tree decorations at every house on
New Year's Day.)

Examples

(a) -

'.:

Jj{tJ;cb Go Ikka goto ni shiken ga aru. (There is a test after every

lesson.)

(b)

c ':.96!:EtJ;tJ

bGo Gakki goto ni sensei ga kawaru. (Every semester teachers

change.)

(c) *f-t

Iv 'i

? A::

'.:f
f

L -c "" Go Kimura-san wa au hito goto ni aisatsushite iru. (Mr. Kimura

greets everyone he meets.)

(d) .=. f3

,:. '7 .:::. A

L -c "" "£ T 0 Mikka goto ni tenisu 0 shite imasu. (I'm playing tennis
every third day.)

(Related Expression] Oki ni indicates that something is repeated at

certain intervals. Although its usage is comparable to goto ni, note
the distinct difference in meanings in ex- amples [Ia] and [Ib]. [1] a.

Q)..'i=

t3 =e- (=11:"£ Go Kono densha wa (uta eki oki ni tomaru. (This train
stops at every third station.)

130 goto n;

b. ::. Q)..'j:=

c.1=1l:* Go Kono densha wa futa eki goto ni tomaru. (This train

stops at every other station.) When a time expression precedes oki
ni or goto ni, there is no diOerence in meaning, if an event takes
place at one point in time as in [2a]. But there is difference in
meaning, if an event takes place within a certain period of time as in
[2b].

[2] a. ..'iJL

t3 =e-I= /

c.1=tI:i G 0 Oensha wa gofun oki ni / goto ni deru. (The train leaves

every five minutes.) b. fL'i=Sa=e-l= / '::C.I=:ffiT

-?-C

'Go Watashi wa futsuka oki ni / go to ni Hanako to atte iru. (I'm

seeing Hanako every third day / every other day.)

-hajimeru 131 -hajimeru -1;1.: t, 61) Q aux. 'D. (Gr. 2) 5.0. I .t. begins
to do s.t. or begins ! to be In some state. \ ( ... "' ...........--- begin to
[REL. ,." dasu; kUTU 2 ] (ANT. -owaru) . Key Sentence V masu cb L
t::.. tJ v - " .=e- 'j: t: WJ Q / 'i t: WJ "£ To Ashita kara repo to 0 kaki
hajimeru / hajimemasu. (I'll begin to write my paper tomorrow.) == 8
= Fermation V masu 'i t: WJ Z> hajimeru L u: t: WJ Q (s.o. begins to
talk) hanashihaji meru ft 'i t: WJ Q tab ehajim eru (s.o. begins to eat)
Examples (a) fL'iJ\JJ tJ l'AU: lf ;Tj. 'i t: WJ"£ L t::.. o Watashi wa
hachigatsu kara Genjimonogatari 0 yomihajimemashita. (I began to
read The Tale of Genji in August.) (b) E * Q) iR 'i 1964 Q) JRJi(,j- !J
to Q) :: is tJ %i < t,t !J 'i t: WJ t::.. o Nihon no keizai wa sen-
kyuhyaku-rokujuyo(n)nen no Tokyo Orinpikku no koro kara tsuyoku
narihajimeta. (fhe Japanese economy began to strengthen about the
ti me of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.) (c) A: \':)n' 1;1J-¥ WJ'j: tWJt=./v-
r!-tlJ'o Itsu kara kitte 0 atsumehajimeta n desu ka. (When did you
start to collect stamps?) B : T Q)P tJ WJ'j: t WJ * Lt=.o Kodomo no
toki kara atsume hajimemashita. (I started to collect them when (lit.
since) I was a child.)

132 -hajimeru

em

1. V masu+hajimeru conjugates exactly like the Gr. 2 Verb hajimeru.

t.t \1\ (inf, neg, nonpast) nai

T (fml, nonpast) masu Q (inf, nonpast)

'- 'i l:.

- ru =8= hanashihajime- tL'i (conditional) = = = = reba 1t

'i l:.

- tabehajime- J:5 (volitional) yo -C (te-form) te t::.. (inf, past) ta

2. For the sentence (1) below, there are two honorific versions,
depending on which part of V masu +hajimeru is changed into an
honorific form; if the V masu is changed into an honorific form, it will
become (2a) and if the entire V masu + ha/imeru is changed into an
honorific form, it will be- come (2b).
( 1) 96!:E 'i * a: _

l;t [; cY.> t= 0 Sensei wa hon 0 kakihajimeta. (The teacher began to

write a book.)

(2) a. 96!:E 'i

* a: I).

1= f

l;t [; cY.> t=o Sensei wa go-hon 0 o-kaki ni naTihajimeta.

b. 96!:E'i

* a: 13.

l;t [; cY.>1= f

? t=o Sensei wa go-hon 0 o-kakihajime ni natta. (t:) 0 ,.", ni naTu)

3. -hajimeru is normally attached to a non-punctual verb (such as

yomu , read', kaku ' write' and miru 'see '). If the subject is plural,
however, the verb can be a punctual verb (such as tsuku 'arrive',
kuru 'come J and shinu 'die '). (t:) Appendix 2D) Thus,

-hajimeru / hazu 133 (3) l:m Iv'ikfif*] a: Jj.'i t: Lt::.. o Veda-san wa

shinbun 0 yomihajimemashita. (Mr. Ueda began to read a
newspaper.) (4) Ak / * -rIJ< JjJ,:. 'i t: Lt::.. o Hitobito / *Hanako ga
kaijo ni tsukihajimemashita. (People / *Hanako began to arrive at the
meeting room.) hazu r;t-r n. ; n h ;;s the speakerts expectation that
s.t. will I ! take. place or t ok place or that s.o. / s.t. IS or was In some
state ""' " """""""' '" ......../"'... ... . Key Sentence = 8 = = = = = c= = I
expect that -; It is expected that -; - is expected to; I am fairly certain
that -; should; ought to; It is natural that -; No wonder - Sentence
(informal)t =} - Iv 'i / -7 ;{ - ,=- 17 < 'i-r t!. / T 0 Kuraku-san wa pati ni
iku hazu da / desu. (I expect that Mr. Clark will go to the party.) tDa
after Adj (na) and N changes to na and no, respectively. Formation (
i) {V / Adj (i)} inf Lt -r t!.. hazu da {g5T / g! Lt } '1 -r t!. (It is expected
that s.o. will talk / talked.) {hanasu / hanashita} hazu da {iNi \ / iNitp t
} 'i -r t!.. (It is expected that s.t. is / was expensive.) {takai / takakatta}
hazu da ( ii) Adj (na) stem {t.t / t.: -:J t::..} 'i f t.: {na / datta} hazu da
{NittJ\t.t /NittJ\t!.-:Jt::..} 'if t!. {shizukana / shizukadatta} hazu da (It is
expected that s.t. is / was quiet.)

134 hazu

(iii) N (q) / t.: -:J t::..} 'i -r t!. {no / datta} hazu da (9G!:t q) / 9G!:E t!. -:J
t

} 'i -r t!. {sensei no / sensei datta} hazu da

(I t is expected that s.o. is / was a teacher.)

Examples

:===- 8 = : -=-
(a) *Jf9G!:ELt

F7

1n -:J -C

\ Q 'i -r

T 0 Dno-sensei wa Sandora 0 shitte iru hazu desu. (I expect that

Prof. Ono knows Sandra.) (b) (b q) * ,:1: iNi tJ

-:J t::.. Lt -r t!. 0 Ano hon wa takakatta hazu da. (I expect that book
was expensive.) (c) 7cq)7 r

-" 'i

tL

\t.t'i-r

To Sono apato wa kireina hazu desu. (I expect that apartment is

clean.) (d) 11 - Iv '.l

Iv 'i 1f96!:E t!. -:J t::.. 'i -r t.: 0 Karuson-san wa mukashi sensei datta
hazu da. (Pm fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.)

CD 1. U S hazu tt expresses the speakerts expectation, not in the

sense of hoping or looking forward to something, but in the sense
that the proposition expressed by S should be true or come true.
Thus, when the speaker uses hazu, he is not merely guessing, but
stating a proposition based on reliable information or knowledge. (t:)
daTa; Tashii; soda 2 ; yoda) 2. Hazu is a dependent noun and cannot
be used alone. It is always modified by a sentence or a
demonstrative such as sono 'that' and konna 'like this t. U
Demonstrative hazu tt is used when a proposition is known to the
hearer from the context, as in (1).

(1) A: -;,,-

t*

TtJ

o Masa mo kimasu ka. (Is Martha coming, too?) B : 'i

\t -t (1) l;t-r"'(* To Hai. sana hazu desu. (Yes, I expect so.) 3. Negative
expectations can be expressed in two ways: (A) S (negative) hazu
da

hazu / hodo 135 (2) 7- lv'i.l -71 - ;::fftJ f L\I;t-rt.:o Kuraku-san wa pati
ni ikanai hazu da. (Lit. I expect that Mr. Clark is not going to the
party. (= I dontt expect that Mr. Clark is going to the party.» (B) S
hazu wa / ga nai (3) 7- lv'i.l -71-';::ff< l;t-rl;t / fJ(trt."'o Kuraku-san wa
pati ni iku hazu wa / ga nai. (Lit. I have no expectation that Mr. Clark
is going to the party. (= It is improbable that Mr. Clarl will go to the
party.» The assertion in (3) is stronger than that in (2). 4. U S hazu U
can also be used hen the speaker has discovered the reason for an
event or a state. In this case, hazu means "It is natural that -." or "
No wonder -." and can be paraphrased as "S wake da." (t:) wake da)
Example: (4) '" l;t-r t.: 0 ;:: tL 'i t.: 0 Takai hazu da. Kore wa kin da.
(No wonder this is expensive. Ies gold.) 5. When" S hazu" modifies a
noun, that is, when" S hazu" is a relative clause, no follows, as in (5).
(t:) Relative Clause) ::== 8 = = = c= = =-----= (5) III J:I Iv,:.tij '-t I;t-r(1)
tJ UU;::1tt:>""( "'t::.. o Yamaguchi-san ni dashita hazu no tegami ga
yuka ni ochite ita. (I found the letter I thought I had sent to Mr.
Yamaguchi on the floor.) hodo , prt. a particle which indicates an
extent or a degree to which s.o. / s.t. does s.t. or is in some state to
the extent of; to the extent that -; (not as) - as -; about [REL. bakari;
kurai]

136 hodo

. Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Noun Predicate (negative) fL 'i T'/ 11

%l < t.t

\ / %l < tb !J

-tt No Watashi wa Ken hodo tsuyokunai / tsuyokuarimasen. (Lit. I'm

not strong to Ken's extent. (= I'm not as strong as Ken.»

(B)

=8=5g

Topic (subject) Sentence (informal)t Predicate ::"q) ft*

'i -r

"t*"b m*g '1

'-

\/

'-

\""fTo Kono shigoto

wa kodomo demo dekiTu hodo yasashii / yasashiidesu. (Lit. This job

is easy to the extent that even a child can do it. ( =This job is so easy
that even a child can do it.»

tDa after Adj(na) and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.

Formation

( i) N 11

hodo tt 11

(as you) kimi hodo (ii) Demonstrative 11

hodo

.:t tL 11

sore hodo
(to that extent)

(iii) Sinf 11

hodo

* tJ

1ftU'L;;' 11

ie ga taoreru hodo

(to the extent that houses would fall down)

Examples

(a)

'i

f1

*<

ft

-tt No Boku wa kimi hodo hayaku arukemasen. (I can't walk as fast

as you can.)
hodo 137

(b)

;r. =-7 7 -Ii}! J: < tll%lT

!:Efi"'t.t"'o Jenifa hodo yoku benkyosuru gakusei wa inai. (There is no

student who studies as hard as Jennifer.) (c) fL'ilHB

Iv tJ

tbtL 11 }! 1:°7" J tJ

v. ft

fi,

b t.t tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa Nishida-san ga are hodo piano ga hikeru to wa

omowana- katta. (I didntt think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano
that well (lit. to that extent).) (d) IV.{ A

Ivq) a*m'i:t:m96!:E b

OOAt.:

Y.t-0tJ
t.ttJ

-:Jt::..ll }!l:

To Ruisu-san no nihongo wa Ota-sensei mo gaikokujin da to

kizukanakatta hodo jozudesu. (Mr. Lewis's Japanese is so good that
even Prof. Ota didn't notice he was a foreigner.)

= 8 = c= =

BID 1. When hodo is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be

negative, as in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b). The following sentences are
ungrammatical. (1) *fL'i :t:

c!:.%l "'0 *Watashi wa Taro hodo tsuyoi. (I am as strong as Taro.) (2)

*7'/"

-lvl

iO t '-o"'A

'it.: <

Ivtb
o *Futtoboru hodo omoshiroi supotsu wa takusan aru. (There are
many sports which are as interesting as football.) If a sentence or a
demonstrative modifies hodo, however, the predicate of the main
clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in KS(B), Ex. (d) and
(3). (3) -tq)tt*'i-ttLl

c!:.

'-"'Iv

TtJ

o Sono shigoto wa sore hodo yasashii n desu ka. (Is that job that
easy (lit. easy to that extent)?) 2. When hodo is used with a
quantifier, it means 'about'. Example:

(4) I:

- Iv a: =:*'

Jj.

'- t::. o Biru 0 sanbon hodo nomimashita. (I drank about three bottles
of beer.)

[Related Expressions] Bakari and kurai also mean 'about' when they
are used with a number and a counter. The difference among the
three is that bakari and hodo can be
138 hodo / ho ga ii used with an exact number or amount of
something, whereas kurai cannot, as seen in [1]. [1 ] 7c q) Iv = "':) It
fJ\ I.J I I / * < ; L \ < t!. '" 0 Sono ringo 0 futatsu bakaTi / hodo / *kUTai
kudasai. (Please give me two of those apples.) In the situation in [1]
the speaker does not want about two apples but exactly two apples,
and, in this case, kurai cannot be used. It is a very common practice
in Japanese to avoid asking for exact numbers or amounts, and the
practice comes from the idea that being straightforward or direct is .
B == impolite. This can be observed in many verbal and nonverbal
expressions : in Japanese and also in the manners of the Japanese
people. ho ga ii , ? tr(L \L' phr. I;i; h ;;.;d < s.t. , < had better do s.t.
[REL. taTa do desu ka] . Key Sentence Vinf. past a*m q) * a: Iu t 11 ?
tJ "'''' / "''''-Z;i- o lIT&: _ Nihongo no hon 0 yanda ho ga ii / iidesu. (Y
ou'd better read Japanese books.) Formation Vinf.past II? tJ ", '" ho
ga /1 '- t.: 11? tJ '" '" (had better talk) hanashita ho ga /1 1t..A.t:.. 11?
tJ '" '" (had better eat) tabeta ho ga /1

ho ga ii 139

Exa m pies'

(a) !f

t itA: t::.. II ? tJ

\ J: 0 Yasai mo tabeta ho ga ii yo. (You'd better eat vegetables, too.)

(b) t?

-:Jt::..fl? tJ
\

TtJ

o Mo kaetta ho ga iidesu ka. (Had I better go home now?) (c) frJ-r'i t

-:J l:

lf a: f!l%l '- t::..ll ? tJ

\ P.o Kazuko wa motto eigo 0 benkyoshita ho ga ii nee (Kazuko had

better study English harder.)

B = = ... g 5

...

1. Vinf.past ho ga ii is an idiomatic expression of the comparative

structure and expresses a strong suggestion. (t:),." ho ga ,." YOTi) 2.
The second person subject in declarative sentences and the first
person subject in interrogative sentences are usually omitted. (KS
and Exs. (a) and (b» When the subject is the third person, it is not
omitted unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In this
case,. the speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for
the third person. (Ex. (c» 3. Vinf. nonpast can be substituted for Vinf.
past, as in (1). (1) a*mq)*a:
t;'I? tJ

\o Nihongo no hon 0 yomu ho ga ii. (You'd better read Japanese

books.) The meaning of Vinf. nonpast ho ga ii is almost the same as
that of Vinf.past ho ga ii if it is used in situations of suggestion.
However, Vinf.past ho ga ii may express a stronger suggestion than
Vinf.nonpast ho ga ii. For instance, in the following example,
Vinf.past ho ga ii is more appropriate.

(2) :t3M, :. q)

-:J""( ;;, -t ? t!.. let. 0 .:c Iv let. t q)JJ:.

t=. I ? ?JJ:.

.Q Ii ? tJ

\-tf 0 Omae, konogoro mayaku 0 yatteru so da na. Sonna mono ya-

meta / ??yameTu ho ga ii ze. (I heard you are taking drugs these
days. You'd better stop such things, I tell you.) 4. "Had better not do
s.t." is expressed by Vneg nai ho ga ii. Example:
140 ho ga ii / -ho ga -yo'; (3) ::J - t: - iX*f L\'1? tJ \ \o K6hi 0 nomanai
ho ga ii. (Y outd better not drink coffee.) Note that the verb must be
in the nonpast negative form in this expression. The following is
ungrammatical. (4) *::J - t: - a:iX* f fJ\? t= '1 ? tJ \ \o *Kohi 0
nomanakatta ho ga ii. (You'd better not drink coffee.) iii - ho ga -yori
-, ? '/J'( - J: t) phr. rIn comparing two entities, one is in some state or
does s.t. more than the other. ; ( ( - be more (Adj.) than -; - do s.t.
more (Adv.) than - do [REL. yori] . Key Sentences (A) Nounl Noun2
Predicate ;SfH 1v q) '1 ? tJ fk J: \ / \"t*T 0 Ishida-san no ho ga
watashi yori wakai / wakaidesu. (Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.) fk
q) '1 ? tJ J:.fH 1v J: J: < 1t / 1t To Watashi no ho ga Ueda-san yori
yoku taberu / tabemasu. (I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.) (B)
Sentencel Sentence2 Predicate (informal)t (informal)t !II 1: 0-< 11 ?
tJ /'( A \! 17 < J: * \ / * \-eT 0 KUTuma de iku ho ga basu de iku yori
yasui / yasuidesu. (Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.) tDa
after Adj(na) and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.

-ho ga -yo'; 141

Formatien

KS(A) : N q) 11? tJ

N J:

no ho ga yori 96!:E q) 11? tJ

!:E J:

sensei no ho ga gakusei yori

(Teachers are more - than students.)

KS(B) : ( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf 11? tJ

; {V / Adj (i)} inf. nonpast J:

ho ga yori {

T/

'- t.:} II? tJ

(Talking / Having talked is more -); {hanasu / hanashita} ho ga

< J:

(than hearing) kiku yori {itA:;;' / itA:t.:} 11? tJ

(Eating / Having eaten is more -); {taberu / tabeta} ho ga

;;, J:

(than sleeping) neru yori {

\/

tJ\ -:J t.:} 11? tJ

(Being / Having been expensive is more -); {takai / takakatta} ho ga *

\ J:
(than being cheap) yasui yori

=8=g

(ii) Adj (na) stem {t

/ t!. -:J t::..} 11? tJ

; Adj (na) stem t

J: 9 {na / datta} ho ga na yori {r;tJ

/ ffttJ

t!. -:J t::..} 11? tJ

(Being / Having been quiet is more {shizukana / shizukadatta} ho ga

-);

it-

\t

J:!1 kirei na yori

(than being pretty)

(iii) N {-r (b;;' / t!. -:J t::..) II? tJ

; N -r: (b;;' J:!1 {de aru / datta} ho ga de aru yori

{9G!:E -r: (b;;' / 9G!:E t!. -:J t::..} 11? tJ

{sensei de aru / sensei datta} ho ga

(Being / Having been a teacher is more -);

!:E -r: ib;;, J:!J gakusei de aru yo"

(than being a student)

142 -ho ga -yori

Examples

= == = - =-----==-

(a)

(J) j} j 7 (J)ll? tJ
cb(J) j} j 7 J:

To K ono kamera no ho ga ana kamera yori sukidesu. (I like this

camera better than that camera.) (b) .y .:r. 7 (J) 11 ? tJ

f.L J:

<

h Q 0 Jefu no ho ga watashi yori hayaku hashireru. (J eff can run

faster than I can.) (c) f.LtJ

T 11 ? tJ

8tJ

T J:

\t\ \t\

'-.t ? 0 Watashi ga hanasu h6 ga kimi ga hanasu yor; ii desho. (It's

probably better for me to talk than for you to talk.) (d) t

Iv,

\t\ll? tJ
\t\ J:

? h '- \t\

T 0 Mochiron, yasui h6 ga takai yori ureshiidesu. (Of course, I'm

happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.) (e) -r

'j: 7G

11 ? tJ

tJ

J:

JL't!.o Kodomo wa genkina ho ga shizukana yori anshinda. (Talking

about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when
they are quiet.) (f) f.Llj:*

cb;;, 11 ? tJ

!ij

cb;;, J:

'- \t\ c!: I

"? 0 Watashi wa onna de aru ho ga otoko de aru yori tanoshii to
omou. (I think it's more enjoyable to be a woman than to be a man.)

aID 1. In Japanese there are no comparative forms of adjectives and

adverbs. The idea of comparison is expressed by the U X no ho ga Y
yori" pattern. Y yori may be omitted if it is clear from the context or
the situation. Example: (1) A: r A c!:.y 3

c!:

G tJ

%1\t\

TtJ

o Tomu to Jon to dochira ga tsuyoidesu ka. (Who is stronger, Tom or

John?) B: r A (J) 11 ? tJ

(.y 3

J:

) %1 \t\

To Tomu no ho ga (Jon yori) tsuyoidesu. (Tom is stronger (than

John).) 2. In the U Sl ho ga S2 yori" pattern (KS(B», Sl can be either
nonpast or past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the
tense of SI and the main clause. There are two cases in which SI is
past. First, SI can be past when the whole sentence is about a
present or future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds
rather hypothetical. Example:
-ho ga -yori 143

(2) fLiJ

l! L. t: 11 ? iJ

8iJ

T J: !J \t\ \t'

'- J: ? 0 Watashi ga hanashita ho ga kimi ga hanasu yorj jj desho. (It

would probably be better if I talk rather than if you talk.) SI can also
be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state. In this
case the sentence is counterfactual. Example:

(3) fLiJ

! L. t: 11 ? iJ

8iJ

T J: !J J: tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi ga hanashita ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori yokatta. (It

would have been better if I had talked rather than you.) 3. Y yori can
precede X (no) ho ga, as in (4). (4)

(J) j} j 7 J: !J =- (J) j} j 7 (J) 11 ? tJ

M

T 0 Ano kamera yori kono kamera no ho ga sukidesu. (I like this

camera better than that camera.) 4. X no ho is a noun phrase;
therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc.
However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the U
Y yori X no ho (0, ni, etc.)" order is preferable. Examples: (5) a. fL'i
1::

-lvJ: !J iW(J)ll?

J: <

tro Watashi wa biru yori sake no ho 0 yoku nomu. (I drink sake more
than beer.) b.

!:Efi)lIfIJ;tG!:EJ:!J *#;tG!:E(J) 11 ? ':.J: < wr

":.fT< 0 Gakusei wa Kawada-sensei yori Kimura-sensei no ho ni

yoku shitsumon ni iku. (Students go to Prof. Kimura to ask questions
more often than to Prof. Kawada.)

= 8 = z= =

[Related Expression] The idea of comparison can be expressed by

the U X wa Y yori" pattern, too. (t:) YOTi) However, when this pattern
is used, X must have already been established as a topic. Thus, in a
context like [1], the U X wa Y yori" pat- tern cannot be used.

[1] A: r A l:.y 3
l:

't? G tJ

%1\t\

TtJ

o Tomu to Jon to dochira ga tsuyoidesu ka. (Who is stronger, Tom or

John?) B: r A C1) r

? 1J( / * r A r;t (

J: !J ) %1 \t'

To Tomu no ho 9a / *Tomu wa (Jon yori) tsuyoidesu. (Tom is stronger

(than John).)

144 - ho ga - yori / hoshi;l On the other hand, in a context like [2], the
U X wa Y yori" pattern is pref- erable, because X has already been
established in the previous sentence. [2] r.Ldic!:-ct%!\t\-C::To 1lt1 /
??1ltC1)1 ?1J(.y3 J: !)%!\t'-C::To Tomu wa totemo tsuyoidesu. Kare
ws / ??Kare no ho 9S Jon yori tsuyoidesu. (Tom is very strong. He is
stronger than John.) B= hoshiP , l., L' r s;i; d; ;;d by s ;e;k ;' want (s.t.)
[REL. tsi] ( ( ( ......... r.".....,.... .......""""' , _,,, r "'''''''''' . Key Sentences
(A) Topic (experiencer) Desired Object fL 'i 11! tJ 11 '- \t\ / 11 '- \t' -c::
To Watashi wa kuruma ga hoshii / hoshiidesu. (I want a car.) (B)
Topic (experiencer) Desired Object 'i (J) 11! 11 '- tJ -:J -c \t'o / \-'"!To o
to to wa boku no jitensha 0 hoshigatte iru / imasu. . (My little brother
wants my bike.) Examples (a) fLfi f3 *A(J) JitJ 11 '- \t\o Watashi wa
nihonjin no tomodachi ga hoshii. (I want a Japanese friend.) (b) cb t
t::.. 'i fPJtJ 11 '- \t\ -c:: T tJ o Anata wa ima nani ga hoshiidesu ka.
(What do you want now?)

hosh;i 1 145
(c) /

.Ld'i A 7" v::t

11 '- tJ

-:J"'( \t,;;, 0 Pamu wa sutereo 0 hoshigatte iru. (Pam wants a stereo.)

em

1. The i-type adjective hoshii expresses a person's desire for some

object. Like other stative transitive adjectives, hoshii takes the wa-ga
con- struction, where the experiencer is marked by wa and the
desired object by ga. (In subordinate clauses the experiencer is also
marked by ga.) (t:),." ws ,." gs)

_8-

2. Since hosh;i expresses a very personal feeling, the experiencer is

usually the first person in declarative sentences and the second
person in inter- rogative sentences, as in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b).
The third person's desire is usually expressed by hoshigatte iru ' Lit.
be showing the sign of wanting (s.t.)', as in KS(B) and Ex. (c). (t:)
gSTU) It is noted that when hoshigatte iru is used, the desired object
is marked by o. 3. It is, however, acceptable to use hoshii in
connection with the third person experiencer in the following
situations:
(1) In the past tense

- !J A ''i \t\ \t\ A 7" v::t tJ

11 '-1J'

t=.o Morisu wa ii sutereo ga hoshikstts. (Maurice wanted a good

stereo set.) (2) In indirect / semi-direct speech

a. .y 3

tl1 '-\t\ta

",(L\.Qo Joi mo hoshii to itte iTU. (J oy says she wants it, too.)

b. ;t A 11 - t 11 '- \t'-t-? t: o Osuka mo hoshi; sods. (I heard that Oscar

wants it, too.) (3) In explanatory situations

j 7 f'i

..y !J

?tJq1 '- \t\Ai1:-t 0 Pamera wa iyaringu ga hoshii n desu. «The

explanation is that) Pamela wants a pair of earrings.) (t:) no ds)

146 hoshii 1 / hoshil'2

(4) In conjecture expressions a. 7 7

A I'j: ? -e,;

ittJql L \-\; L. L '0 Furanshisu wa udedokei ga hoshii Tsshii. (It seems

that Francis wants a wrist watch.) b. :J .::. - f'j:A

tJ

11 L \t, J: ? f:o Koni wa ningyo ga hoshii yods. (It appears that

Connie wants a doll.)

= 8 = I Ii

hoshii 2 ,

l., L ,

aux. adj. (i)

!'

;;;-! than the speaker) to do s.t. \

'''- ........""'" """'-

want (s.o.) to do (s.t.) [REL. moraitai; tsi]

. Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Indirect Object Vte fL 'i cb t,t. t::.. h:

fiji"'( 11 L \t, / 11 L \t, -e,; To Watashi wa anata ni eigo 0 oshiete

hosh;i / hoshiidesu. . . (I want you to teach me English.)

Formatien

Vte 11 L\t' hoshi;

5 L -c II L \t\ (want (s.o.) to talk) hanashite hoshi; /tA:-c 111,\t\ (want

(s.o.) to eat) tabete hoshii

Examples

(a) fLf'j:-r

Ji':.fL c!: -a':.

1v -e,; 11 L \t'o Watashi wa kodomotachi ni watashi to isshoni sunde

hoshii. (I want my children to live together with me.)
hosh"'02 147

(b) cb t

t= fi t.:h':'*-c fl '- \t\

TtJ

o Anata wa dare ni kite hoshiidesu ka. (Who do you want to come?)

am 1. Hoshii is used as an auxiliary with V te to mean' want (s.o.) to

do (s.t.) '. When the experiencer wants a person X to do something,
X is marked by ni. Hoshii is not used if X has a higher status than the
experiencer. Thus, the following sentence is not appropriate when
the speaker is a student of Prof. Yoshida's. (See Related Expression,
[2] for the correct sentence in that situation.)

(1) fL'i afIJ;tG!£ ,:.*-c fll, \t\o Watashi wa Yoshida-sensei ni kite

hoshii. (I want Prof. Yoshida to come.) 2. When V te hoshii is used,
the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences
(KS, Ex. (a» and the second person in interrogative sentences (Ex.
(b». If the experiencer is the third person, V te moraita- gatte iru '(lit.)
be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor of doing s.t. from
s.o.' is used, as in (2). (t:) mOTsu 2 ; tsi; gSTU) (2) 7

AA

Iv'i 7 7
A ,:. =. Q)tt$

'- -c t G \t\t=tJ

-:J -c \t,;;, 0 Adamusu-san wa Furanshisu ni kono shigoto 0 shite

moraita- ga tte iru. (Mr. Adams wants Francis to do this job.)

=8=

[Related Expression] The same idea can also be expressed by V te

moraitai. (t:) mOTsu 2 ; tsi) Ex- ample: [1] fLfi cb t

t::.. ':.

*- -c t G \t\ t::.. \t\o Watashi wa anata ni eigo 0 oshiete moraitai. (I

want you to teach me English.) This pattern can be used when the
experiencer wants someone who has higher status to do something.
In this case, itadaku, the humble version of morau, is used instead of
morau. Example:

[2] fL 'i a fIJ ;tG!:E ,:. * -c \t \ t::.. t!.

t::.. \t \ 0 Watashi wa Yoshida-sensei ni kite itadakitai. (I would like

Prof. Yoshida to come.)

148 ichiban ichiban - adv. r I;ti;; ' M_ ! most '-'"V"V' . Key Sentence
Noun Subject Adjective ?7'A (Q) rp) -c:- *)11 Iv tJ -$ IiJi tJ \t\ \t\o
Kurasu (no naka) de Okawa-san ga ichiban atama ga II. (Mr. Okawa
is the brightest in the class.) Fermatien I ( i) - Adj (i / na) ichiban - (
if6 \t \ / rNi tJ -:J t::..) ichiban (takai / takakatta) (s.t. is / was the
highest) - ichiban ( tJ t.: / tJ t.: -:J t::..) (s.t. is / was the most quiet)
(shizukada / shizukadatta) (Adj (i) stem < / Adj (na) stem ,:.) ku ni ( ii)
- Ichiban - < (most highly) ichiban takaku - tJ ,:, (most quietly) ichiban
shizukani Examples (a) A: ':'Q)t:p-C: Q) lOOtJ - .t3t '-7J\t\-C:-TtJ 0
Kono naka de dona eiga ga ichiban omoshiroidesu ka. (Among
these, which movie is the most interesting?) B : .:. Q) f3 *Q) 1OO-C:
'- J: ? 0 Kono Nihon no eiga desho. (This Japanese movie, I guess.)
(b) A: t * Iv c!: ?tf! fIJ Iv c!: ¥fflk Iv Q) t:p -c:-, t.: t tJ - (J: < ) m * '! T tJ
o Matsumoto-san to Ikeda-san to Shimizu-san no naka de, dare ga
ichiban (yoku) dekimasu ka. (Among Mr. Matsumoto, Mr. Ikeda and
Mr. Shimizu, who is the best student (lit. can do best)?)

ichiban / iku 1 149 B : ltfHE Iv -c:: T 0 Ikeda-san desu. (Mr. Ikeda is.)
(c) f3 *-c::- h\t\t m'i :. -C::TtJ o Nihon de ichiban kireina tokoro wa
doko desu ka. (Lit. Where is the most scenic place in Japan? ( =
Which place is the most scenic in Japan?» aD Ichiban cannot be
affixed directly to a noun as in *ichiban sensei, meaning 'the best
teacher'. I t should precede an adjective, as in ichiban ii sensei. If the
meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives,
esp. yoku 'well, frequently', may be omitted, as in Ex. (b). = 1 = = -=
= = iku l 17 < v. (Gr. 1) s. ' ';d ti;;;; j from the speaker or the speaker's
I (. . viewpoint. , ( - " "'./""o.... go; come [REL. kuru l ] . Key
Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Noun (direction) fIJq:t 1v ''i *i'M 7)ll)tJ
-.. / ,:. n< /n '!To Tanaka -san wa raishtJ AmeTika e / ni iku / ikimasu.
. (Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.)

150 iku 1

(B)

Topic (subject) N N N (location) (location) (means) fL 'i ** tJ

G *mi i:-c,; J'( A -c,; rr -:J t:. / Watashi

wa Tokyo kara Osaka made basu de itta / ff

i: '- t::.. 0 ikimashita. (I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.)

Examples

(a) fLfj:mW)J\P!i':.

tl:':.fT < 0 : I : Watashi wa maiasa hachiji ni kaisha ni iku. - (I go to

work (lit. my company) at eight every morning.) (b) A:

PJffLQ)? t> -c,;

-7 ;{ -

'- i: T tJ

* i: -tt Iv tJ

o Konban watashi no uchi de pat; 0 shimasu ga kimasen ka. (We are

going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn't you like to
come?) B: 'i

\, fT

i:To Hai, ikimasu. (Yes, I'll come (lit. go).) (c) 'UJt.t.t::..f:' t

Q)

G-tt'j:fT
i: '-t::..tJ

o Anata ni mo sono shirase wa ikimashita ka. (Lit. Did the notice go

to you, too? (= Did you get the notice, too?» (d)

Q)f1"':. t

A 'iff -:J -c \t\;;' 0 Sono mura ni mo basu wa itte iru. (The bus goes to
the village, too.)

em 1. Iku l is used when someone or something moves in a direction

away from the speaker or in a direction away from the speaker's
viewpoint, which is not necessarily the speaker's position. (t:) kUTU I
) For example, in the following situation, iku is used when the
speaker (point C) places his viewpoint near point A.

(1) X

Iv'j: B ':.fT-:J t:::.. X-san wa B ni itta. (Mr. X went to B.)

B Mr. X

C
iku 1 / iku 2 151

2. When someone goes to his own U home base" (e.g., uchi ' home
'), uchi ni iku is ungrammatical. In this case, kaeru 'return' is used as
in uchi ni kaeru 'go home'. 3. There are cases where both kuru and
iku can be used with different shades of meaning. Examples:

(2) 8Q)?

'

,m,-rtJ

*:it1t

"'C!L.t= / ff

:it1t

"'C!

t=t.Po Kimi no uchi ni musuko ga kimasendeshita I ikimasendeshita

ka. (Didn't my son go to your house?) (3) [The speaker lives in San
Francisco and is calling his friend In New York who is coming to Los
Angeles.] A

Ivfi*Jj P A 7

.y .:r.lv A ':'*.Q / ff <

? -e,;-tno Sumisu-san wa raigetsu Rosuanjerusu ni kUTU / iku

sodesu nee (Mr. Smith, I was told that you're coming to Los Angeles
next month.) In (2), when the speaker uses kuru, he is putting
himself psychologi- cally in the addressee's location; when he uses
iku, he is not. In (3), kuru is more appropriate than iku because, in
general, a speaker is more empathetic with a location close to his
own. The choice of iku here definitely implies that the speaker is
unusually unempathetic with his neighboring location.

= r l l == I -

iku 2 17 <

aux. v. (Gr. 1)

,......,.......,.....-"'-'.... I Some action or state keeps chang- ing from the

point in time at which the speaker first describes the action. .......,""""-
' """""'-""

go on -Ing; continue; grow; become [REL. kuru 2 ]

152 iku 2

. Key Sentence

Vte
tL tJ

'i *< fJ. ? -c ft< /ft

'!T .to K ore kara wa samuku natte iku / ikimasu yo. (It will get colder
(and continue to be that way) from now on.)

Fermation

II

V te ft < iku

'- "'( ft < (s.o. continues to talk) hanashite iku 1t

"'( ft < (s.o. continues to eat) tabete iku

. Examples

(a)

tLtJ

'ifjJ f3 *

-ffitMC
ft <

T 0 Kore kara wa mainichi hon 0 issatsu yon de iku tsumori desu. (I

intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.) (b)

tLtJ

'in.itJ

<t

-:J "'(ft

'! T.t o Kore kara wa atatakaku natte ikimasu yo. (It will grow warmer
(and continue in that way) from now on.) (c) .:t Q)

tJ

f3 *Q)

rR'i%t < t

-:J "'(ft-:J t::.. o Sono koro kara Nihon no keizai wa tsuyoku natte itta.
(The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that
way) from that time on.) (d) )ttJ

t
\

J - " ,:..

\"'(ft-:J t::.. o Wakaranai koto 0 nota ni kaite itta. (I went on taking

notes on things I didn't understand.) CD 1. The point In time at which
the action starts is the present time In Exs. (a) and (b) and the past
in Exs. (c) and (d), respectively. 2. The following examples use iku
as a full verb meaning 'to go', and are not the usage of iku 2 . (1) fjJ
f3

tI:,:..I

A ,:.* -:J"'( ft < 0 Mainichi kaisha ni basu ni notte iku.

iku 2 / iru l 153 (Lit. I ride a bus every day and go to my company. (=
I go to work every day by bus.» (2) (bQ)VA" 7 ::z-e- fj ,! LJ::>o Ano
resutoran de kohi 0 nonde ikimasho. (Lit. Let's drink coffee at that
restaurant and go. ( = Let's drink coffee at that restaurant and then
continue on our way.» (Related Expression] When a change of state
is expressed by iku 2 , as in Exs. (b) and (c), iku 2 can be replaced
by kuru 2, as in [la] and [lb] below. [1] a. tL tJ t:> 'i n.itJ < t -:J '"( * '! T
J: 0 Kore kara wa atatakaku natte kimasu yo. (I t will grow warmer
from now on.) b. .:c Q) tJ G a *Q) rR'i%t < t -:J '"( *t::.. o Sono koro
kara Nihon no keizai wa tsuvoku natte kita. (The Japanese economy
grew stronger from that time on.) The iku 2 versions here are more
impersonal and objective than the kuru 2 ver- sions. The latter
versions stress that some change is going to involve or has involved
the speaker himself, while the former versions are impersonal state-
ments. I i ;I ! iru 1 L' Q v. (Gr. 2) -=] be; exist; stay [REL. BTU I ] . Key
Sentences (A) Topic (location) Subject Quantifier Q) lIfT 0:.) 'i a*A tJ
t::..< \Q / \'!To Kono machi (ni) wa nihonjin ga takusan iru / imasu. .
(Lit. In this town are many Japanese. ( = There are many Japanese
in this town.»

154 iru l

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun (location)

- ,;1: ::"(1)

,:.

\Q /

\'!To Ri wa kono ryo ni iru / imasu. . . (Lee is in this dorm.)

Examples

(a) ::.. (1) i1J

tin:. 'i.l

tJ

\ '! To Kono dobutsuen ni wa panda ga imasu. (There are pandas in

this zoo.) II (b) A1--7.'i
\'! 1=7 t:"

(1)7 .I

- "':'

\Qo Suchibu wa ima Robin no apato ni iru. (Steve is in Robin's

apartment now.)

em 1. /ru l expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be

used for plant life or inanimate things. Thus, the following sentence
is ungram- matical.

(1) *::.. (1)

.I

A ,:. 'i*tJ

t::.. <

L\

o *Kono kyanpasu ni wa ki ga takusan iTU. (There are many trees

on this campus.) For plants and inanimate things, aru is used.

(t:) BTU I )
2. Two sentence patterns can be used with iru l . In the KS(A)
pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is
under focus. In this pattern the location marker ni can optionally
drop. In the KS(B) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is
presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus. (t:) BTU I ,
Note 3) 3. An animate thing or a group or organization of animate
things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as
seen in (2).

(2) a. fL 0:.) 'iT{jttJ

\ Q 0 Watashi (ni) wa kodomo ga sannin iru. (Lit. There are three

children with me. ( = I have three children.» b. ::.. (1)1- -A 0:.) 'i

* -?r -.I

tJ

\ Qo Kono chimu (ni) wa ii kuotabakku ga iru.

iru 1 / iru 2 155 (Lit. There is a good quarterback in this team. ( =

This team has a good quarterback.»
iru 2 L \ Q

aux. v. (Gr. 2)

s.;

i;;

:h;o

some time ago, or is in a state created

by an action he or it took some time ! ago. ) ....

"(

be -ing; have done (s.t.) [REL. BTU 2 ]

I==-
. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Vte «:k*

,:1 ffii

iXAi"t!

\."5 /

\'!To Sasaki-san wa sake 0 nonde iru / imasu. (Mr. Sasaki is drinking

sake.)

Formation

Vte

\i5 iru

i5 '- "'(

\ i5 (be talking) hanashite iru ft

"'( \I'i5 (be eating) tabete iru

Examples
(a) flJ1I ,j: ffifJ8

""t:'

\ ."5 0 Kazue wa shinbun 0 yonde iru. (Kazue is reading a

newspaper.) (b) .:. (J) !>

.:.* 'i <

-:J "'(

\ ."5 0 Kono ringo wa kusatte iru. (This apple is rotten.)

156 iru 2

(c) *tJ

fftJtL""C

' Q 0 Ki ga taorete iru. (A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).)
(d) fL'j:ftJ*

Iv

1J1-:J""C

' * To Watashi wa Suzuki-san 0 shitte imasu. (I know Miss Suzuki.)

i IE
Gmt 1. /ru is used as an auxiliary verb with V te and expresses the
continua- tion of an action or state. In general, if V te expresses an
action which can continue or be repeated, V te iru expresses the
continuation of the action. If V te is a verb indicating a momentary
action which cannot be repeated, V te iru expresses the idea that
something happened to X and X maintains the state which was
created by that event. KS and Ex. (a) are examples of the first usage
and Exs. (b), (c) and (d) are ex- amples of the second usage. Note in
Ex. (d) that shiru, the dictionary form of shitte, means 'to get to know'
and shitte iru expresses the continuation of the state after the
speaker got to know Miss Suzuki, which is expressed by know in
English. It is also noted, however, that 'not to know' is not shitte inai,
but shiranai. (t:) shiTU) 2. V te iru also expresses a habitual action,
which is a special sort of re- peated action. Example:

(1) fL'i fiJ a 1m -;"

/vjE"":) 1:' L \

0 Watashi wa mainichi yonmairu hashitte iTU. (I run four miles every

day.)

3. When V te is a motion verb such as iku 'go', kuru 'come' and kaeru
, return', the meaning of V te iru is not 'be - ing '. For example, itte iru
means 'to have gone to some place and to still be there'. The
sentences in (2) provide examples.

(2) a. tX
'i 7 j !J :fJ ':.0'"":) 1:' L \ Q 0 J iro wa Amerika ni itte iTU. (Jiro has
gone to America and is there.)

b.

'/

Iv'i t ? ;vn:.$"":) 1:' L \a;T 0 Bekku-san wa mo ie ni kaette imasu. (Mr.

Beck has already returned home and is there.)

4. The verb sumu 'live' requires the" V te iru" pattern if the sentence
ex-

iru 2 / iru 3 157

presses a present state. Also, verbs like iu 'say' and omou 'think' with
a third person subject require the" V te iru" pattern if the sentence
expresses a present state. Examples: (3) a. fL'iJttJjn

{tN1:L\

/ *{tt;o Watashi-wa Tokyo ni sunde iTU / *sumu. (I live in Tokyo.) b. tj

;r. A "

,j: f3 *ZlHi
'-

, c ,Fi!;l"":) 1:' L \

/ *,

,? 0 Uesuto-san wa nihongo wa yasashii to omotte iTU / *omou. (Mr.

West thinks that Japanese is easy.)

iru 3 L' Q

v. (Gr. 1)

=)=

;t

1 need

'-""""

. Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Necessary Object

t::..tj 'i

fl]

tJ

'Q/

'

'!To Kimitachi wa eiwa-jiten ga iru / irimasu. . . (You need an English-

Japanese dictionary.)

Examples

(a) fL'i

:t3

tJ

' Qo Watashi wa ima o-kane ga iru. (I need money now.) (b) fiiJtJ

J!tAtJ
'

'! TtJ

o Nanika dogu ga irimasu ka. (Do you need some tools?) (c)

Q)1f!'i if >'

tJ

t::.. <

, Qo K ono kuruma wa gasorin ga takusan iru. (This car needs a lot

of gas.)

&ID

1. /ru 'need' takes the wa-ga construction, where the experiencer

(that

158 iru 3

"I=.=
is, the person or thing that needs something) is followed by wa and
the necessary object by ga. (t:),.., ws ,.., gs) 2. /ru 'need' is a Gr. 1
verb; thus, the negative form is iranai, the polite form is irimasu and
the te-form is itte. (Cp. iTU I ; iTU 2 ) 3. The experiencer can also
take the particle ni, as in (1). (1) a.

Q)Tf::'i

\*

tilitJ

\Qo Kono ko ni wa ii kateikyoshi ga iru. (This child needs a good

tutor. (Lit. For this child, a good tutor is necessary.» b.

Q)7°P

:r." "f::'iAc

tJ

\Qo Kono purojekuto ni wa hito to kane ga iru. (This project needs

people and money. (Lit. For this project people and money are
necessary.» 4. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by
either ga or ni, as in (2), unless the sentence is contrastive. (In that
case, wa follows.) (t:) ws l (f;t» (2)

Q) 1f! fJ( / f:: tf

tJ

t::.. <

\Q

1J1-:J "'(

\ '! '- t::.. tJ

0 Kono kuruma gs / ni gasorin ga takusan iru koto 0 shitte ima- shita

ka. (Did you know that this car needs a lot of gas?)

jibun l 159 ji bun 1 (3 pro. r a reflexive pronoun that ;(b;k) l ! to a

human subject with whom the ! speaker is empathizing .......,, - self;
own [REL. jibun 2 ] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) :l:fE 'i $-=f tJ
7t '-"'( \ -"5 .:. 1i1 t.(. tJ -:J t::.. / T suchida wa Sachiko ga jibun o aishi
te iru koto 0 shiranakatta I 1-J1 * it '1:' '- t::.. 0 shiri masendeshi ta.
(Tsuchida didn't know that Sachiko loved him (lit. himself).) = J = - - -
- - == === === (B) Sentencel tJ 'i t.(. tJ ;t"'( \t::..o Yukari wa
arukinagara kangaete ita. (Y ukari was walking while thinking.
Sentencez fm- 'i 7t tJ * ,:. f t.(. t!. 0 ? tJ o Ken'ichi wa jibun ga honto
ni sukina n daro ka. Does Kenichi really love me (lit. myself)?)
Examples (a) qtJIUi 7ttJ Jj(*':'AtL-"5 }l!, -:J"'( \t.(. tJ -:J t::.. o
Nakagawa wa jibun ga Ky6dai ni haireru to omotte inakatta.
(Nakagawa didn't think that he (lit. himself) could enter Kyoto Uni-
versity.) (b) - 'i !fTtJ 13 7t':. \ ,:.*t mf ? tj ,:. \ t.(. tJ -:J t::.. o Ichiro wa
Fuyuko ga jibun ni ai ni kita toki uchi ni inakatta. (Ichiro wasn't at
home when Fuyuko came to see him (lit. himself).)

=J=
160 jib un I

(c) J!t -=f'i-

,:.

7tQ) 1f!'"t*fjtJ

-ttt::..o Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de ikaseta. (Michiko

made Kazuo go there in his / her own car.) (d) .y 3

'i) 7 !J - Q)

c!::

, -:J '"(

\ t::.. o

:9:'i

7t c!::

L,"( <

Iv t!. 0 ? tJ

7t

fti'"( '"(,
7. c!::

T Q Iv t!. 0 ? tJ

o Jon wa Mear; no koto 0 omotte ita. Kanojo wa jibun to kekkonshite

kureru n daro ka. Jibun 0 sutete, Bobu to kekkonsuru n daro ka. (J
ohn was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me (lit. myself)? Is
she going to leave me (lit. myself) and marry Bob?)

&ID

1. Jibun l is an empathy marker that normally refers back to the

subject of the main clause as in KS(A), Exs. (a), (b) and (c), or to the
discourse topic as in KS(B) and Ex. (d). 2. When jibun is an empathy
marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the sentence) is normally a
passive experiencer. In other words, the referent is not an agent (i.e.,
someone who initiates and / or completes an action). (t:) jibun 2 ) 3.
Ex. (c) is an ambiguous sentence, because jibun can refer to either
the main subject Michiko or to Kazuo. Jibun's reference to Kazuo is
not a counterexample of jibun's strong tendency to refer to the
subject, however, because Kazuo is semantically the subject of the
verb iku ' go'. Also to be noted is that Michiko is an agent of the
causative action, but Kazuo is a passive experiencer of the causative
action. Indeed, it is easier to look at Kazuo as the object of the
speaker's empathy, because he is a passive experiencer. It is very
likely that jibun is not an empathy marker but a contrastive marker
when it refers to an agent Michiko. Other similar ambiguous
sentences follow:

( 1) a. JR -=f 'i -:9} ':'13

Q) 1f! '"t* fj -:J '"( t

-:J t::.. 0 Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de itte moratta. (Lit.

Michiko received from Kazuo a favor of going there In her / his own
car. ( = Michiko had Kazuo go there in her I his own car.» b. JR -=f'j:
-J} l=. 13

Q)1f!'"t*fjtJ

tLt::..o Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de ikareta. (Lit. Michiko

is annoyed by the fact that Kazuo went there by her / his own car. (=
Michiko had Kazuo go there in her / his own car.»

jibun l / jibun 2 161

Note that jibun in (la, b) is an empathy marker when it refers to

Michiko and is a contrastive marker when it refers to Kazuo. (t:) jibun
2 ) 4. The referent of jibun in a complex sentence has to be
conscious of the situation expressed in the main clause. Compare
(2a) and (2b): (2) a. t{-=f'iEl

tJ

re

wH:.-=f{jttJ

':'A-:J t::.. o Tomoko wa jibun ga shinu mae ni kodomo ga daigaku ni

haitta. (Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, before she (lit. herself) died, her
chjld entered college. (= Before Tomoko died, her child entered
college.» b. *t{-=f'i EI

tJ
re

f.: (b c

-=f{jttJ

':'A -:J t::.. o *Tomoko wa jibun ga shinda ato de kodomo ga daigaku

ni haitta. (Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, after she (lit. herself) had died,
her child entered college. ( = After Tomoko died, her child entered
college.» The sentence (2b) is ungrammatical because one can
hardly empathize with a dead person.

-J-----

jibun 2 (3

pro.

a reflexive pronoun that refers (back)

to a human subject, the referent of

which is contrasted with s.o. else

'-"-

-self. own , [REL. jibun l ]

162 jibun 2 . Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) f3*A 'i S7t (/) 00 (/) Jt{

=:1-=::..--7 t!.

Ji!!.. -:J "'( Nihonjin wa jib un no kuni no bunka 0 yuniku da to omotte

'" Q / '" * To iru / imasu. (The Japanese think that their country's
culture is unique.)

(B)

= J = ==

Topic (subject, agent) ;li!J- 'i S7t "'t* fPJ "'t*b TQ / L*To Meari wa
jibun de nan demo suru / shimasu. (Mary does everything by
herself.)

(C)
Topic (subject) . -

'i S7t

1Jl1.J * L t::.. / 1Jl1.J * L * L t::.. o Kazuo wa jibun o hagemashita /

hagemashimashita. (Kazuo braced himself.)

Examples

(a) S 7t

1-11 Q =-

tJ

-ii. L "'0 Jibun 0 shiru koto ga ichiban muzukashii. (To know yourself
is the hardest.) (b) -;".{ -7 'i'" '.) b S 7t (/)

(/)!rom"'t* t!l %i L "'( ", Q 0 Maiku wa itsumo jibun no ryo no heya de

benkyoshite iru. (Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.) (c)
IJ'*'i f:J 7ttJ

L t::.. ",

-:J t::.. o Kobayashi wa jibun kara shitai to itta. (Kobayashi voluntarily

(lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.) (d) 96!:E'i :: S 7t (/)
*"'t* fL ,:.

-:J "'( r
-:J t::.. 0 Sensei wa go-jibun no ie de watashi ni atte kudasatta. (The
professor kindly met me at his own house.)

jibun 2 163

Note Jibun is a contrastive marker if at least one of the following

three conditions is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KSs (B),
(C), Exs. (b), (c) and (d». (2) the subject is generic (as in KS(A) and
Ex. (a». (3) jibun cannot be replaced by an implicit third person
pronoun (0) or by an explicit third person pronoun (such as kare ' he '
and kanojo 'she '). KS(C) satisfies the condition (3), because if jibun
is replaced by 0 or kare C he " the meaning of the sentence changes
into ' Kazuo encouraged him.'

[Related Expression] Jibun is jibun l if the referent does not satisfy

any of the three conditions given in Note; if it satisfies at least one of
them it is jibun 2 .

= J = - - - - i I =======

164 ka 1 ka 1 b\ prt. ! \ ; arti hkh'm-;ks -;;;;;; ) ttve .-.......... /""'0..../'"'

......,................ (either) - or - [REL. soretomo] . Key Sentences (A)
Topic (subject) Noun I Noun2 Predicate fL 'i iI]f[ tJ J A (tJ ) "t* ff< / ff
*To Watashi wa densha ka basu (ka) de iku / ikimasu. (I will go either
by train or by bus.) (B) ' 1 = Sentence1 Sentence2 (informal)t
(informal)t A fJ( ft < tJ ;I. 7 I) - fJ( ft < tJ E t? tJ t!. / "t*T 0 Tomu ga iku
ka MeaTi ga iku ka dochiraka da / desu. (Either Tom will go or Mary
will go.) tDa after Adj(na) stem and N drops. Fermation KS(A) : Nt tJ\
N 2 (tJ\) ka (ka) %!:E tJ\ !:E (tJ\) sensei ka gakusei (ka) KS(B) : ( i)
{V / Adj (i)} inf tJ ka {8 T / 8 Lt::} 7J\ (either s.o. talks / talked or)
{hanasu / hanashita} ka { \ / ip-:Jt::} tJ (either s.t. is / was expensive
or) {takai / takakatta} ka (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {o / t!. -:J t::..} tJ\ {o /
datta} ka (either a teacher or a student)

ka 1 165

{r/t/.p / rfttp t.: -:J t::..} tJ

{shizuka / shizukadatta} ka (;'G!:E / %!:E t.: -? t::..) tJ\ {sensei /

sensei datta} ka

(either s.t. is / was quiet or)

(either s.o. is / was a teacher or)

Exa m pies

(a) fL'j:

.y.:L - A tJ

Iv
tro Watashi wa maiasa jtJSU ka miruku 0 nomu. (I drink either juice
or milk every morning.) (b)

tL ,j:

7*tJ\ -;" -

tJ

'- * To Sore wa Bobu ka Maku ga shimasu. (As for that, either Bob or
Mark will do it.) (c)

tJ

tJ\-:Jt::..tJ\-

tJ

tJ

"'t':-:Jt::..tJ

l!

t:JtJ

t.:o Niku ga takakatta ka Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka dochiraka da.

(Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.) (d) -=Fki1:
. < tJ

tJ

Jt Q tJ

tJ

'-"'( < t.:

"'0 Tegami 0 kaku ka denwa 0 kakeru ka dochiraka shite kudasai.

(Either write a letter or make a call, please.) (e) 1t

Q tJ

!TtJ\ l!

tJ

,:. '- tet.

"'0 Taberu ka hanasu ka dochiraka ni shinasai. (Lit. Decide on either

eating or talking. ( = Just do one thing, eat or talk.» em 1. The basic
function of ka is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or
sentences. When it marks nouns, the final ka is usually omitted.
When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses;
that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker wa must
not be used. 2. Ka cannot be used to connect two questions. Thus,
the following sen- tences are ungrammatical. (1) a. *=.tL'j:UJtet.t::"Q)

TtJ\o fJ'fLQ)

TtJ\o *Kore wa anata no desuka. Ka watashi no desu ka. (Is this

yours or mine?) b. *fL

-a':'**TtJ

o fJ'=. =. ':''''*TtJ

o *Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. Ka koko ni imasu ka. (Will you

come with me? Or will you stay here?) In this case, soretomo is used
instead of ka. (t:) SOTetomo)

=1=

166 ka 1 / ka 2

[Related Expression] Soretomo is also used with alternatives.

However, the function of soretomo is to connect two alternatives, not
to mark an alternative. Thus, soretomo appears with ka, not in place
of ka. Examples: [1]

tJ

JNjtJ

-:Jt::..tJ
, i"nt: t-

tJ

tJ

1j't!.-:Jt::..tJ

tJ

t!o Niku ga takakatta ka, SOTetomo Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka

dochiraka da. (Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.)

[2] fL

-tt,:.** TtJ

o i"n t: t

,=. 1j' * TtJ

o Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. SOTetomo koko ni imasuka. (Will

you come with me? Or will you stay here?) Soretomo is optional in
[1], but not in [2].
KI

ka 2 b\ prt.

ich i

ates that. the preceding sentence is !

I nterrogatl ve , <. -

-,-

whether; if [REL. dai (kai)]

. Key Sentences (A)

Sentencet J:'-.:r 'i *

-- ff< /ff

*T tJ

o Yoshiko wa dalgaku e iku / ikimasu ka. (Is Y oshiko going to

college?)
tIn informal speech, da after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

ka 2 167

(B)

Sentence (informal)t fL fj: =r!J- ,:. -j-

y - tJ

f3*

0< tJ

pa

\ t::.. / Watashi wa Teri ni Nanshi ga Nihon e iku ka to kiita / pa

*Lt::..o kikimashita. (I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to

Japan.)

tOa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

Fermation

( i) {V / Ad j (i)} tJ \ ka {
!T / g

'-:t T} tJ

(Will (or Does) s.o. talk? (informal/formal») {hanasu / hanashimasu}

ka {

\/

T} 1;\ (Is s.t. expensive? (informal/formal» {takai / takaidesu} ka (ii)

{Adj (na) stem / N} {o /

T} tJ\ {o / desu} ka {RJttJ

/ RJttJ\

T} tJ

(Is s.t. quiet? (informal/formal» {shizuka / shizukadesu} ka

=1=--------

-=-

iii:iiii

{%!:E / %!:E

T} tJ\ {sensei / sensei desu} ka

(Is s.o. a teacher? (informal/formal»

Examples

(a) UJt

t::..'j:

!:E

TtJ

o Anata wa gakusei desu ka. (Are you a student?) (b) =- tL'j:fPJ

TtJ\o Kore wa nan desu ka. (What is this?) (c)

ii'j:

*tJ

j$ '- ,,\tJ

fif)

\t::..o Tomodachi wa kanji ga muzukashii ka to kiita. (My friend asked

if kanji is difficult.) (d) fL'j:.y.y

,:. t.:tLtJ

*t::..tJ
t::.. fh t::.. o Watashi wa Jan ni dare ga kita ka to tazuneta. (I asked J
an who had come.)

168 ka 2 / ka (do ka) (e) 'j: M:$t!:EtJ (/) ? fPJ -:J t::.. tJ ;gtL"'( '- * -:J
t::.. o Boku wa Yamazaki-sensei ga kino nani 0 itta ka wasurete
shimatta. (I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said
yesterday.) (f) fL'j:{Jt=':.td }t '-t::..tJ ? tJ J[""\m1tt "\o Watashi wa Kenji
ni o-kane 0 kashita ka do ka omoidasenai. (I cannot remember if I
lent Kenji some money.) em 1. The question marker ka is a special
use of the ka which marks an alter- native (i.e., kal). For example,
KS(A) came from (1), with the paren- thesized part omitted. (t:) kal)
(1) J: LT'j:* ff *TtJ o ( tL tff *1tlvtJ o) Yoshiko wa daigaku e ikimasu
ka. (Soretomo ikimasen ka.) (Is Yoshiko going to college? (Or is she
not?» 2. Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is
marked by ka whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. (t:)
dai; kai) Note - ; K;; that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the
word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative
sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising
intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. 3. Ka
remains in indirect questions as in KS(B), Exs. (c) and (d). 4. When
the informal forms of na-type adjectives and the copula precede the
question marker ka, da drops. A possible reason is that da, the
informal form of desu, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts
with the question marker ka, which expresses the speaker's
uncertainty about something. (t:) kai; kamoshiTenai; kashiTa) ka (do
ka) b\ (Co? b\) prt. ! ' 1 question . --....,......- whether or not; if (- or
not)

ka (do ka) 169

. Key Sentence
Embedded Yes-No Question Verb (cogni tion) (informal)t f

Iv tJ

,:. A -:J t::.. tJ

? tJ

) OJ:) 1-11

", / 1-11 !J * "it Iv o Suzuki-san ga daigaku ni haitta ka (do ka) (wa)

shiranai / shirimasen. (I don't know whether or not Mr. Suzuki
entered college.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

Fermation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf tJ

? tJ\) ka (do ka) {

!T /
! L t::..} tJ

? tJ

) (whether or not s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashital ka (do ka)

{Mj'" /

tJ

-:J t::..} 1J

? tJ

) (whether or not s.t. is / was expensive) {takai / takakatta} ka (do ka)

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {o / t!. -:J t::..} tJ

? tJ

) {o / datta} ka (do ka) {t; tJ

/ ffttp t.: -:J t::..} tJ

? tJ

) (whether or not s.t. is / was {shizuka / shizukadatta} ka (do ka)

quiet) {:$t!:E /:96!:E t!. -:J t::..} tJ

? tJ\) (whether or not s.o. is / was a {sensei / sensei datta} ka (do ka)
teacher)
=1---------

Examples

(a) IJ'JII

Iv tJ

'-"'( '" Q tJ

? tJ\1-I1-:J"'( '" * TtJ\o Ogawa-san ga kekkonshite iru ka do ka shitte

imasu ka. (Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?) (b) 7;t -

-j-- Q)/J'

tJ

t3 b '- 0 "'tJ

? tJ

1-I1

"'0 Fokuna no shosetsu ga omoshiroi ka do ka shiranai. (I don't know

if Faulkner's novels are interesting.) (c)
1=1 96!:EtJ

t3 7G

tJ

? tJ\ff 1.:, * "it Iv o Yamaguchi-sensei ga o-genki ka do ka

zonjimasen. (I don't know if Prof. Yamaguchi is healthy.)

em 1. When the optional do ka is used, the embedded question has

to be a yes-no question. If it is not used, then the question can be
either a yes-no question or a WH-question.

170 ka (do ka) / kai ( 1 ) V A " =} "'t* Vir it t::.. fJ' / * fJ' ? fJ':Jt;t "'( ", *
T tJ 0 Resutoran de nani 0 tabeta ks / *ka do ka oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember what you ate at the restaurant?) (2) Q) t=tL - ,:. '"
t::.. fJ' / *fJ' ? fJ':Jt;t "'( '" * T tJ o Sono toki daTe to isshoni ita ka / *ka
do ka oboete imasu ka. (Do you remember who you were with at that
time?) 2. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of
knowing, examining, understanding, asking, remembering, and
deciding. 3. Sinf ka (do ka) can be used as a noun phrase that takes
particles such as ga and o. = 1 = == (3) tt$ Q tJ E ? tJ tJ rJ:J'mt.: -:J
t::.. o Shigoto 0 yameru ka do ka ga mondai datta. (Whether or not to
quit the job was the question.) (4) * ':.ff < tJ E ? tJ #;t "'( ", * To
Daigakuin ni iku ka do ka 0 ima kangaete imasu. (I'm now thinking
about whether or not I will go to graduate school.) kai D\L\ prt. f ' yes-
no questions in informal male speech , [REL. dai (ka 2 )] . Key
Sentences (A) Sentence (informal)t a*m 'i t3t l., L\ tJ "'0 Nihongo wa
omoshiToi kai. (Is Japanese interesting?) tDa after Adj (na) stem and
N drops.

kai 171
(B)

Sentence (informal)t l:.IT

Iv 'i i:) !J 'f.1 -- 17 < (/) tJ\ "'0 Veno-san wa Amerika e iku no kai. (Is
Mr. Ueno going to America?)

t Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

Formati

KS(A) : ( i) {V / Ad j (i)} in f I; \

\ kai

T/

L t:J tJ\ ,,\ {hanasu / hanashita} kai {

",/
tJ \ -:J t.:} tJ

" \ {takai / takakatta} kai (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {o/ t!. -:J t::..} tJ\,,\ {o /
datta} kai {rft!p / f(ftlp t!. -:J t::..} tJ

,,\ (Is / Was s.t. quiet?) {shizuka / shizukadatta} kai

(Does (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?)

(Is / Was s.t. expensive?)

K'

{16!:E / 16!:E t!. -:J t.:.} tJ\ '" {sensei / sensei datta} kai KS(B) : ( i) {V
/ Adj (i)} inf (/) tJ\ ", no kai {

iiT / g

Lt.:} (/) tJ\ ,,\ (Docs (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?) {hanasu / hanashita} no
kai

(Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)

{iNi'" / iNit.P"-Jt.:} (/)

\,,\ (Is / Was s.t. expensive?) {takai / takakatta} no kai (ii) {Adj (na)
stem / N} {t

/ t!. -:J t::..} (/)

\ ,,\ {na / datta} no kai {ffttJ\ t,t. / rfttJ\ t.!. -:J t::..} (/) tJ

'" (Is / Was s.t. quiet?) {shizukana / shizukadatta} no kai

{9G!:E t

/ 16!:E t!. -:J t::..} (/) tJ

'" {sensei na / sensei datta} no kai

(Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)

172 kai

Examples

(a) a*m

f1l%iT-3tJ

\o Nihongo 0 benkyosuru kai. (Will you study Japanese?) (b)

(/) 7 /

- " 'i r; tJ

tJ

\0 Kono apato wa shizuka kai. (Is this apartment quiet?)

II

(c)

ii 'i

!:E tJ

\0 Kimitachi wa gakusei kai. (Are you students?) (d) .:t (/)*'i

'-

\(/)tJ

\o Sono hon wa muzukashii no kai. (Is the book difficult?) (e) (b (/)
AJi 96!:E t.t (/) tJ

\ 0 Ano hito wa sensei na no kai. (Is that person a teacher?)

CD 1. Since kai is used in informal speech, preceding sentences
must be In the informal form. The following sentences are
unacceptable.

(1) a. * a*

!'i13=b l.,

L\-C:T ((/)) tJ

\o *Nihongo wa omoshiToidesu (no) kai. (Is Japanese interesting?) b.

*l:!f

Iv'i7 J. !J j]

fi

*T((/))tJ

\o *Ueno-san wa Amerika e ikimasu (no) kai. (Is Mr. Ueno going to

America?) 2. Kai is used only for yes-no questions. Thus, the
following sentences are ungrammatical.

(2) a. *E

ff"< ((/))tJ
\o *Doko e iku (no) kai. (Where are you going?) b. *(b(/)AJit.:tL(t.t(/))
tJ

\o *Ano hito wa dare (na no) kai. (Who is that person?) (In these
sentences, dai is used. (t:) dai»

kai / kamoshirenai 173 3. Questions in the KS(A) pattern and those

in the KS(B) pattern cor- respond to questions without no desu and
those with no desu in formal speech, respectively. (t:) no da) 4.
Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping kai
in male informal questions and using rising intonation. Examples: (3)
a. a * lHijQ t L 0 \ (Q))? Nihongo wa omoshiroi (no)? (Is Japanese
interesting?) b. l:!f Iv 'i 7 J. j] -..ff" < (Q))? Veno-san wa Amerika e iku
(no)? (Is Mr. Ueno going to America?) c. UJ Q) AJi 96!:E ( t.t Q) ) ?
Ano hito wa sensei (na no)? (Is that person a teacher?) For a
summary of the endings for informal questions, see dai, Related
Expression. = 1 = - - - - - - - - ===- kamoshirenai D\'b tL , aux. alij (i) (
\ -"I....,,"-.""',,""-/'- , ..-,,/ ""'-./...... might [REL. daro; ni chigainai; soda
2 ] . Key Sentences (A) Vinf lf jij tJ tJ t LtLt.t \ / tJ t LtL * -tt Iv o Gogo
ame ga fUTU kamoshirenai / kamoshiremasen. (It might rain in the
afternoon.)

174 kamoshirenai

(B)

Adj (i) inf u.,Q) 96!:E Q) f1

'i "J
tlL\ tJ

t Litt.t

\ / tJ

t LtL * -tt Iv o Ano sensei no jugy6 wa tsumsTsnsi kamoshirenai /

kamoshiremasen. (That teacher's class might be dull.)

(C)

Adj (na) stem J?:W Q) tk 'i * t!.

tLL\ tJ

t LtLt.t

\ / tJ

t LtL * -tt Iv o Kyoto no sakura wa mada kiTei kamoshirenai /

kamoshiremasen. (The cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be
beautiful.)

Formatien

(i) {V / Adj (i)} inf tJ

t LtLt.t

\ = kamoshirenai i K i {
!T /

! L t::..} tJ

t LtLt.t

\ (s.o. might talk / might have talked) {hanasu / hanashita}

kamoshirenai {

\ / ifjjtJ

-:Jt::..} tJ

t LtLt.t

\ (s.t. might be high / might have been {takai / takakatta}

kamoshirenai high) (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0 / t!. -:J t::..} tJ

b Lit t.t ,,\ {0 / datta} kamoshirenai {r;tJ

/ r;tJ

t!.-:Jt::..} tJ

tL

tt.t

\ (s.t. might be quiet / might have {shizuka / shizukadatta}

kamoshirenai been quiet) {96!:E / 96!:E t!. -:J t.:} tJ

t L tL t.t

\ (s.o. might be a teacher / might {sensei / sensei datta}

kamoshirenai have been a teacher)
Examples

(a)

lf:Q)

'i*

* < t.t Q tJ

t LtL * 1t Iv o Kotoshi no fuyu wa taihen samuku naru

kamoshiremasen. (It might be very cold this winter.) (b) u.,Q)A'i

a Q).I

-T -1' -Q)

tLt::..tJ

t LtL*1tlv o Ano hito wa kyo no pat; no koto 0 wasureta

kamoshiremasen. (He might have forgotten about today's party.) (c)

Q) II.*:OOUi UJ t.t t:: ,:. Ii --::> *

t.t ,,\ tJ

t L tL * 1t Iv 0 Kono eiga wa anata ni wa tsumaranai

kamoshiremasen. (This movie might be uninteresting for you.)

kamoshirenai 175
(d) qtOOmQ))(llHi a *mQ))(

J: !J nnltitJ

t LtLt.t 1r\0 Chugokugo no bunp6 wa nihongo no bunpo yori kantan

kamoshirenai. (Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese
grammar.) (e) UJtL'iffJ*96!:EtJ

t LtLt.t 1r\ J: 0 Are wa Suzuki-sensei kamoshirenai yo. (That might

be Prof. Suzuki.)

[Related Expressions] I. The probability of accuracy predicted by a

kamoshirenai sentence is lower than that of a daro sentence and
much lower than that of a ni chigainai sentence as diagrammed
below: low probability ( . high probability kamoshirenai < daro < ni
chigainai The Japanese weatherman on radio or TV, for example,
employs desho (the formal version of daro) in his forecasts as in the
following:

[1] 00 JkitfrJ.1, UJT'i,J,jijtJ;- a qt

Q -c! l., J: ? 0 Kanto-chiho, asu wa kosame ga ichinichiju furu desho.

(Tomorrow, in the Kanto area it will probably be drizzling all day
long.) II. V masu / Adj (i / na) stem soda is used when the speaker's
conjecture is based primarily on visual or other perceptual evidence,
but kamoshirenai is not; rather the latter is used when that
conjecture is based on logical reasoning. Thus,

K'

!
[2] UJ -:J!

Q) -7 -

('i) jQ 1r\ L

? -c!T ho A! Kono keki (wa) oishisodesu nee (Look, this cake looks
good, doesn't it?) [3] *UJ-:J!

Q)-7-

Oi)jQ1r\L1r\f.»\=b l.,*I;

1tNho *A! Kono keki (wa) oishii kamoshiTemssen nee (*Look, this
cake might be good, might it not?)

(t:) yoda)

176 kara l karal tJ\ b prt. '-' J a particle which indicates a starting !
point or a source , v'-"' "" .........,..... from; since; out of [REL. ni 3 ; 0 3
] . Key Sentence Topic (subject) Noun ,1 -T.{ - 'i J\ttt tJ jir£ Q / jf:r£ !J
* T 0 Pat; wa hachiji kara hajimaru / hajimarimasu. . (The party starts
at (lit. from) eight o'clock.) EXa", pies I! (a) aQ)f1 'i- tJ =: * To Kyo no
jugyo wa ichiji kara sanji made desu. (Today's class is from one
o'clock till three o'clock.) (b) Q),1 A 'i;::..:I. - 3 - tJ *t::o Kona basu wa
Nyuyoku kara kita. (This bus came from New York.) (c) tJ :f:U-JtJ;
;tQJ:o Koko kara Fujisan ga mieru yo. (You can see Mt. Fuji from
here.) (d) .7c Q) .{ 7" 7.{ -li t tL tJ f1i t:: Iv T tJ o Sono taipuraitB wa
dare kara karita n desu ka. (Who did you borrow the typewriter
from?) (e) mHi*i1 f'FQo Sake wa kome kara tsukuru. (Sake is made
out of rice.) (I) 'J * t.t 1j\ tJ It Iv tJ ,:. t.t -:J t::.. o Tsumaranai koto kara
kenka ni natta. (Lit. It became a quarrel from a trifle. (= We started to
quarrel over a trifle.» aD Kara basically indicates a temporal or
spatial starting point (Exs. (a), (b) and (c» or a source (Exs. (d), (e)
and (f». As seen in Exs. (d), (e) and (f), a source can be a person,
material, a cause or a reason.

kara 2 177

kara 2 tJ\ b conj.

! after / since a point in time at which ! s.t. takes place

after; having done s.t.; since (time) [REL. ata de; te-form of verb]

. Key Sentence

Vte

T 'i

!&

11t

-c tJ

t:>

iOO ,:. ff -:J t:. / ff

* '- t:. o Yukiko wa bangohan 0 tabete kara eiga ni itta / ikimashita.
(After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.)

Fermatien

V te tJ

t:> kara

L. -C tJ

G hanashite kara

(after talking)

=1=

!!!

1t

-C tJ

t:> tabete kara

(after eating)

Examples

(a) fL'i

ii':..

'- -C tJ

t:> ? i?

lfj t::.. o Watashi wa tomodachi ni denwashite kara uchi 0 deta. (I left

home after making a call to my friend.) (b)

3-

A.

Iv'i

\"'J t

.y !7 -

ma-c tJ

t:>1i* To Jonzu-san wa itsumo shawa 0 abite kara nemasu. (Mr.

Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.)

(c) fLiit.J
Q)*

A -:J -C tJ

t:> t ? +If:':' t

Q 0 Watashitachi ga kono ie 0 katte kara mo junen ni naru. (It's

already been ten years since we bought this house.)

(d) =If:M ,:.

im*

'- -C tJ

t:>,

=} -

Iv li1l!':.* t:> t

1j\ J: ? ,:. '- -C 1j\ *1-0 Ninen mae ni kotsujiko 0 okoshite kara, Mira-
san wa kuruma ni noranai yoni shite imasu. (Since he caused a
traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been trying not to drive
a car.)

178 kara 2

em
1. V te kara S means'S after doing s.t.' or'S since - did s.t.' The
usage of kara 2 is an extended use of karal. 2. Te kara is not to be
confused with ta kara in which kara IS used as a conjunction of
cause / reason. (t:) kaTa 3 ) ( 1 ) a. .y 3 :¥

'- -c f.»' .;

..y 'J -

mat::.. 0 Jogingu 0 shite kaTa shawa 0 abita. (After jogging, I took a

shower.) b. .y 3 :¥

'- t.: f.»\ .;

..y 'J -

mat::.. 0 Jogingu 0 shita kaTa shawa 0 abita. (Because I jogged, I

took a shower.)

!!

[Related Expression] Kara in V te kara can be omitted if the main

verb does not indicate a high degree of volitional control on the part
of the speaker as in the cases of a strong suggestion, determination
or a command. Thus, in KS and Exs. (a), (b) and (c) kara can drop,
but in Ex. (d), [la] and [2a] it cannot. [1] a. f1l%it.J
b -:J -C f.»''; T'::' A

'- * '-.t ? 0 Benkyo ga owatte kaTa tenisu 0 shimasho. (Let's play

tennis after we've finished studying.) b. *f1l%itJ

b -:J -C, 7''::' A

L * L..t ? 0 *Benkyo ga owatte, tenisu 0 shimasho. (*We've finished

studying, and let's play tennis.) [2] a. f1l%itJ

b-:J-cf.»\';ilifat.t

\o Benkyo ga owatte kaTB asobinasai. (Play after you've finished

studying.) b. *f1l%itJ

b -:J-cilifat.t

\o *Benkyo ga owatte asobinasai. (*y ou've finished studying, and

play.) The difference between te kara and te is that the former
focuses more on chronological order and volitional planning than the
latter does.

kara 3 179
kara 3 tJ\ b conj.

/"V'.."-""-"""'-"""'-",.

""""-""

" "",.

a subordinate conjunction which ex-

I presses a reason or a cause < \ ) "'''

''-

-''''..

''-

''''''-/'\...'''''-I''\..-

so; since; because [REL. node]

. Key Sentences (A)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause (reason / cause) *

a* -.. ff < tJ >. t J a*m

f1l%i L -C 1j\ Q / 1j\ * t" 0 Rainen Nihon e iku kara nihongo 0
benkyoshi te iru / imasu. (I'm studying Japanese because I'm going
to Japan next year.)

(B)

A:

? L-C a*m

%iL-C 1j\ Q Iv {t.: /

t" tJ

} 0 Do shite nihongo 0 benkyoshite iru n Ida / desu ka}. (Why are you
studying Japanese?)

=1=--------

B: Sentence (informal) *

a* -.. IT < tJ

j t.: /

t" 0 Rainen Nihon e iku kara da / desu. (It's because I'm going to
Japan next year.)
Formation

KS(B) :

Sinf tJ >. C J kara

{B!t" /

! L- t::..} tJ>.

J (because s.o. (will) talk / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} kara {il1i1j\

/iWitJ

-:Jt::..} tJ

r:J (because s.t. is /was expensive) {takai / takakatta} kara

{r; tJ

t.= / r; tJ

t.: -:J t::..} tJ

G {shizukada / shizukadatta} kara

(because s.t. is / was quiet)

180 kara 3

{96!:E t!. / 96!:E t!. -:J t::..} tJ\ G {sensei da / sensei datta} kara

(because s.o. is / was a teacher)

Examples'

(a)

T'j:+-t; t!. tJ

G * t!.jO

\o Haruko wa jushichi da kara mada o-sake 0 nomenai. (Haruko is

seventeen, so she can't drink sake yet.) (b)

EHi it '-

T tJ

G UJ '- t::.. * -C < t!.

\ 0 Kyo wa isogashii desu kara ashita kite kudasai. (Please come
tomorrow because I'm busy today.) (c) A:

5 '- -C

Q) ?

f*1v t!.Iv

TtJ

o Do shite kino gakko 0 yasunda n desu ka. (Why were you absent
from school yesterday?) B : AA t.J

nfj tJ

-:J t::.. tJ

To Atama ga itakatta kara desu. (It was because I had a headache.)

;K

am 1. S kara represents a reason or a cause. Thus, S1 kara S2

corresponds to , S2 because / since SI', 'Because / since 8h 8 2 ',
or'S., so S2'. Note that the order of SI and S2 is not always the same
in English, while in Japanese kara clauses (i.e., SI) always precede
main clauses (i.e., S2). 2. In subordinate clauses predicates are
usually in the informal form. How- ever, since the degree of
subordination or dependency of SI in U SI kara S2" is rather low, SI
may be in the formal form in very formal speech, as in Ex. (b). 3.
When a main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the
KS(B) pattern is used. In this case, the kara clause must be in the
informal form. 1'he following sentence is unacceptable. (1) **If:a*
ff"

*TtJ

Gt!. /

To *Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara da / desu. (It's because I'm going to

Japan next year.) 4. In question-and-answer situations as in K8(B)
and Ex. (c), abbreviated forms are occasionally used. For example,
speaker B may say (2) in the KS(B) situation. (2) *

a*

ff"

TtJ

Go Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara. (Because I'm going to Japan next

year.)

kara 3 / kashira 181 In this sentence, the main clause nihongo 0

benky6 shite imasu 'I'm studying Japanese' has been omitted.
kashira tJ\ b prt. ) , a sentence-final particle which ex- presses the
idea that the female I speaker wonders about s.t. ......,,"- ,, """ I
wonder . Key Sentence Sentence (informal)t t * Iv 'i * tJ '- t.J 0
Matsumoto-san wa kUTU kashira. (I wonder if Mr. Matsumoto will
come.) = 1 = t Da after Adj (na) stem and N drops. Formation ( i) {V /
Adj (i)} inf tJ '- C"J kashira { !T / B! '- t::..} tJ '- G (I wonder s.o. (will)
talk / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} kashira {rtli \ /;WitJ -:Jt::..} tJ '-C".J
(I wonder s.t. is /was expensive) {takai / takakatta} kashira (ii) {Adj
(na) stem / N} {o/ t':-:Jt::..} tJ '-(J {o / datta} kashira {r;tJ / tffttJ t.: -:J
t::..} tJ '- G (I wonder s.t. is / was quiet) {shizuka / shizukadatta}
kashira {96!:E / 96!:E t.: -:J t::..} tJ '- G (I wonder s.o. is / was a
teacher) {sensei / sensei datta} kashira
182 kashira

Examples

(a) OJ(1)96!:EC1)tf

'j:jo t '- 0 \r\tJ

'- Go Ano sensei no jugyo wa omoshiroi kashira. (I wonder if that

teacher 9 s class is interesting.) (b) $T

1v':1fP1tJ

tJ

'- Go Sachiko-san wa nani ga suki kashira. (I wonder what Sachiko

likes.) (c) OJ (1) A ,:1 t.: tLtJ

'- Go Ano hito wa dare kashira. (I wonder who that person is.)

emt

KI

1. Etymologically, kashira comes from ka shiranai 'I don 9 t know (if)

but now expresses the idea "I wonder". 2. Kashira is usually used by
female speakers in rather informal speech. The male version is
kana, which is used only in fairly informal situations. The formation
rules of kana are exactly the same as those for kashira. 3. Sfml
kashira is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Example:

, -,

(1)

=- ':1DfJ\"t:TtJ

'- Go Soko wa shizukadesu kashira. (I wonder if that place is quiet.)

4. Since kashira and kana mean 'I wonder' (present tense), they
cannot be used for expressions like" I wondered" and" Mr. Smith
wondered ". For such expressions, "A wa Sinf kashira / kana to
omou" is used. Here, A is the person who wonders; to omou literally
means 'think that'. Examples: (2) a. fL':1t

1v':1*Q fJ\ l,'; c!:: ,I[i, -:) t=o Watashi wa Matsumoto-san wa kuru
kashiTa to omotta. (I wondered if Mr. Matsumoto would come.) b.
UJ*

Iv ,:1 Ij,) II

Iv ,:1 96!:EfJ\ l, .; c!:: ,m -:) t=o Yamamoto-san wa Ogawa-san wa

sensei kashiTa to omo- tta. (Ms. Yamamoto wondered if Mr. Ogawa
was a teacher.)

-kata 183 -kata n suf. ."' ,, """"""'-""'-"; a noun-forming suffix that

indicates > I a way or a manner in which one > < does s. t. V"../"'.
"'v'V"V'v' a way of; a manner of; how to [REL. hoho] . Key Sentence
V masu 7- (J) fF!) 1J ;t-c < t!. 'v'o Keki no tsukUTi kata o oshiete
kudasai. (Please show me how to make a cake.) Fermation V masu
1J kata IS L.. 1J (way / manner of speaking) hanashikata 1J (way /
manner of eating) tabekata = 1 "" == g Examples (a) :: (J) *(J). 1JtJ
fttJ !) oft No Kono kanji no kakikata ga wakarimasen. (I don't know
how to write this kanji.) (b) &; (J) A (J) 1J'j::Jo t '- 0 'v' 1: T no Ano
hito no arukikata wa omoshiroidesu nee (His manner of walking is
amusing, isn't it?) (c) f3 *m(J) %l(J)ft1J ;t -c < t.: 'v'o Nihongo no
benkyo no shikata 0 oshiete kudasai. (Please teach me how to study
Japanese language.) em 1. V masu+kata is in itself ambiguous,
meaning either' way' or ' manner'. Thus, (1) Jj.1JtJ **1:T 0 Nomikata
ga daijidesu.

184 -kata / kawari ni is ambiguous: it means either 'The way of

drinking is important' or , The manner in which one drinks is
important.' The separate meanings become clearer in an extended
context: (2) =- (1) 'Hj: 7J.1itJ **1:T 0 4Z,-r$tfjfH:' 1v 1: < 1.:' ""0 Kono
kusuri wa nomikata ga daijidesu. Kanarazu shokuzen ni nonde
kudasai. (les important to know how to take this medicine. Be sure to
take it before every meal.) (3) A -7°'j: 7J.1itJ;**1:T 0 StJpu wa
nomikata ga daijidesu. (In eating soup the manner (in which one eats
it) is important.) 2. Sino-Japanese suru-verbs such as benkyo-suru'
study', denwa-suru 'tele- phone', ryori-suru 'cook', setsumei-suru
'explain' and s6dan-suru' con- suIt' need the particle no before
shikata as in: KI (4) %l / C IS / *.;J.}]! / IYJ (1){t1i benkyo / denwa /
ryori / setsumei no shikata (a way / manner of studying / telephoning
/ cooking / explanation) [Related Expression] Kata can be replaced
by hoho but only when kata means 'a way of doing s.t.' Hoho roughly
corresponds to the English word 'method'; it means a relatively
complicated way of doing s.t. Ex. (c) can be rewritten as [1]. [1] f3
*m(1) %iC1)n; ;t -c < t!. ""0 Nihongo no benkyo no hoho 0 oshiete
kudasai. (Please teach me a method for studying Japanese.) kawari
ni jJ\f) I phr. S.t. (including an action) s. t. else. ""-""'.. "-""-r ,,,,, In
place of -; instead of; to make up for -; although; but [REL.
keredo(mo); shikashi]

kawar; ni 185
. Key Sentences

(A)

Noun Noun Predicate st!£ (J) tJ

:b

I:. fL tJ

;t t::.. /

;t -s=.. '- t::.. o Sensei no kawari ni watashi ga oshieta /oshiemashita.

(I taught in place of my teacher.)

(B)

Sentence (informal)t :f:Pla ,:. ft*

T.Q tJ

:b

I:. J;JPla 'i ftU/ Doyobi ni shigoto 0 SUTU kawari ni getsuyobi wa

yasumu / ft7J. -s=.. T 0 yasumimasu. (To make up for working on
Saturdays, I take Mondays off.)
tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.

=1=Ii

Fermatien

( i) N (J) tJ

:b

I:. no kawari ni

96!:E (J) tJ

:b

,:. sensei no kawRri ni

(in place of the teacher)

(ii) {V / Adj (i)} inf tJ

:b

,:. kawar; ni
{

T/

'- t::..} tJ

t)

I:. (instead of talking / talked but) {hanasu / hanashita} kawari ni {1t

Q / 1t

t::..} tJ

:b

I:. (instead of eating / ate but) {taberu / tabeta} kawar; ni

\(\ / {&j tJ

-:J t::..} tJ

:b

I:. {taka; / takakatta} kawari ni (iii) Adj (na) stem {t

/ t=.

t::} tJ
:b

I:. {na / datta} kawari n;

(s.t. is / was expensive but -)

{MttJ

/MttJ

t=.

t:.} tJ

:b

,:. {shizukana / shizukadatta} kawar; ni

(s. t. is / was quiet but -)

186 kawari ni

Example's

KI =
(a) 1::. -/v(1) tJ\ b !) ':.mi

1\ \r\

'- t::.. o Biru no kawari ni sake 0 kaimashita. (I bought sake instead of

beer.) (b) bt::.. '-(1)tJ

b!) ':.

tJ;ff-:J "'( t \r\\r\"'C:-rtJ\o Watashi no kawari ni chichi ga itte mo iidesu

ka. (Can my father go there in place of me?) (c) 4'- f3 'j:

jo

<

"'C: iifi Q tJ

b !) ,:. &; '- t::.. 'j:- f3

%l '-

-r 0 Kyo wa yoru osoku made odoru kawari ni ashita wa ichinichiju

benkyo- shimasu. (I'll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing
until late tonight.) (d) .:F

-:J "'( t;

f Q tJ

b !) ,:.

oft "'( < t.:

\r \ J:: 0 T etsudatte ageru kawari ni nomasete kudasai yo. (I'll help
you, so (to make up for it) please (lit. let me drink) buy me a drink,
OK?) (e)

(1)7 ",:- "fj:

fJ!t

tJ

b !) ,:.*.tJ;

\r\o Boku no apato wa fubenna kawari ni yachin ga yasui. (My

apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.) (f)

;t "'( &;'ft:.tJ\b !) ,:. f3 *m

;t -C t

-:J t:. o Eigo 0 oshiete ageta kawari ni nihongo 0 oshiete moratta. (I

taught him Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.)
(g)

(1) It! 'j:

tJ

-:J t:. tJ

b !) ,:. J:: <

Jc
'- t:. o Sono kuruma wa yasukatta kawari ni yoku koshoshita. (That
car was inexpensive, but it often broke down.)

aD

In N 1 no kawari ni N 2 , N 2 is regarded as the substitute for Nt,

which is the originally intended item. In Slinf kawari ni S2, an action
or a state identified by S2 takes place to make up for a counter-
action or counter-state represented in SI.

[Related Expressions] In SI kawari ni S2, kawari ni can be replaced

by keredo(mo) , although' or shikashi ' but'. Note, however, that the
converse is not always acceptable. Thus, keredo(mo) and shikashi in
[1] below cannot be replaced by kawari ni, because the meaning of '
making up for -' is missing, but the same conjunc- tions in [2] can be
replaced by kawari ni, because the compensative mean- ing is
present there.

kawari ni / keredomo 187 [1] fL'i1t\r\ t (1) t:. < Iv$t Q Itn (t) / 0 l,fJ\ l, /
*fJ\V tJ I=ti'i%l\r\o Watashi wa amai mono 0 takusan taberu
keTedo(mo) / . Shikashi / *kawaTi ni ha wa tsuyoi. (Although I eat a
lot of sweets, I have strong teeth.) [2] fL'i1t\r\ t (1) t::.. < Iv $t Q Itn c!:.
(t) / 0 l,fJ\ l, / fJ\V tJ ,= ti .t < M<o Watashi wa amai mono 0 takusan
taberu keTedo(mo) / . Shikashi / kawaTi ni ha 0 yoku migaku.
(Although I eat a lot of sweets, I brush my teeth well.) keredomo 11 n
t> conj. I a disjunctive subordinate conjunc- > I tion that combines
two sentences > ( ""-/V''-,",''-A./"v'"../-./''-. although; though [REL. ga
2 (daga, dakedo, demo, shikashi)] == K :! g !i !! = . Key Sentence
Subordinate Clause (informal) Main Clause fL 'i 'D"btl fJ\ -:) t:. .t tL e t
"A Ii -:J -C \r\ t::.. / \r\:t L.. t:. o Watashi wa iwanakatta keredomo
Tomu wa shitte ita / imashita. (Although I didn't tell him, Tom knew
(about it).) Formatien Sinf .ttLe t keredomo {31ST / :IS '- t::..} ,t tL e t
(Although s.o. (will) talk / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} keredomo { \r\
/ tJ -:J t::..} .t tL e t (Although s.t. is / was expensive) {takai /
takakatta} keredomo {r;tJ t.: / r;tJ t.: -:J t::..} .t tL e t (Although s.t. is /
was quiet) {shizukada / shizukadatta} keredomo {96!:E t.: / 96!:E t.:
-? t:.} It tL e t (Although s.o. is / was a teacher) {sensei da / sensei
datta} keredomo

188 keredomo / kikoeru Examples (a) (1)*'j: \(,.t tL c t \(' \('*1: T J:: 0
Kono hon wa takai keredomo ii hon desu yo. (Although it is
expensive, this book is a good book.) (b) 'j: t:.{ /' fttJ u.,"£ t t \(,.t tL c t
%i '- t .t tL'ft G t \('0 Boku wa doitsugo ga amari sukijanai keredomo
benkyoshinakereba na- ranai. (Although I don't like German very
much, I have to study it.) (c) *!f 1v'j:iL+ t.:.ttLc t c -C t JG t.:o Dno-san
wa kyujussai da keredomo totemo genkida. (Although Mr. Ono is
ninety years old, he is very healthy.) OlD . 1 = : ; 1. SI keredomo S2
means 'Although S., S2'. Here, SI keredomo is a subordinate clause,
therefore it is usually in the informal form. How- ever, in very polite
speech, SI can be in the formal form, as in (1). (1) (1)*'j: L '-c:t".t tL c
t \(' \('*1: T J:: 0 Kono hon wa tsksidesu keredomo ii hon desu yo.
(Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.) 2. The informal
forms of keredomo (listed from least formal to most formal) are
kedo<kedomo<keredo. kikoeru M ;tQ v. (Gr. 2) I "'-." ""'- "'-' .....,... -
-......", I 5 S.t. is passively and spontaneously audible. ' ( ..... """ """"-"'
.............. audible; (can) hear; it sounds [REL. kikeru] . Key Sentence
Topic (experiencer) Audible Object fL 0:.) 'j: oj <' \('T (1) -::b tJ J::< oo
;tQ / OO ;t To F Watashi (ni) wa uguisu no koe ga yoku kikoeru /
kikoemasu. (Lit. To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible.
(= I can clearly hear the cries of a nightingale.»

kikoeru 189

Examples
(a)

C')1},:t IJ'

-C ml =. it tJ:" '0 Sono oto wa chisasugite kikoenai. (That sound is

too weak and is not audible.) (b) * JlJ

Iv (1)r ,:1*

\(' (1)

(1)

C1) A':. t .t < f1fJ =- ;t Q 0 Oyama-san no koe wa okii node tonari no

heya no hito ni mo yoku kikoeru. (Mr. Oyama's voice is so loud that
people in the neighboring rooms can hear him.)

(c) fLI:. ,:1 jo=!j: (1) 7P tJ. (1)

tJ

oo

it t::.. tJ

':H:' ,:1 00

;t t
tJ\ -:J t::.. o Watashi ni wa o-tera no kane no ne ga kikoeta ga, ototo
ni wa kikoe- nakatta. (I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but
my younger brother couldn't.)

(d) T -=] -

lv(1)f'p '? t::..Jt':1

I:.f1fJ

it

o Tera-san no tsukutta bun wa hen ni kikoeru. (The sentences which

Mr. Taylor made sound strange.)

=1=

[Related Expression] Kikoeru is different from the regular potential

form of kiku 'hear' (i.e., kikeru), in that the former indicates a passive,
auditory potentiality, whereas the latter indicates that the speaker (or
the subject of sentence) can hear sound not passively but actively.
Thus,

[1]

':11+tJ;M
;{.tctL' / *MlttctL'o Boku wa mimi ga kikoenai / *kikenai. (I am deaf.)
[2]

Iv tJ: I:'

0 ':.1* Q C .t < IV)

;{. tct L' / * IV) It tct L'.t 0 K onna ni ushiro ni suwaru to yoku kikoenai
/ *kikenai yo. (If we sit this far back, we won't be able to hear well.)

[3] \(' \(' A T v;t

1\ -:J t::..1.p G v::z - t: tJ;M It.Q / *&,

;{..Q 0 Ii sutereo 0 katta kara rekodo ga kikeTu / *kikoeTu. (I bought

a good stereo set, so I can listen to records.)

[4]

tJ;? Q

< -C

tJ

;{.tctL' / MlttctL'o Ongaku ga urusakute hanashi ga kikoenai / kikenai.

(The music is so loud that the conversation is inaudible / we cannot
hear the conversation.)
190 kikoeru / kiraida Note that in [4] both kikeru and kikoeru are
possible, depending on the speakerts perception of the situation; if
he perceives the situation to be in- alterable, he uses kikoeru; if not,
he uses kikeru. kiraida b L't= adj. (na) J "'-" ""'''''''''''-,, ''"'--''" 5 S.t. or
S.D. is what S.D. does not j like. ( I ( "" "'-"',,"'- don't like; dislike (ANT.
sukida) . Key Sentence = 1 = i g ! a Topic (experiencer) Disliked
Object fL ,:1 7--7-.. tJ G "" t.: / G "" 1: -r 0 Watashi wa chizu ga
kiraida / kiraidesu. . (I don't like cheese.) Examples (a) ':1 tJ G ""t.: o
Boku wa fuyu ga kiraida. (I dislike winter.) (b) *,!J.{" Iv ,:1 7 ':I " -lvtJ *
G ""1:-r 0 Howaito-san wa futtoboru ga dai-kiraidesu. (Mr. White
hates football.) em 1. Kiraida is ana-type adjective which requires the
"wa -ga construc- tion". (t:),." wa ,." ga) The experiencer (i.e., the
person who dislikes some thing) is marked by wa and the disliked
object by ga. Note that the disliked object is marked by ga, not by o.
2. In subordinate clauses, wa marking the experiencer changes into
ga, as seen in (1).

kiraida I koto l 191 (1) a. fLfJ( 7- - 'XtJ; r: G \(' t c!:: ,:1 7J./v t '? "'( \('
Q 0 Watashi ga chizu ga kiraina koto wa minna shitte iru. (Everybody
knows that I don't like cheese.) b. mfJ(r: G \('t mH:1 -C:To Boku ga
kiraina kisetsu wa fuyu desu. (The season I don't like is winter.) 3. U
Dislike a lot" is expressed by dai-kiraida, as in Ex. (b). = 1 = - - - - - -
- - - - == - - koto 1 c!:: n. ,, "-'" ! a thing which is intangible
'-/............../""'/-- ! thing; what [REL. mono] . Key Sentences (A) Adj
L'L' c!:: ;t "'( &; 'f .t ? / &;'f"£ '- J: ? 0 Ii koto o oshiete ageyo /
agemasho. (Lit. I'll tell you a good thing. (=1 have a good suggestion
for you.)) (B) Relative Clause lax 1= .L't:: c!:: '--C < t!. \('0 Ronbun ni
kaita koto o hanashite kudasai. (Please tell me what you wrote in
your thesis.)

192 koto l

(C)
Noun '77 ?

Iv 'i 8* (]) *

(j)

J: <

-:J "'(' "'\ Q / Buraun-san wa Nihon no daigaku no koto o yoku shitte

iru / "'\

To imasu. (Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese

universities.)

Formation

( i) {V I Adj (i)} inf

koto

=1=

=-

=
{

!T /

! Lt.:}

{hanasu / hanashita} koto {:t3 t'L 0 v\ / :t3 t L 0 tJ:\ -:J t.:}

{omoshiroi lomoshirokatta} koto

(what s.o. (will) says / said)

(what is / was interesting)

(ii) Adj (na) stem {t

/t

-:J t::..}

{na / datta} koto

tk_t
/ *_ t!. -:J t.:}

{daijina I daijidatta} koto (iii) N (j)

no koto

(what is / was important)

7'6!:E (j)

sensei no koto

(things about the teacher)

Examples

(a) *_t

'i t ?

$
L

L t::.. o Daijina koto wa mo zenbu hanashimashita. (I already told

you everything that's important.) (b) 96!:E

-:J t::..

1t;it "'(' "'\ * T tJ

o Sensei ga itta koto 0 oboete imasu ka. (Do you remember what
(=the thing which) the teacher said?)

(c)

(j)

'i

.nt

"'\0 Shiken no koto wa wasurenasai. (Forget about the exam.)

koto t I koto 2 193

.. 1. Koto means a thing which is intangible. Thus, (1) is
ungrammatical. (1) *:t3 "'\ '- "'\

'i tb !J * -tt Iv tJ

o *Oishii koto wa arimasen ka. (Lit. Isn't there a delicious thing?) 2. N

no koto, whose literal meaning is 'thing of N', is often used with such
verbs as shitte iru 'know', hanasu 'talk' and wasureru ' forget', and
means 'know about N', 'talk about N', etc. 3. Koto is used as a
nominalizer, too. (t:) koto 2 ) Ex. (b), for instance, is ambiguous
without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember
the thing which the teacher said?' or 'Do you remember (the fact)
that the teacher said (it)?'

[Related Expression] Mono also means 'thing', but it means 'a

tangible thing'. Compare koto and mono in the following sentences:

[1]

'" \ :t 0) I *

;t * '- t::.. tJ

0 Kuroi mono I *koto ga miemashita ka. (Lit. Did you see a black
thing?) [2] :t3t '-

"'\
/ *:to)

ms'-""( < t!.

"'\o Omoshiroi koto / *mono 0 hanashite kudasai. (Please tell us

interesting things.)

=1=--------

====

====

koto 2

c nom.

/'v"

a nominalizer used to indicate the

speaker's relative lack of empathy

with the content of the sentence he

is nominalizing

to -. -in g . that , , [REL. no 3 ]

194 kot0 2

. Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)t IJ,m

-<

'i . L "'\ ("\:T)o Shosetsu 0 kaku koto wa muzukashii (desu). (Writing a

novel is hard.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and de aru,

respectively.

Ftlrmation

( i) {V I Adj (i)} inf

koto {

T/:
'- t::..}

«the fact) that s.o. talks I talked) {hanasu / hanashita} koto {JRj "'\ I
iWi tJ

-:J t::..}

«the fact) that s.t. is I was expensive) {takai / takakatta} koto ;1; (ii)
Adj (na) stem {t

/ t':-:Jt::..}

{na / datta} koto {V;

/ tffttJ

t.: -:J t::..}

«the fact) that s. t. is / was quiet) {shizukana / shizukadatta} koto (i i

i) N {"\: tb Q /"\: tb -:J t::.. / t.: -:J t::..}

{de aru I de atta I datta} koto {7'6!:E "\: cY> Q / 7'6!:E "1: tb -:J t::..
/ 7'6!:E t.: -:J t.:}
 {sensei de aru I sensei de atta I sensei datta} koto

«the fact) that s.o. is / was a teacher)

Examples

(a)

"'\

,:. "'\"'\

Ji

tFQ

'i

""( t::k_t.: o Wakai toki ni ii tomodachi 0 tsukuru koto wa totemo

daijida. (It is very important to make good friends when one is
young.) (b) ::k

Q.)

77

A ':.il

TQ
it ""( "'\* To Daigaku yonen no toki Furansu ni ryugakusuru koto 0
kangaete imasu. (I am thinking of studying in France during my
senior year.) (c) a *Q.)xf

jo t L- 0 "'\

'i)ttJ

Q tJ

, ;:J. =- -? t.:

fi,

,bt

"'\0 Nihon no bunka ga omoshiroi koto wa wakaru ga, yuniku da to

wa omowanai. (I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I
don't think that it is unique.)

koto 2 195

(d) A,{ A

tL "'\ t

=.
'i

.\:

-:J""( "'\ * To Suisu ga kireina koto wa shashin de shitte imasu. (From

pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.)

(e) 'b:> (j) A

"'\ "'\ A \: (b Q =.

'i t::.. L tJ

\: To Ano hi to ga ii hito de aru koto wa tashikadesu. (Lit. It is certain

that he is a good person. ( = He is without doubt a good person.»

CD

The nominalizer koto turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire
sen- tence into a noun phrase. For example, in KS the sentence
sh6setsu 0 kaku ' one writes a novel' becomes a complex noun
phrase. Once a sentence has become a noun phrase, it can be used
anywhere a regular noun phrase can be used. Thus, it can function
as the subject, as in KS or Exs. (a) and (e), or as the direct object, as
in Exs. (b) and (d), and so on.

[Related Expression] In contrast to another nominalizer no, koto

tends to indicate something the speaker does not feel close to. Thus,
in KS, the nominalizer kot,o indicates that the speaker of the
sentence is not personally involved in writing a novel; in other words,
he is stating the sentence in general or objective terms. The
nominalizer no, however, indicates something which the speaker can
directly perceive or empathize with. (t:) no 3 ) Therefore, if koto in KS
is replaced by no, the nominalizer now indicates that the speaker of
the sen- tence is somehow personally involved with writing a novel;
in short, he is empathetic with an act of writing a novel. A few typical
examples in which no or koto are unacceptable are given.

=1=--------

-=-

;;;;;

[ 1] a. m 'i fit tr

ilk <. 0) / *

c.

""( '" \ t::.. 0 Boku wa Shizue ga oyogu no / *koto 0 mite ita. (I was
watching Shizue swim.) b. :t3-a3:

Iv tJ

=.Iv t

':'JL'ftC L"'C "'\ Q 0) / ??

C. tJ
fttJ

Gt

"'\ (j) ? O-ka-san ga konna ni shinpaishite iru no / ??koto ga

wakaranai no? (Don't you understand that I am (lit. your mom is)
really worried?)

c. .y.:r. -

'i

. JvtJ

iiT Q 0) / *

C.

-"¥

-:J t::.. o Jen wa Biru ga sentakusuru no / *koto 0 tetsudatta. <J ane

helped Bill do laundry.)

196 koto 2 / koto ga aru 1 d. Q.)1Itf\:'i"'\"'\1f an < / *O)tJ lti*Qo Kono

machi de wa ii ongaku 0 kiku koto / *no ga dekiru. (I can listen to
good music in this town.) e. Q I *o)'iffi" t:. Q / *O)t.: o Miru koto / *no
wa shinjiru koto / *no da. (To see is to believe.) Incidentally, the
difference between koto and no is apparently due to the dif- ference
in the initial sounds k and n; the velar sound k is used to symbolize a
harsh, metallic, impersonal sound and the nasal sound n is used to
symbolize a soft, warm, personal sound. (t:) Characteristics of
Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms) = 1 = !i koto ga aru 1 c
fJ'(l> Q phr. ..... "-- I There was a time when -. ! '- S.o. has done s.t.;
S.o. has had an experience doing s.t.; There was a time when - .
Key Sentences Sentence (informal, past) fL ,j: 3 - P ':I.I -... ff -:) t=. tJ
tb -'5 / tb !J * To Watashi wa Y oroppa e itta koto ga aru / arimasu. (I
have been to Europe.) v?'.:A tJ ""(b tJ, -:) t=. tJ tb Q I tb !J * To
Retasu ga totemo takakatta koto ga aru / ari masu. (There was a
time when lettuce was very expensive.) Fermatien Sinf.past tJ tb Q
koto ga aru IS L-t.: tJ tb Q hanashita koto ga aru (have talked)

koto ga aru l 197

1iJJtJ

-:J t::.. =. <!: tJ

tb Q (There was a time when s.t. was expensive.) takakatta koto ga

aru tffttJ

t!. -:J t::.. =. <!: tJ

tb Q (There was a time when s.t. was quiet.) shizukadatta koto ga

aru 7'6!:E t!. -:J t:. =. <!: tJ

tb Q (There was a time when s.o. was a teacher.) sensei datta koto
ga aru

Exa m pies

(a) fL'i

\?'
m

;t t

=. <!: tJ

tb !J * To Watashi wa chtJgakko de eigo 0 oshieta koto ga arimasu. (I

have taught English at a junior high school.) (b) IJ,)I(

Iv'i * t!.::f)V 7

'- t::.. =. <!: tJ

"'\0 Ogawa-san wa mada gorufu 0 shita koto ga nai. (Mr. Ogawa

hasn't played golf yet.) (c) fL'i a *Q.)/J'

J: < Me Iv t!. =. <!: tJ

tb Q 0 Watashi wa Nihon no shosetsu 0 yoku yonda koto ga aru.

(There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.)

- - - - == 1 == - - - - - - g

(d) A - -f

'i-

.y .y ;(tJ
<!: ""( b

t!. -:J t::.. =- <!: tJ

tb Q 0 StJzan wa ichiji jazu ga totemo sukidatta koto ga aru. (There

was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.)

(e) fL'i 7' p !f

-"¥t!. -:J t::.. =. <!: tJ

tb !J * To Watashi wa puro-yakytJ senshu datta koto ga arimasu.

(There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.)

CD 1. In general, Sinf.past koto ga aru expresses the idea that there

was a time when someone or something was in some state or did
something. 2. More specifically, Sinf.past koto ga aru expresses
one's experience. In this case, Sinf. past koto ga aru is an extended
use of the possession expression U A wa B ga aru", where B is a
past action rather than a possessed thing. (t:) aTu l , Note 4) This
extended use of the expression of possession for the expression of
experience in Japanese is parallel to that in English. Compare (1)
and (2). (1) [Possession] fA'

.fJ(

Qo Watashi wa kuruma ga aTU. (1 have a car.)

198 koto ga aru l / koto ga aru 2 (2) [Experience] fA'

[1:7

7m

f1l%t Lt::..':'

]past action fJ(

Qo Watashi wa [roshiago 0 benky6shita kotO]past action ga aTU. (1

have [studied Russian.]past action) 3. In the Sinf.past koto ga aru
structure, a past time adverb can be used in S.

(3) fL'iJL

wH:' a *-..ff -:J t::

fJ(

Q 0 Watashi wa gonen mae ni Nihon e itta koto ga aru. (I went to

Japan five years ago. (Lit. I have been to Japan five years ago.» (3)
expresses the ideas U I have been to Japan" and U It was five years
ago" at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed
cannot be too close to the present. (4) is unacceptable.

K=;

!g=

(4) *fL'i

O)?
L;lJ.

1t

t::

fJ(

Qo *Watashi wa kino sashimi 0 tabeta koto ga aTU. (Lit. I have eaten

sashimi yesterday.)

koto ga aru 2

C fJ'( l> Q phr.

...

"""-

"""-.

"-"""-""'''

../.....

There are times when -. ......

"""""""-.
,,,...................."""-./' -""\.."'

There are times when -.

. Key Sentence

Sentence (informal, nonpast)t fL 'i ¥J)

0 ,:. AQ .:.

tJ

UJQ I UJ 9 *1"0 Watashi wa asa turo ni haiTU koto ga aru I arimasu.

(There are times when I take a bath in the morning.)

tDa after Adj(na) stem and N changes to na and no / de aru,

respectively.

Formatien

( i) V I Adj (i) inf. nonpast .:.

tJ

UJ Q koto ga aru
koto ga aru 2 199

5T

'IJ

tb Q (There are times when s.o. talks.) hanasu koto ga aru

v'

tJ

tb

(There are times when s.t. is expensive.) takai koto ga aru (ii) Adj
(na) stem t

tJ

tb Q na koto ga aru fit tJ

tJ

tb Q (There are times when s. t. is quiet.) shizukana koto ga aru (iii)

N {Q.) / \:'tbQ}
tJ

tbQ {no / de aru} koto ga aru {7'6!:E Q.) / 7'6!:E \:' tb Q}

tJ

cY> Q {sensei no I sensei de aru} koto ga aru

(There are times when s.o. is a teacher.)

Examplt"s

(a) t::..tJ

L'i¥J)

!fi

1t

-r':.

ff<

'IJ

tbQo Takashi wa asagohan 0 tabezu ni gakko e iku koto ga aru.

(There are times when Takashi goes to school without eating
breakfast.) (b)

Q.),-g Q.)

Iv? 'i t::.. * ,:. it"',

tJ

tb Q 0 K ono mise no miruku wa tamani furui koto ga aru.

(Occasionally there are times when the milk in this store is old.)

K=

!!!

(c) 7 j !J :b \:' a *

Q.);lJ.

'f

Jt ?

.:t tL'IJ

a*

\:' tb Q

tJ
J: < tb Q 0 Amerika de Nihon e no miyage 0 kau to sore ga Nihon-
sei de aru koto ga yoku aru. (Often there are times when we find out
that a souvenir we've bought in America for someone in Japan is
made in Japan.) (d) ltlilI Q.) "" b

1t &di *

Q.)

1t &t l:-

""

tJ

tb Q 0 Saikin no iwayuru shizenshokuhin wa hont6 no

shizenshokuhin ja nai koto ga aru. (There are times these days when
so-called natural foods are not genuine natural foods.)

em

1. Sinf. nonpast koto ga aru expresses the idea that something

happens from time to time. 2. Adverbs of frequency such as yoku
'often', tokidoki 'sometimes' and tamani 'occasionally' are sometimes
used with this expression, as in Exs. (b) and (c).
200 koto ga dekiru koto ga dekiru c f.r(W* Q phr. "'-"' ""'"''''''''''''''''''
Doing s.t. is possible. i """""'-""'" '" can; be able to [REL. rareru 2 ] .
Key Sentence Subject Topic (experiencer) . Vinf. nonpast Nom fEQ
1v 'i mm I!T .:. 'IJ lti*Q! Taguchi-san wa chugokugo 0 hanasu koto ga
dekiru ! W**To dekimasu. (Lit. For Mr. Taguchi speaking In Chinese
IS possible. = Mr. Taguchi can speak Chinese.» ' 1 = i == ! Formatien
Vinf.nonpast .:. tJ lti*Q koto ga dekiru T .:. tJ lti*Q (s.o. can talk)
hanasu koto ga dekiru 1t Q .:. tJ lti*Q taberu koto ga dekiru (s.o. can
eat) Exa m pIes (a) ':.*tL'f* * \: =: rp'\:ff < .:. tJ lti*Qo Shinkansen ni
noreba Osaka made sanjikan de iku koto ga dekiru. (If you take a
bullet train, you can get to Osaka in three hours.) (b) IJ'fE 'i ':) C1) /"
':I " {} < .:. tJ lti*t.:o Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha 0 hiku koto ga
dekita. (Oda was able to play Bach at the age of six.) (c) .y 3 :.--- '/ :.-
-- Iv'i a *m \:-¥ 11 < .:. tJ m* Q 0 Jonson-san wa nihongo de tegami 0
kaku koto ga dekiru. (Mr. Johnson can write letters in Japanese.) em
1. Vinf. nonpast koto ga dekiru is a potential form meaning 'can', or
'be able to - '. This potential form is used in the "wa-ga construction":

koto ga dekffu 201 N (animate) wa (- Vinf. nonpast) koto ga dekiru.

where N is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase -
Vinf.nonpast koto is a subject noun phrase nominalized by koto. The
meaning of the structure is C N can V' (lit. 'For N Ving - is possible.').
(t:),.", w a ,.", 9 a ) 2. If a verb is closely associated with its direct
object, as in (1) and (2) below, 0 V koto can be deleted. (1) T

-'j:1::°7 J (

<

)tJ
lti*Qo Nanshi wa piano (0 hiku koto) ga dekiru. (Nancy can play the
piano.) (2) ftfi1*

Iv'i p

7ift (

5!T

) tJ

lti*Qo Okamoto-san wa roshiago (0 hanasu koto) ga dekiru. (Mr.

Okamoto can speak Russian.) The 0 V koto deletion is unacceptable
in the following sentence, how- ever, because there is no close
association between the verb and its direct object. (3) A

Iv'ia*mQ.)

an{

t;

/ *O}tJ

lti*Qo Sumisu-san wa nihongo no shinbun {o yomu koto / *o} ga

dekiru. (Mr. Smith can read Japanese newspapers.)

K = == -
[Related Expression] A shorter potential form of verb, i.e., rareru 2
can replace the longer potential form koto ga dekiru without a
change in basic meaning. Thus, Exs. (a), (b) and (c) can be rewritten
as [1], [2] and [3], respectively. [1] ffi

,:.*tL'f*

:=

rp'

fflt Qo Shinkansen ni noreba Osaka made sanjikan de ikeTu. [2]

IJ'JE ,j:

':) Q.)

{ :/'

"tJ

{Jolt t:: 0 Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha ga / 0 hiketa. [3] .y 3 :.--- /' :.-
--

Iv'! a *m

::f

tJ
.,t Qo Jonson-san wa nihongo de tegami ga kakeTU. Basically, the
difference between the shorter and the longer potential form is one
of style; namely, the shorter version is more colloquial and less
formal than the longer one.

202 koto ni naru koto ni naru t r .Q phr. "( I An event takes place as if
spontane- ously, irrespective of the speaker's volition. it will be
decided that -; come about -; be arranged that -; turn out that - [REL.
koto ni SUTU] . Key Sentences (A) ' 1 = I == I Topic (experiencer)
Vinf. nonpast Nom fL '-J: * * I:. fi I1rt ;:, =. t,t -:J t::.. / Watashi wa
rainen Osaka ni tenkinsuTu koto ni natta / t,t !J i: '- t::.. o narimashita.
(Lit. It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka next year. (=I'm
going to be transferred to Osaka next year.» (B) Topic (place) Vinf.
nonpast a* '-J: . 'i Ji (/) ti. {1f.'J )E Nihon de wa kuruma wa michi no
hidarigawa 0 hashiTU . Nom ;:, ,:. t,t -:J -C v \ Q / v \ i: -r 0 koto n;
natte iru / imasu. (In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left
side of the street.) Formation Vinf. nonpast ;:, ,:. {t,t Q / t,t. -:J t::..}
koto ni {naru / natta} 1t Q ;:, ,:. (t,t Q / t,t -:J t::..) taberu koto ni {naru /
natta} (it will be decided / it has been decided that s.o. will talk) (it will
be decided / it has been decided that s.o. will eat) ts-r ;:, ,:. {t Q / t,t
-:J t::..} hanasu koto ni {naru / natta}

koto ni naru 203

Examples

(a) fL'-J:*JJ tJ

tt':..JJ
Q;:'

,:./et !J i: Lt::.. o Watashi wa raigetsu kara kaisha ni tsutomeru koto ni

narimashita. (It has been decided that I will be employed at a
company beginning next month.) (b)

7t.y

Iv'-J: a *

f{;t Q;:'

,:./et Q

L J: ? 0 Tabun Jansen-san wa Nihon de eigo 0 oshieru koto ni naru

desh6. (Perhaps it will turn out that Mr. Jansen will teach English in
Japan.) (c) *

AJJ ':'

T Q ;:,

,:. let !J i: L t::.. o Rainen rokugatsu ni kekkonsuru koto ni

narimashita. (It's been arranged that I will get married next June.) (d)
A

Iv'-J: a*
m

f{;tQ;:'

,:./et-:J-Cv'

o Sumisu-san wa Nihon de eigo 0 oshieru koto ni natte iru. (Mr.

Smith is supposed to teach English in Japan.) (e) 4'- a IlJ fH96!:E':'

? ;:,

,:. let -:J -c v'

To Ky6 Yamada-sensei ni au koto ni natte imasu. (Today (it's been

arranged that) I'm seeing Prof. Yamada.)

= K =Z = =z g

em 1. This construction is used when some decision or arrangement

is made by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is
close to the passive, because the experiencer has no control over
the event. 2. Even when the experiencer himself decides to do s.t., it
sounds more indirect, and therefore, more humble for him to use this
construction rather than to use koto ni suru 'decide to do'. (t:) koto ni
SUTU) 3. Koto ni natte iru, as in KS(B) and Exs. (d) and (e),
indicates that some decision took place at some point in the past and
that the result of that decision is still in effect, sometimes to the
extent that it has become a rule or a custom.

204 koto ni suru koto ni suru t r 9" Q phr. A volitional decision to do

s.t. is l "- """'- ..vv.,-" ,,'.v'vv,-,,-,,-'V" ",-",-"J decide to [REL. koto n;
kimeru; koto n; naru] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (agent) Vinf. nonpast
Nom fL 'j: tt /t) =- :. L t::.. / L i: L t::.. 0 Watashi wa kaisha 0 yameTu
koto ni shita / shimashita. (I decided to quit my company.) (B) 1m
Topic (agent) Vinf. Nom nonpast fL 'j: 4ij J3 +7t <* G v' j}j T =- :. L -C
v' Q / Watashi wa mainich; sanjuppun gurai undo 0 SUTU koto ni shi
te iru / Li:To i masu. . (I make it a rule to exercise for about 30
minutes every day.) Formation ( i) Vinf.nonpast =- ,:. {T Q / L t::..}
koto ni {suru / shita} 5T :. .: {T / L t::..} (s.o. decides / has decided to
talk) hanasu koto ni {suru / shi ta} -ft-: :. :. {T Q / L t::..} (s.o. decides /
has decided to eat) taberu koto n; {suru / sh; ta } Exa m pies (a)
q):;)j: t#ij}i 1*ffTQ =- ,:. L i: Lt::.. o Kotoshi no natsu wa Hokkaido 0
ryokosuru koto ni shimashita. (I've decided to make a trip in
Hokkaido this summer.)

koto ni suru 205

(b) Jj(tBi:

/{ A

ff < ;:,

,:. '- i: '- J: ? 0 Kyoto made basu de iku koto ni shimasho. (Let's (lit.
decide to) go as far as Kyoto by bus.) (c)

+1I:;t Q ;:,

,:. '- i: '- t:: o Mainichi kanji 0 to oboeru koto ni shimashita. (I've
decided to memorize ten kanji every day.) (d) fL'i

cb i: !J 1t

let v';:'
,:. '- -C v' Q 0 Watashi wa niku 0 amari tabenai koto ni shite iru. (I
make it a rule not to eat very much meat.)

em 1. If one decides not to do something, the verb before koto ni

suru should be negated as in: ( 1) 1:0

.:=. ':I

,:. ff;:, ?

FlJ1.. -:J t::..1v

T tJ

, ff tJ

L \ ;:,

,:. '- i: '- t

0 Pikunikku ni iko to omotta n desu ga, ikanai koto ni shimashita. (I

thought I would go to the picnic, but I've decided not to.) 2. Koto ni
suru is a more complex version of N ni suru 'decide on N', , make it
N '. (t:),.., ni SUTU) The complexity is due to a noun phrase
nominalized by koto. (t:) koto 2 ) An example of N ni suru is given
below: (2) A: fpH:' '- i: T tJ

o Nan ni shimasu ka. (What are you going to have (lit. decide on)?)
B : /'

/{ - jJ - ,:. '- i: To Hanbaga ni shimasu. (I'll have (lit. decide on) a

hamburger.)
= 1 = == iiiiii 6 !!!

[Rela ted Ex pressions] I. Koto ni suru indicates someone's volitional

decision, whereas koto ni naru indicates a non-volitional decision.
Therefore, if you perceive a gi ven decision to be your own decision,
you should use koto ni suru; on the other hand, if you don't perceive
a given decision to be your own, you should use koto ni naru
instead. That is why koto ni suru and koto ni naru are very awkward
in [la] and [lb], respectively. [1] a. fL'-J::;kf¥i':.«aJJJTQ;:'

,:.f

L.t.: / ???L.

L.t.: o Watashi wa Osaka ni tenkinsuru koto ni naTimashita / ???

shimashita. (Lit. It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka. (=
I'm going to be transferred to Osaka.»

206 koto ni suru / koto wa b. -m '-J: t::.. fi ;:, Q ;:, ,:. L. L. t.: / ?? ?f J
L. t.: 0 Boku wa tabako 0 yameru koto ni shim ash ita / ???naTima-
shita. (I've decided to quit smoking.) II. Koto ni suru and koto ni
kimeru 'determine to do s.t.' are virtually identical in meaning. The
difference is that the former is an idiom and, therefore, frequently
used in colloquial speech, while the latter is appro- priate when the
speaker is talking about a relatively important decision in a rather
decisive manner. Also, koto ni suru can be used to mean 'I hereby
decide to -' but koto ni kimeru cannot. Thus, [1] below cannot be
rephrased by koto ni kimeru. [1] fA'-J: I Q;:' ,:. L. 9 / ???i! *90
Watashi wa kaisha 0 yameru koto ni shimasu / ???kimemasu. (I've
decided to quit my company.) ' 1 = ; I koto wa t r;t phr. f Speaking of
proposition X, tainly true. ) " '-"'- "V'"V"- A./...".. indeed one does s.t.
alright, (but -); indeed - (but -); do - (but -) . Key Sentence Topic
Predicatel Predicate2 (subJect) V I inf V 2 fA '-J: ::;- :::.. A T ;:, 'i T /l,
T tJ 1:;:p t.:, J{> t.t \t \ / 1: Watashi wa tenisu 0 SUTU koto wa SUTU
/ shimasu ga j6zujanai / jo- ;:p t.:, cb !J i: it Iv 0 zujaarimasen. (I do
play tennis, but I am not good at it.) Fermatien ( i ) {VI / Adj (i)I} inf '-
J: {V 2 / Adj (i)2} koto wa (where {VI / Adj (i)I) = (V 2 / Adj(i)2})

koto wa 207

tsT ;:,

'-J: ttsT / ts '- i: T} (s.o. does talk) hanasu koto wa {hanasu /

hanashimasu} ts '- t::.. ;:,

'-J: {ts '- t::.. / ts '- i: '- t::..} (s:o. did talk) hanashita koto wa {hanashita
/ hanashimashita}

;flj v' ;:,

'-J: ;flj v' (

T) takai koto wa takai(desu)

(s.t. is expensive)

;fljtJ

-:J t:. ;:,

'-J: ;fljtJ

-:J t::.. (

T) takakatta koto wa takakatta(desu) (ii) {Adj (na) steml t,t ;:,

/ N I } 'i {Adj (na) stem2 / N 2 } {t!. /

T} na koto wa {da / desu} (where {Adj (na) stem! / N I } = (Adj (na)

stem2/ N 2 })

(s.t. was expensive)

Ii

t,t ;:,

'-J: fIttJ

It!. /

T} (s.t. is quiet) shizukana koto wa shizuka {da / desu}

'v' A '-J: v'v' A It!. /

T} " hito wa ii hito {da / desu} (iii) {Adj (na) steml / N I } t!. -:J t::.. ;:,

'-J: {Adj (na) stem2 / N 2 } {t!. -:J t::.. /

'- t::..} datta koto wa {datta / deshita} (where {Adj (na) steml / N I } =
(Adj (na) stem2/ N 2 })
(s.o. is a good person)

==1=

fit tJ

t!. -:J t::.. ;:,

'-J: Ii tJ

{ t!. -:J t::.. /

'- t::..} shizukadatta koto wa shizuka {datta / deshita} v'v' A t!. -:J t::..
;:,

'-J: v'v' A {t!. -:J t::.. /

'- t::..} ii hito datta koto wa ii hito {datta / deshita}

(s.t. was quiet)

(s.o. was a good person)

Examples
(a)

3-

"A.

Iv '-J: a *m

tsT;:'

'-J:ts '- i: TtJ

t M¥t,t;:,

'-

a;t i: it Iv o J6nzu-san wa nihongo 0 hanasu koto wa hanashimasu

ga, kantanna koto shika iemasen. (Mr. Jones does speak Japanese,
but he can say only simple things.) (b)

"A"

7 *.:=. - q)W

f-J:.R;t t::..;:,

'i .R;t i: '- t::..tJ

,*

v'm;
 '- t::.. o Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaeta koto wa kaemashita
ga, taihen warui seki deshi ta. (I could buy a ticket for the Boston
Symphony alright, but it was a very bad seat.)

208 koto wa

=1=

(c) ;::. q) Ji!Hi iC v';::'

,j: iC v' -c,; T tJ

, t q) tJ

J: < cb !J i: it Iv 0 Kono mise wa yasui koto wa yasui desu ga, mono

ga yokuarimasen. (This store is inexpensive alright, but its goods are
of poor quality.) (d)

a q)

ltHj:jI '- tJ

-:J t::..;::'

'ijl '- tJ

-:J t::.. tJ
J: < lii*t.:. o Ky6 no shiken wa muzukashikatta koto wa
muzukashikatta ga yoku deki ta. (Today's exam was indeed difficult,
but 1 did well on it.) (e) fLq) 7 .,.

- " 'j:!1R ':.lli < -C {IflJ tet ;::.

'j: {IfIJ-c,; T tJ

, *1t tJ

-C t ;flj v' -c,; To Watashi no apato wa eki ni chikakute benrina koto

wa benridesu ga, yachin ga totemo takaidesu. (My apartment is
close to the station and convenient alright, but the rent is very high.)
(f) 7r:q)-kq)TtJ

fjf:t: t

-:Jt=-;::.

'j:fjf:t:-c,; '-t::..tJ

M'j: '-tettJ

-:Jt::..Iv-c,;To Sono onna no ko ga sukidatta koto wa sukideshita ga,

kekkon wa shinakatta n desu. (I did like the girl, but 1 didn't marry
her.) (g) cb q) A. 'j: v' v'A. 'j: v' v' At!. -:J t::.. ,t tt,

mfj!iJ t!.. -:J t::..b o Ano hito wa ii hito wa ii hito datta keredo
gankodatta nee (He was indeed a good person, but he was
stubborn, wasn't he?)

em 1. In this construction, when the main verb is in the past tense

the tense of the first verb / adjective can be changed into the
nonpast tense. Thus, Exs. (b) and (d) could be (1) and (2),
respectively. The switched versions are more common in
conversation.

(1)

A ,,

7 *.:=. - q);U

'j: Jt

;::.

'j: .R;t i: '- t::..i.1

v' 1ffi-r: L. t= 0 Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaeTu koto wa

kaemashita ga taihen warui seki deshita.

(2)

a q)

ltHj:. L. L \;::'

'ijl '- tJ
-:J t::.. tJ

J: < W*t=o Ky6 no shiken wa muzukashii koto wa muzukashikatta ga

yoku dekita. 2. The verb / adjective / noun before koto wa is normally
marked in the informal form even if the final predicate is marked in
the formal form. 3. Normally this construction is followed by a
disjunctive conjunction such as ga 'but', keredo 'but, although' and
shikashi ' but'.

- kudasai 209 - kudasai - < t:.. L \ aux. v. (imperative form) an

auxiliary verb which polite request . . . please do s.t. . Key Sentences
(A) Vte a*Gft 111, '1:" < t!. v \ 0 Nihongo de kaite kudasa; . (Please
write in Japanese.) (B) Vneg m b t,t v \ < t!. v \ 0 Eigo 0 tsukawa na;
de kudasai. (Please don't use English.) - - - = 1 = - - - - - - - - :=!! :::;; -
- 5 = Fermation ( i) V te < t!. v\ kudasai 5 '- -c < t!. v\ (Please talk.)
hanashite kudasai ft -c < t!. v\ (Please eat.) tabete kudasa; (ii) Vneg
t,tv\ < t!. v\ nai de kudasa; 5 t,t v\ < t!. v\ (Please don't talk.)
hanasanai de kudasai t,t v\ < t!. v\ (Please don't eat.) tabenai de
kudasai Examples (a) ;:, q)E".q)ft ft;t -c < t!. v\o Kono kotoba no imi 0
oshiete kudasai. (Please tell me the meaning of this word.)

210 - kudasai

(b)

:td:t < t

'- t,t \I'

< t!.

\1'0 Yoru osoku denwashinai de kudasai. (Please don't call me late

at night.)
K=;

.=

em 1. Kudasai is the polite imperative form of kudasaru, the honorific

version of kureru ' give (me)' and is used as an auxiliary verb with
the te-form of verbs. (t:) kUTeTu 2 ) 2. D6zo emphasizes the
speaker's request and makes it more polite. (1)

? -ff{;t -c < t!.

\1'0 D6zo oshiete kudasai. (Please tell me.) 3. In very informal

speech, kudasa; may drop. (This form of request is often used by
female speakers.) (2) a. 1f! < *-c 0 Hayaku kite. (Please come
quickly.) b. i: t!.

G t,t \I'

0 Mada kaeranai de. (Please don't go home yet.) 4. The negative

question form, seen in (3), makes a request more polite.

(3) cb '-t::"I\

':'*-C < t:.

L\

1tNf.J\o Ashita hachiji ni kite kudasaimasen ka. (Would you please

come at eight o'clock tomorrow?) 5. Kure, the imperative form of
kureru, can also be used in place of kudasai in informal male
speech. {Vte / Vneg nai de} kure is the least polite request form.

(4) a.
-a,:.*-C < no Boku to isshoni kite kUTe. (Come with me (please).) b.
7/

- "':'fj:*f

L\1: < no Apato ni wa konai de kUTe. (Don't come to my apartment

(please).)

-kun 211 -kun sui. , ,, """"-' a suffix attached to the first or last name
of a male equal or to the first (. or last name of a person whose
status ? or rank is lower than the speaker's [REL. -sarna (-chan; -
san)] Fermation ( i) Last Name tt kun IlJfH (Mr. Yamada) Yamada-
kun ( ii ) First Name kun (Taro) Taro-kun (iii) Last Name First Name fi
kun _ 1 - - - == == ;;; !!!! IlJfH tt (Mr. Taro Yamada) Yamada Taro-kun
Examples (a) t L, t L, - v\ i: TtJ o Moshi, moshi, Ichiro-kun imasu ka.
(Hello, is Ichiro in?) (b) fHQ tJ * MTQ:t?t!.o Taguchi-kun ga rainen
kekkonsuru soda. (I heard that Mr. Taguchi will get married next
year.) (c) fH Q - t!, If.jjgtd "t* ? 0 Taguchi Ichiro-kun, shoshin
omedeto. (Mr. Ichiro Taguchi, congratulations on your promotion.)
CD A male may address females of lower rank by -kun. A female
student may address males of equal or lower rank by -kun. Such
addresses are com- monly used in situations such as schools and
companies.

212 kurai kurai < b L , prt. ! approximate quantity or extent . Key

Sentence approximately; about [REL. gOTO; hodo (bakan)] Number-
Counter JRJj{ tJ t> 7 =} A:J i: mrr n ra' < t> \ tJ tJ Q / tJ Tokyo kara
Sanfuranshisuko made hikoki de kujikan kurai kakaru / ka- tJ i: To
karimasu. (It's about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San
Francisco.) Formatien ( i) Number-Counter = 1 = 1lQ ffit < t> \
yonsatsu kurai < t> \ kurai (about four volumes) (about a hundred
people) Ef A < t> \ hyakunin kurai (ii) Demonstrative {Pronoun /
Adjective} ( =..tL / =. Q) } < t> \ {kore / kono} kurai ( .tL / Q)} < t> \
{sore / sono} kurai { (b tL / (b Q) } < J \ {are / ana} kurai { }! tL / }! Q)}
< t> \ {dore / dono} kurai (iii) Interrogative Pronoun < t> \ kurai (about
this much / to about this extent) (about that much / to about that
extent) «referring to an object that is removed from both the speaker
and the hearer) about that much / to about that extent) (about how
much? / to about what extent?) < t> \ kurai (about how much?) \ < t>
< t> \ ikura kurai

kurai / kureru l 213 Examples (a) A:.:t Q)$:'i \ < < \ L t::.. tJ o Sono
kuruma wa ikura gurai deshita ka. (About how much was that car?) B
: ali+JJfIJ < \ Lt::.. o Hyakugojiiman'en kurai deshita. (It was about
1,500,000 yen.) (b) A A Iv 'i JjrMH:.llQ tJ ,ij < \ff -:J ""( \ i: L t::.. o
Sumisu-san wa Kyoto ni yonkagetsu kurai itte imashita. (Mr. Smith
was in Kyoto for about four months.) (c) I-U fB Iv < \ mtJ m*tL.f L \ L.t
? IJ o Yamada-san gurai eigo ga dekireba tanoshii desyo nee (It
must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada (lit. to
the extent of Mr.Yamada).) (d) fAt!. -:J""(.:t tL < \Q) =. l: 'i7ttJ i: T.t o
Watashi datte sore gurai no koto wa wakarimasu yo. (Even I can
understand that sort of thing (lit. things of that extent).) = 1 = g :i CD
Kurai may be freely replaced by gurai without a change in meaning.
kureru 1 < tt Q v. (Gr. 2) /'J"'o/"'-/"' ( S.o. whose status is not higher
than the speaker's gives s.t. to the first S person or to s.o. with whom
the speaker empathizes. give [REL. ageru l ; morau l ] < . Key
Sentence Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object :kJII Iv 'i (fA :.
) * < tLt::.. / < tL i: L t::.. o Okawa-san wa (watashi ni) hon 0 kureta /
kuremashita. (Mr. Okawa gave me a book.)

214 kureru l

Examples

(a)

.. Iidi (tt,:,) (PJ

< tL i: '- t::.. tJ

o Biru wa (kimi ni) nani 0 kuremashita ka. (What did Bill give to you?)
(b) Jllft

Iv ,;t fL (1) U-r 'fh ,:. v:J - J-:

< tLt::.. o Kawamura-san wa watashi no musume ni rekodo 0 kureta.

(Mr. Kawamura gave my daughter a record.)

em

1. Kureru, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means

, give '. Unlike the English give, however, kureru is used only when
the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker
empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1)
is unacceptable. (If the speaker empathizes with Mr. !to, (1) is
considered acceptable. Addressing someone as U Mr. Ito ",
however, is too formal in such a situation.)

KI

(1) * JII r=t

Iv 'i

\"":) t WKi

Iv ,:. t::.. fi =.
< tL Q 0 *Kawaguchi-san wa itsumo Ito-san ni tabako 0 kureru. (Mr.
Kawaguchi always gives Mr. !to cigarettes.) 2. When the giver is the
first person, kureru cannot be used.

(2) *fL'i

Iv':.mi

< tLt::.. o *Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake 0 kureta. (I gave Mr.

Nakajima sake.) In this case, ageru must be used.

(3) fL';t

Iv ':.mi

(b

jt::..o Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake 0 ageta. (I gave Mr.

Nakajima sake.) Note that when the subject is the first person,
kureru-sentences are not grammatical even if the receiver is
someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (4).

(4) *fL'iJl

Iv ':'1- 3 :J v- J-.

<
'Lt::..o *Watashi wa ni-san ni chokoreto 0 kureta. (I gave my elder
brother chocolates.) The reason for this is as follows: Kureru
requires the receiver's point of view when describing an event, and
when an event involves the first person, the event is normally
described from the first person's point of

kureru 1 215

view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver In kureru-sentences, a

viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (In
this case, ageru must be used.) 3. The polite (honorific) version of
kureru IS kudasaru (Gr. 1 verb; The masu-form is kudasaimasu).
Example:

(5) 96!:E'i (fA':')*

< t=

(,\* Lt: o Sensei wa (watashi nl) hon 0 kudasaimashita. (My teacher

gave me a book.) 4. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to
the speaker in de- clarative sentences or to the hearer in
interrogative sentences. (See KS and Ex. (a).)

[Related Expressions] I. [1] compares the differences among the

three giving and receiving verbs ageru, kureru and morau in terms of
viewpoint when A gives X to B. The eye sign "y" indicates which
viewpoint the sentence requires.

[1] a. A 'i B
:. X

(b

jt::..o A wa B ni X 0 ageta. y (or neutral) (A gave X to B.) b. A li B

:. X

< tLt::.. o A wa B ni X 0 kureta. y (A gave X to B.) c. B 'i A

:. X

-:J t::.. o B wa A ni X 0 moratta. y (B got X from A.) If the first person

or a person the speaker empathizes with is involved in a giving-
receiving situation, the NP which refers to him must occur in the
positions with "y". The reason for this is as follows: When the first
person or someone the speaker empathizes with is involved in a
giving-receiving situation, the situation is normally described from his
viewpoint, and if the NP which refers to him occurs in the positions
without "y", a viewpoint conflict arises. II. [2] summarizes the plain
forms and polite forms of giving and receiving verbs:

=1=

216 kureru 1 / kureru 2

[2]

(I) give (s.o.) (s.o.) gives (me) (I) get / recei ve (from s.o.) Plain form
CD

-5 @ < n-5 CD tt:J? yaru kureru morau (to s.o. of lower status) @ (b
'j -5 ageru CD < t!.

-5 CD It't::.. t!. < kudasaru itadaku Polite form @

'- (b ,j -5 (honorific) (humble) sashiageru (masu-form : (very humble)

kudasaimasu)

fJ) fJ) u C u .

<5

'1=t

«!): Gr. 1 verb; @: Gr. 2 verb) Note the different degree of politeness
in each verb (particularly, yaru, ageru and sashiageru).

kureru 2 < tt Q
aux. v. (Gr. 2)

S.o. does s.t. as a favor to the first

( person or to s.o. with whom the

speaker empathizes. < "''''

''-'"'-'''

do s.t. (for me or s.o.); do me or s.o. a favor by doing s.t. [REL.

ageru 2 ; kUTeTu l ; morau 2 ]

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vte

li (fA

;:) "IJj7

A-:)'"( < tL t::.. / < n

'- t::.. 0 Chichi wa (watashi

ni) kamera 0 katte kureta / kuremashita. . (My father bought a

camera for me.)
kureru 2 217

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vte Jii:9J 'i fA

fJ. <.

-c < h t::.. / < h i: '- t::.. 0 Michio wa wa tashi 0 nagusamete kureta /

kuremashita. . . (Michio consoled me.)

Fermation

Vte < h.'!> kureru g

L- -C < tL.'!> (s.o. (will) talks for my sake) hanashite kureru 1t

-C < tL.'!> (s.o. (will) eats for my sake) tabete kureru

Examples

(a) -aJ:'i (fA':') 7-

m

\-C < tLt::.. o Haha wa (watashi nl) keki 0 yaite kureta. (My mother
baked a cake for me.) (b) rj;t - "IJ -

Iv 'ifAQ) U-r- =. ':.

x. -C < h -C

\.'!> 0 Woka-san wa watashi no musuko ni eigo 0 oshiete kurete iru.

(Ms. Walker is kindly teaching my son English.) (c) -=f#tJi'i ((b t,t. t::..
,:.) (PI

'- -C < hi: '- t::.. tJ

o Kodomotachi wa (anata nl) nani 0 shite kuremashita ka. (What did

your children do for you?)

=1=

em 1. Kureru is used as an auxiliary verb with V tee The meaning of

V te kureru is U someone does the first person (or someone with
whom the speaker empathizes) a favor by doing something". Like
sentences with kureru as a main verb, sentences with V te kureru
are stated from the viewpoint of the person who receives the favor
and the receiver must be the first person or someone the speaker
empathizes with (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus,
(1a) is grammatical, but (1b) is not. (t:) kUTeTu l ) (1) a.

'? t,t.

\AtJ

fA':':J -7

J\ -:J -C < tLt:. o Shiranai hito ga watashi ni kora 0 katte kureta. (A

stranger bought cola for me.)

218 kureru 2

b. *fA'i

t.t.

\A

:. :J - 7

J\ -:J ""( < tL t::.. o *Watashi wa shiranai hito ni kora 0 katte kureta. (I
bought cola for a stranger.) (In the case in (lb), ageru 'give' must be
used. (t:) ageTu 2 » Note that if the subject is the first person,
sentences with V te kureru are ungrammatical even if the person
who receives the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as
in (2). (See kUTeTu l , Note 2.) (2) *fA'i-a'=7-

m
\""( < tLt:: o *Watashi wa haha ni keki 0 yaite kUTeta. (I baked a cake
for my mother.) In this case, ageru must be used.

(t:) ageTu 2 )

2. As in KS(B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the

direct object, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b)
are ungrammatical.

='1=!

(3) a. *Jii:!ij 'i

l"=fA

t.t. <"

""( <

'L t::.. o *Michio wa watashi ni watashi 0 nagusamete kureta. b. *Jii:!ij

'i

l"= t.t. <"

""( < tL t::.. o *Michio wa watashi ni nagusamete kureta. 3. If the main

verb of the sentence is intransitive, the person receiving the benefit
of the action is not marked by ni. Therefore, (4) is un- grammatical.
(4) *Jj.lvt.t.'ifA'=1t1J

\""( < tLt::.. o *Minna wa watashi ni hataraite kureta. (Everybody

worked for me.) In this case, no tame ni ' for the sake of' is used, as
in (5). (t:) tame)

(5) Jj.lvt.t.'ifAO)t::N:>'=1t1J

\""( < tLt::.. o Minna wa watashi no tame ni hataraite kureta.

(Everybody worked for my sake.) 4. The polite (honorific) version of
V te kureru is V te kudasaru. Example:

(6) 96!:E'ifA

:.*

i( '-""( < t=

-:) t:: o Sensei wa watashi ni hon 0 kashite kudasatta. (My teacher

kindly lent me a book.) 5. Note that in sentences like U Mr. A taught
me - ", U Mr. A bought me - " and U Mr. A lent me - ", which usually
imply that the speaker received some sort of favor, Vte kureru (or
kudasaru) should be used,

kureru 2 / kuru 1 219 though in English this is not usually explicitly

expressed. In Japanese, without the auxiliary verbs kureru or kuda ,
saru such sentences don't convey the idea that the speaker received
a favor. 6. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the
speaker in de- clarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative
sentences. (See KS(A), Exs. (a) and (c).) [Related Expressions]
Ageru, kureru and morau and all their polite and non-polite versions
are used as auxiliary verbs with V tee (Auxiliary verbs ageru, kureru
and morau are explained under ageru 2 , kureru 2 and morau 2 ,
respectively.) When these verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, the
same viewpoint rules stated in kureru l Related Expression I apply,
except that there is no neutral viewpoint. kuru 1 *Q v. (Irr.) K ' = . = . I
....." ,,"'-"-"-"'-"-" "",, r-. S.o. or s.t. moves in a direction to- ! wards the
speaker or the speaker's viewpoint or area of empath y. ...,,""""",, ""-
""""'-"'"'-"'" "-"'"'-'" come; visit; show up [REL. iku l ] . Key Sentence
Noun (place) .fB 1v tJ (b '- t::.. -5-; -.. / =. *-5 / **To Tanaka-san ga
ashita uchi e / ni kuru / kimasu. (Mr. Tanaka will come to my home
tomorrow.) Examples (a) -;- -'i Q)? " -7,f - :'*i: '-t::..tJ o Nanshi wa
kino pati ni kimashita ka. (Did Nancy come to the party yesterday?)
(b) *}]M*r=t IvtJ i;liH:'*-5 ? t!.o Raishii Kiguchi-san ga Nagoya ni kuru
soda. (I was told that Mr. Kiguchi is coming to Nagoya next week.)

220 kuru I

(c) t l" t l" *

tJ

*t::.. t:J T <.

Q J: ?

:.

-:J""( < t!.

"'0 Moshi, moshi, kanai ga kitara sugu kaeru yo ni itte kudasai.

(Hello, please tell my wife to come home right away if she (lit. comes
to see you) drops by.) (d) 4- f] 'i i: t.= ffifIfI tJ

*t.l "'0 Kyo wa mada shinbun ga konai. (Today's newspaper hasn't

come yet.)
(e)

(1)li)f

:. tb '- t::..*""( < t!.

"'0 Boku no kenkyushitsu ni ashita kite kudasai. (Please come to my

office tomorrow.)

CD

KI

Kuru commonly describes a movement towards a place where the

speaker physically exists, as in KS and Ex. (d). However, it can also
describe a movement in a direction where the speaker has placed
his viewpoint or where he feels strong empathy. For example, in Ex.
(a) the speaker, who apparently did not attend the party, is taking the
viewpoint of the hearer, who did attend. In Ex. (c) the speaker is
phoning and is not at the hearer's house, yet he is taking the
hearer's viewpoint, a typical example of the psychological fusion
between speaker and hearer. In Ex. (b), it is possible that the
speaker lives nearer Nagoya than Mr. Kiguchi does and feels that
Mr. Kiguchi is entering his (the speaker's) territory or area of strong
empathy. And again, in Ex. (e), the use of kuru indicates that the
speaker's office as well as his house can be considered his territory
or area of empathy.
[Related Expression] If a movement is towards a place where the
speaker can place his viewpoint, kuru is used, but if a movement is
towards a place where the speaker cannot place his viewpoint, iku is
used. (t:) iku 1 ) In Exs. (a) and (c) both kuru and iku are acceptable.
The difference is that the use of kuru shifts the focus of the sentence
to the hearer's viewpoint while iku shifts it to the speaker's viewpoint.

kuru 2 221

kuru' *Q

aux. v. (Irr.)

, ,,

"'--"-

,,""-"-"-"-"-"/" I ! An auxiliary verb which indicates the beginning of

some process or con- I tinuation of some action up to a cur- rent
point of time. ( -. """"- "-"-"-/"\. "-"-"-"-

come about; grow; come to; begin to [REL. -hajimeru]

. Key Sentences (A)

V te (process) fA 'i :J

o .:l. - ?7 - tJ

tJ\ -:) -C *t::.. / ** Lt::.. o Watashi wa conpyuta ga sukoshi wakatte

kita / kimashita. (Now I have begun to understand computers.)

(B)

Vte fA 'i

\0

\0 a* (j)

A,

*t::.. / ** Lt::.. o i3i: Watashi wa iroiro Nihon no rekishisho 0 yonde

kita / kimashita. (Up to now I've been reading various Japanese
histories.)
=K

--------

-=- g -=-

Formation

( i) V te *-5 kuru

<

Iv

*-5 / *t::.. (s.t. begins / has begun to swell) fukuran de kuru / kita "*

< t,t. -:J""( * -5 / * t::.. (s. t. begins / has begun to grow big) okiku
natte kuru / kita

Examples

(a) 7- =- A

L -C It' t::..

,:. mtJ
-:J -C *t::.. o Tenisu 0 shite itara kyuni ame ga futte kita. (Suddenly,
while we were playing tennis, it began to rain.) (b) Lf

tJ

jJitJ

< tcl-:J""(** Lt::.. o Gogo kara atama ga itaku natte kimashita. (Lit. My
head began to ache in the afternoon. (= My headache started in the
afternoon.»

222 kuru 2

(c) fL tt

Q)

0 i: -:J -C * * '- t::.. 0 Watashi wa konogoro futotte kimashita. (I've

started to gain weight these days.)

(d) UJ Q)

,:t

Q)

0 -r

\
Iv

tL

:. t,t -:J -C *t::..tJ o Ano ko wa konogoro zuibun kireini natte kita nee
(That girl has become very pretty lately, hasn't she?)

(e) 4'*

t::..<

1v*

MfIv

** '-t::..tJ

tLtpGt

lv

ff<"'?t !J

t"o Ima made takusan hon 0 yonde kimashita ga, kore kara mo
yonde iku tsumori desu. (Up to now I have read quite a few books
and I intend to read from now on, too.)

=1=
(I) 4'*

iilv

** '-t::..tJ

tLtJ

G,:t-!:E

1frt

%tt"Q"'?t!J

t"o Ima made asonde kimashita ga, kore kara wa isshokenmei

benkyosuru tsumori desu. (Up to now I haven't been working hard
(lit. have been playing), but from now on I intend to work very hard.)

CD

1. V te kuru expresses inception as in Exs. (a) through (d), or

continuation of s.t. up to a current point of time, as in Exs. (e) and (f).
In the former case the V is a verb that indicates a process that takes
some time to com- plete, such as naru ' become', wakaru '
understand', futoru ' gain weight', yaseru 'lose weight', fukuramu
'swell' and chijimu 'shrink'. In the latter case the V is any non-
punctual verb. 2. In the following sentences kuru is used more as a
full verb than as an auxiliary verb. The meaning of V te kuru is the
same as that of V te (i.e., 'V and') and of kuru. (

kUTU 1 )
(1) fL'j:

fJ:',,.

A ,:.* -:J -C ** t" 0 Watashi wa kaisha ni basu ni notte kimasu. (Lit. I

ride a bus and come to my company. (= I come to work by bus.» (2)
1lQJt1*

,:. ,:tmt -:J -C *-C < t=.

\o Yoji made ni wa kaette kite kudasai. (Lit. Please return and come
here by 4: 00. ( = Please come back by 4: 00.»

kuru 2 223

(3)

\ '-

\?" -

J\ -:J '"( * -£ '- t::.. o Oishii keki 0 katte kimashita. (Lit. I bought a
delicious cake and came here. ( = I bought you a delicious cake.» (4)
;&ii

?
,:.

tL '"( *t::.. o Tomodachi 0 uchi ni tsurete kita. (I brought my friends to

my house.) (5) UJ Q)*

-:J '"( *t\:? Ano hon motte kita? (Did you bring that book (lit. carry that
book and come)?) (6)

J:-:J

J!'"(*QJ:o Chotto mite kuru yo. (Lit. I'll just look and come back here.
( = I'll just go and take a look at it.» (7) $

IN -:J '"( * -£ t" 0 Kasa 0 totte kimasu. (Lit. I'll get my umbrella and
come back here. ( = I'll go and get my umbrella.» 3. Note that the
experiencer of the inception process or the continuation of the action
must be the speaker himself or someone with whom the speaker
empathizes. In other words, in this usage, what is expressed by Vte
kuru 2 involves the speaker in a very intimate way.

=1=

;;;

[Related Expression] When kuru 2 means inception (the beginning of

a process, that is), it is very close to V masu hajimeru 'begin to - '
Exs. (a) through (d) can all be para- phrased using V masu hajimeru.
However, kuru implies that s.t. happens to the speaker or whomever
he can empathize with, whereas V masu hajimeru lacks the
speaker's involvement with a process of inception. (

lWhajimeTu)
224 mada mada £ t:. adv. , "-/V) ! S.o. r s.t. is n some state he or it j
was In some time ago. "'V'"" still; (not) yet [REL. mo] . Key
Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Predicate (affirmative) *tttt ,:t "£ t!. !&
"'"'( L\g / L\ "to Kimura-kun wa mada hirugohan 0 tsbete iTU / imssu.
(Mr. Kimura is still eating his lunch.) (B) = M = : =z ! i == Topic
(subject) Predicate (negative) 1H 1v ,:t "£ t!. .7c(J) c!: ; t L \ / 1,) it Iv
0 Ota-san wa mada sono koto 0 shiTsnsi / shiTimssen. . (Mr. Ota still
doesn't know about it.) Examples (a) mH:t"£ t.: UJ !J "£ t"tJ o O-sake
wa mada arimasu ka. (Do you still have sake?) (b) fL':t"£ t!. a *-..ff -:J
t::.. c!: tJ t,t \o Watashi wa mada Nihon e itta kOlO ga nai. (I have not
been to Japan yet.) (c) A: t ? !& 1t "£ '-t::..tJ o Mo hirugohan 0
tabemashita ka. (Have you eaten your lunch yet?) B 1 : \ \ .it , "£ t!.1t
-c \ "£ -it Iv 0 ie, mada tabete imasen. (No, I haven't eaten it yet.) B 2
: \ , .it , "£ t.: -r: t" 0 ie, mada desu. (No, not yet.)

mada / made 225 em 1. Mada expresses the idea that someone or

something is in the same state that he or it was in some time ago. In
affirmative sentences, mada always corresponds to 'still '. In
negative sentences, however, it cor- responds to 'yet' when an action
has not yet been taken, and' still ' in other situations, as in Ex. (c)
and KS(B), respectively. 2. The abbreviated sentence seen in B 2 of
Ex. (c) is used only when the response to a question is a negative
one. [Related Expression] The concept which mada expresses is
opposite to that of mo. [1] illustrates the difference between the idea
conveyed by mada and the one conveyed by mo. [1] a. mada X is in
the state A b. mo i point of reference (X is still in the state A) X is in
the state A I . ti me . ti me - - - = M = =z :::::! ====- i point of
reference (X is not in the state A any more.) made £ prt. a particle to
indicate a spatial, tem- poral or quantitative limit or an un- expected
animate / inanim3-re object as far as; till; up to; until; through; even
[REL. made ni]

226 made
. Key Sentences (A)

Noun Noun (time) (time)

Q)? 'i .=.

tJ

G :n

-£

ii c!: T ==- A

'- t::.. / Kino wa sanji kara goji made tomodachi to tenisu 0 shita / '- -£
'- t::.. 0 shimashita. (Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with
my friend.)

(B)

M=!

Noun Noun (location) (location) JKJil tJ

G Jilts -£
fT

--c: =: Jt1 r

' tJ

tJ

Q / Tokyo kara Kyoto made shinkansen de sanjikan kakaru / tJ

tJ

!J -£ To kakarimasu. (It takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo

to Kyoto.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vinf. nonpast fL tJ

ff< -£

-:J-C

\-C < t=.

\ 0 Watashi ga iku made uchi de ma tte ite kudasai. (Please wait at

home until I get there.)
(D)

Number-Counter

Q)

- Iv Ii ==fA -£

:AtLQ / :AtL-£To Kono horu wa nisennin made haireru / hairemasu.

(This hall can hold up to 2,000 people.)

made 227

(E)

Noun (unex- pected object) 'UJ(J) A ,:t hf;lj.

Aj]

'i t

01v te -£

Ano hito wa nezumi ya sukanku wa mochiron hebi made f;.f

/ f;.f
T 0 sukida / sukidesu. (He even likes snakes, not to mention rats and
skunks.)

Fermati.n

( i) Noun (time / location) -£

made JL

-£

(until five / as far as school) goji / gakk6 made ( ii) Vinf. nonpast -£

made

T -£

(until s.o. talks / talked) hanasu made 1t

Q -£

(until s.o. eats / ate) taberu made (iii) Number-Counter -£

made 1lQ+ A -£

(up to forty people) yonjtJnin made JLtt -£

(up to five sheets of paper) gomai made

- y - - - - - =z

.- ==

--

Examples

(a) 7;'!J j] A'i

jlM

PI a tJ

PI a -£

1fJ < 0 Amerikajin wa maishtJ getsuy6bi kara kin'y6bi made

hataraku. (Americans work every week from Monday through
Friday.) (b) lRtJ

G*

-£

,:t

\-C+
<. G

T 0 Eki kara daigaku made wa aruite juppun gurai desu. (Lit. It's
about 10 minutes from the station to the university on foot. (= It's
about a ten-minute walk from the station to the university.»

228 made / made ni tt ttt , -:J * o Sum;su-san wa sashimi wa

mochiron, natt6 made taberu n desu yo. (Mr. Smith even eats
fermented soybeans, not to mention raw fish.) (d) mfT tJ m -£ t1 1:.-
;&ii '- -c "'t::.. o Hik6ki ga deru made rob; de tomodachi to hanashite
ita. (Until the plane left I was talking with my friend in the lobby.) 1m ,
X made' and 'until X ' do not have the same meaning when X
represents a duration of time. For example, in (1) ra;shtJ no
getsuy6bi made means that the speaker will be absent next Monday;
therefore, the corresponding English is 'until next Tuesday'. (1)
fL':t*JmQ) iii a -£ f*;Tj. -£ 0 Watashi wa raishtJ no getsuy6bi made
yasum;masu. (I'll be absent until next Tuesday.) = y = made ni £ I:
prt. rv" a particle that. indicates a time limit i on / for an action "" ./"\.
,,,./V'"V"'V"'V',J by; by the time (when) [REL. made; made de; mae
ni] . Key Sentences (A) Noun (time) fL 'i + -£ :. mtQ / mt t) -£To
Watashi wa jiiji made ni kaeru / kaer;masu. (I'll come home by 10
o'clock.)

made ni 229

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vinf. nonpast

tJ

taa:g -£

(/) *

MCIv

\-C < tf.

\ 0 Gakko ga hsjimsTu made ni kono hon 0 yonde oite kudasai.

(Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.)

Fermation

KS(A) : N (time) -£

=. made ni

JLn

-£

=. (by five o'clock) go}i made ni tb '- t::.. -£

=. (by tomorrow) ashita made ni

KS(B) : Vinf.nonpast -£

=. made ni

T -£

(by the time s.o. talks / talked) hanasu made ni 1t

Q -£

:. (by the time s.o. eats / ate) taberu made ni

- y - - - - - :::z ::::::::!

::::::i

===-

Examples
(a) A: Mn

-£

,:,

'=.fT,t 'i'

'- J: oj tJ>.o Nan}i made ni ktJk6 ni ikeba ii desh6 ka. (By what time
should I go to the airport?) B : m

(/)-n

'fliJ-£

,:.*-c < t!.

\o Shuppatsu no ichljikan mae made ni kite kudasai. (Please come

one hour before departure.) (b)

'j:

(/) v

-"

=+ a -£
,:.:&

£t;Jftet.t tLfftet G tet

\lvt!.o Boku wa kono rep6to 0 ichigatsu hatsuka made ni

kakiagenakereba naranai n da. (I have to finish writing this paper by
January 20.)

230 made n;

(c) .y;:r. '/ ,,

tJ;

,:.tf < -£

,:.*

=ffl}

Iv

L -£

\ -£ L t::.. o Jettoki ga Pari ni tsuku made ni hon 0 sansatsu yonde

shimaimashita. (By the time the jet got to Paris, I had finished
reading three books.)

[Related Expressions] I. Made ni cannot be used with a verb that

indicates a continuous action. Instead, made' continuously until/to X'
is used.
MI

[1] 11HIHj:*

1: / *

1:,=

\ Q 0 Yamada wa raigetsu made / *made ni iru. (Yamada will stay

here until / *by next month.) [2] fL'j:JLIt1

1: / *

1:'=

-:J-C

\Qo Watashi wa goji made / *made ni matte iru. (I'll be waiting until /
*by five o'clock.) II. When made ni ' by' is preceded by an informal
nonpast verb, it may be replaced by mae ni 'before'. The difference
between the two is the same as the English 'by' vs. 'before'. Thus, if
made ni in Ex. (c) is replaced by mae ni, the sentence means 'Before
the jet got to Paris I had finished reading three books.' More
examples of the different uses follow: [3] a. *

1:'= / *M'=::Q)tt.

L-£To Raigetsu made ni / *mae ni kono shigoto 0 shimasu. (I will

finish this work by / *before next month.) b. fl*M'= / *

1:,=jtHJ!
';:fT < 0 Jugyo mae ni / *made ni ytJbinkyoku ni iku. (I will go to the
post office before / *by class.) III. Made de, a particle which means
's.t. continues until/up to X (and stops at X, although it can continue
beyond X)' is similar to made ni. The differences in meaning can be
seen in the examples below. In [4] made ni is unacceptable because
Lesson 10 is not the limit of domain (which is Lesson 20). In [5]
made de is unacceptable because no im- portant items appear after
Lesson 10.

[4] ::Q)

f4.'j:=+it-£

UJ!J -£TtJ

WHj:+it

1:1: / *

1:'=

f b!J-£To Kono kyokasho wa nijukka made arimasu ga kongakki wa

jukka made de / *made ni owarimasu. (There are up to twenty
lessons in this textbook, but this semester we will stop at Lesson 10.)

made ni / mae ni 231 [5] :: Q) ».,:t =+iI -£ &; !J -£ t"tJ , *.fct:: ,:t +it -c!
1= / ??? -c!-c! $m-c*-£ t" 0 Kono kyokasho wa nijukka made arimasu
ga. daijina koto wa jukka made ni / ???made de zenbu dete kimasu.
(There are (lit. up to) twenty lessons in this textbook, but the
important items are introduced (lit. appear) by Lesson 10.) mae ni
;jiJ1: conj. ) S in front of or before some situation comes about ( '-/V
..... before; in front of [REL. made ni; uchi ni] (ANT. ato de; ushiro ni)
= 1 - - - - - - - . Key Sentences (A) Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Vinf. nonpast .y '/ Iv 'i 13* .-... 17< "II ,=. a*m t!l%t '- t::.. / Jakuson-
san wa Nihon e iku mae ni nihongo 0 benkyoshita / '- '- t::.. 0
shimashita. (Mr. Jackson studied Japanese before he went to
Japan.) (B) Noun (event) ff Q) wI ,=. JE.$ 51 \t::.. / 51 -£ '- t::.. o
Ryoko no mae ni kaze 0 hiita / hikimashita. (Before the trip I caught
cold.)

232 mae ni

(C)

Noun (place) IR (f) M

:. t::.. ff ::: m tJ

N;Q / N;!J *"'0 Eki no mae ni tabako- ya ga aru / arimasu. (There is a

tobacco shop in front of the station.)

F.rmation:

( i) Vinf. nonpast M ,:. mae ni

.., M ,:. (before s.o. talks / talked) hanasu mae ni it'" Q M ,:. (before
s.o. eats / ate) taberu mae ni

( ii) N (f) M ,:. no mae ni

= M == !

. == ====

1Jj (f) M ,:. asagohan no mae ni

(before breakfast)

Examples

(a) E*A':t

IJj

it"'QM':. r

\t::..t':

*"'oJ

?o Nihonjin wa gohan 0 taberu mae ni II Itadakimasu." to iu. (The

Japanese say cc Jtadakimasu" (lit. I humbly receive (this food»
before eating their meals.) (b) 7-

7-
Iv ,:t E *"'ff < M

:..I' !7 ..{ ,:.

!J * '- t::.. o Teira-san wa Nihon e iku mae ni Hawai ni yorimashita.

(Mr. Taylor stopped in Hawaii before he went to Japan.) (c) f.L':t

(f)M ':.

iOO

Jt ,:.ff -:J t::.. o Watashi wa shiken no mae ni eiga 0 mi ni itta. (Before

the exam I went to see a movie.)

em 1. Mae ni is used when the speaker knows when something is

going to take place. Thus, the following uses of mae ni are marginal.
(1) ?mtJ

Q MI=

!J * '-.t ? 0 ? Ame ga furu mse ni kaerimasho. (Let's go home before

it rains.)

mae ni / mai - 233 (2) ? ? tL Q ;}jjl= -:J -c ::td =. ? 0 ?? Wasureru

mse ni itte oko. (I'll say it (in advance) before 1 forget.) (See Related
Expression for proper expressions.) 2. The verb before mae ni is
always nonpast, even if the tense of the main verb is past, as in Ex.
(b). [Related Expression] When the speaker knows that something is
about to happen but does not know exactly when it is to happen,
uchi ni C before' is used instead of mae ni. Thus, mae ni in (1) and
(2) of Note 1 should be replaced by nai uchi ni, as in [1] and [2]. (t:)
uchi ni) [1] m 1,); G t L \ ? -; r = !J L .t ? 0 Ame ga furansi uchi ni
kaerimasho. (Let's go home before it rains.) [2] :gtLt L \ ? -; r= -:J -
C::t3 =. ? 0 Wasurensi uchi ni itte oko. (I'll say it (in advance) before
1 forget.) = 1 = - - E z::ii; iCii mai. L \ pref. "'-"'-/'-"-"" I a prefix which
means 'every (unit ! of time)' "' ./V'"V"" every; per [REL. goto ni] . Key
Sentence Noun of time fL ,:t 8 --;" Iv 1;]< < / 1;]< € T 0 Watashi wa
mai nichi ichimairu oyogu / oyogimasu. (I swim one mile every day.)

234 mai-

Formatien

fii: N of time mai

fii: WJ

(every morning)

mal sss

fii:

(every month) mai tsuki

Examples
(a) 5L'j:4ii

mT':' m

8 L -C \t\ Q:t ? t:. o Hiroshi wa maiban Michiko ni denwashite iru

soda. (I heard that Hiroshi calls Michiko every evening.) (b) ti!l 'j: 4ii

=+

p (f)

t ':.)! Iv -c: \t\ Q 0 Taifu wa maiji nijukkiro no hayasa de kita ni

susunde iru. (The typhoon is moving north at a speed of twenty
kilometers per hour.) (c) f.L'j:4ii

-lt'j: E *

ff < 0 Watashi wa maitoshi ichido wa Nihon e iku. (I go to Japan at

least once every year.) (d)

'j:4ii1t

1t"'Qo Jin wa maishoku sarada 0 taberu. (Jean eats salad at every

meal.)

= 1 = !!
 !!

!!

-==-==

em 1. Mai is prefixed to nouns which express a unit of time. Nouns

like shoku C meal' can also be used, as seen in Ex. (d). In this case,
shoku implies the time at which one eats. However, the following
phrases are all un- acceptable because the nouns following mai do
not indicate a time or period of time. (The correct expressions are
given in parentheses.)

(1) a. *4iiA 'every person' ( T '" -C (f) A / A 'j: 1J-1v t.t, ) *mai-hito / nin
(subete no hito / hito wa minna) b. *4ii96!£ C every teacher' (T'" -C
(f)96!£ / * mai -sensei (subete no sensei / 96!£ 'i 1J-1v t.l ) sensei wa
minna) c. *4ii* C every house' (T'" -C (f) * / *Ji 1J-1v t.l ) *mai-ie / ka /
ya (subete no ie / ie wa minna)

mai - 235

Mai cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded by numbers;

thus, the following phrases are unacceptable. (t:) go to ni) (2) a.
*fii:=.. J3 'every three days' *mai-mikka

b. *fii:=

*mai-ninen
'every other year'

c. *fii:-JIM *mai-isshu

C everyone week'

(See Related Expresssion [Ia] for correct expressions.) 2. Mai is

usually used with Japanese-origin words of one or two syllables or
shorter Chinese-origin words. Thus, compounds like those in (3) are
awkward.

(3) a. ???fii:1*;Tj. ???mai-yasumi b. ???

?!J A -;" A ??? mai-kurisumasu

'every holiday'

'every Christmas'

c. *

.:r{JtQ) J3 'every Children's Day' *mai-kodomo-no-hi

==-

M = -=

(See Related Expression [Ib] for correct expressions.)

[Related Expression] Goto ni also means 'every', but its usage differs
from that of maio First, goto ni is not a prefix but a suffix. Second, it
is used with nouns of time preceded by numbers or specific dates,
as seen in [1]. (t:) go to ni) [1] a. Period of time =.. J3 =:

r:. 'every three days' mikka goto ni --

' =:

,:. 'every hour' ichijikan goto ni b. Specific date ? !J A -;" A =:

,:. C every Chris tmas ' Kurisumasu goto ni .:r{JtQ) J3 =:

:. 'every Children's Day' Kodomo-no-hi goto ni

236 mai - / mama (Cf. J3 =: ,:. 'day after day'; =: ,:. C year after year
') hi-goto ni toshi-goto n; Third, unlike mai, goto ni can also be used
with other noun phrases, as seen in [2]. [2] .y 3 'i ? A =: ,:. J3 *ia"t*
NJ \t\ ':) L t::.. o Jon wa au hito goto ni nihongo de aisatsu 0 shita. (J
ohn greeted every person he met in Japanese.) mama n. . M : - , !
An already given situation or cond . . I d ( tlon remains una tere . 5
as it IS; unchanged; undis- turbed; leave as is, remain [REL. nai de;
zu ni] . Key Sentences (A) Topic Direct Vinf.past (subJect) Object m
,:t 7- v 1::" E -:> It t=. -C L -:J t::.. / '- \t \ '- t::.. 0 Ototo wa terebi 0
tsukets mama nete shimatta / shimaimashita. (My younger brother
went to sleep leaving the TV on.) (B) Topic Direct Vinf.past (subject)
Object mE ,:t 7- v 1::. E -:> It t=. .: L -c ::t3 \t\ t::.. / ::t3 L t::.. o o to to
E wa terebi E 0 tsukets mama ni shi te oita / okimashita. (My
younger brother left the TV on.)

mama 237

(C)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vinf.past m 'i 7- v 1::.

-:> It t=.

t!. / -r: T 0 Ot6to wa terebi 0 tsukets mama da I desu. (My younger

brother has left the TV on.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun -::"(1) $M 'i

O)? (1)
t!. / -r:T 0 Kono heya wa kino no mama da I desu. . (This room is as
it was yesterday.)

(E)

Topic Demonstrative (Direct Object) Pronoun .,.. .,.. 'i

O)

,:. L -C ::t3 < / ::t3

To '-- '-- Koko wa kana mama ni shite oku / okimasu. (I'll leave this
place as it is.)

M = -= !!!!! -= !!!!! == iii

(F)

Subject Vinf.past 7- v 1::. tJ

-:> L \ t=.

,:. t
-:J -C

\Q/

To T erebi ga tsuits mama ni natte iru / imasu. (The TV was turned

on and is still on).

(G)

Vinf.past Noun

1)\ ..

t ? t=.

(1)

!:E tJ

:.

\t::.. /

Lt::.. o 86shi 0 ksbutts mama no gakusei ga ky6shitsu ni ita /

imashita. (A student who kept his hat on was in the classroom.)
238 mama

Formatien

( i) Vinf.past

mama

(,

) '0.tt.:

(leaving (the light) on) (denki 0) tsuketa mama (ii) Adj (i)

mama

*.

\t\
(as s.t. is big) okii mama

(iii) (Adj (na) stem t.(. / N Q)}

na no mama

{J!t

(leaving s.t. inconvenient) fubenna mama

.:f:f:. a mukashi no mama

Q)

(leaving s.t. as it was)

Examples

(a) m
'0.tt::..

-C L

\t\

Lt::.. o

Denki 0 tsuketa mama nete shimaimashita. (I fell asleep leaving the

light on.) (b) 1::" - Iv a: A -:J t::..

t.(. tp -:J t::.. o Biru 0 katta mama nomanakatta. (I bought beer, but 1
didn't drink it.) (c)

\t\t::..

li:1i':,:

L t::.. o Kiita mama 0 tomodachi ni hanashimashita. (I told my friend

exactly what I heard.) (d) (b Q) A 'i N;tLtJ

-r -:J

t::..
t.:. o Ano hito wa are kara zutto neta mama da. (He's been in bed (lit.
all along) since then.) (e) ;ej JlJ

Iv 'i 7 j !J tJ -..ff -:J t::..

Wi

t.(. tp -:J t.: o Takayama-san wa Amerika e itta mama kaeranakatta.

(Mr. Takayama went to America never to return.)

(f) 1f!Q).:r.

tJ

.t t::..

,:. L -C ::t3 \t\ t::.. o Kuruma no enjin 0 kaketa mama ni shite oita. (I
left the car engine on.)

mama 239

(g) .!;Q)
:. L. -c ::t3 \t\ -c < t!.

\t\o Ima no mama ni shite oite kudasai. (Please leave it as it is now.)

CD 1. The verb before mama has to be nonpast if the verb is ( 1). (1)
a.

negative as In

b.

J-: 7

fJ. L \

ill tp ,t -C '-

-:J t::.. o Doa 0 shimenai mama dekakete shimatta. (I left my house

with the door open.)

J: ? tel G Q)t

w t '- fJ. L \ *

ff -:J -C '-
-:J t::.. o Sayonara no aisatsu mo shinai mama itte shimatta. (She
went away without even saying goodbye.)

If a verb that precedes mama 0 is non-volitional, the verb can be

nonpast even if the main transitive verb is past, as shown in (2): (2)
a. ftbnQ / ftbnt::

fb-:J t::.. o IwaTeTu /lwaTeta mama 0 haratta. (I paid money as I was

told to.) b. ,!}, -:J -C L \ Q / L \ t::

=- \t \ -C Jt t::.. 0 Omotte iTU / ita mama 0 kaite mita. (I wrote exactly

as I felt.) 2. When mama is followed directly by a verb (other than
suru) as in KS(A) and Exs. (a), (b) and (e), de can be inserted
between mama and the verb. Thus, KS(A) can be rephrased as
follows: (3)

H:t '7 v 1::"

'0 ,t t::..

1:

-C '-

-:J t=.o Ototo wa terebi 0 tsuketa mama de nete shimatta. (Lit. My

younger brother left the TV on, and went to sleep. (= My younger
brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.» The difference between
the mama version and the mama de version is minimal; the latter
sounds more like a coordinate construction as illus- trated by the
literary translation of (3).
M = i ; ====-===-

[Related Expressions] Vinf. nonpast. neg mama can be paraphrased

using nai de or zu ni, as in:

[1] J-: 7

fJ. L \

/ fJ. L \ 1: / -r I = ill t,p .t -C '-

-:J t::.. 0 Doa 0 shimenai mama / nai de / zu ni dekakete shimatta.

(He left his house with the door open.)

240 mama / - mash6 The mama version focuses on the unaltered

situation, but the nai de / zu ni versions focus primarily on the
negative aspect of the verb. The translation of the former and the
latter are C He left with the door open.' and C He left without closing
the door.', respectively. (t:) nsi de) -masho - £ l., J: ? aux. '"'\."'- "'- " "-
I"\."''''-''- a verb ending which indicates the first person's volition or
invitation < in formal speech I I We will do s.t.; Let's do s.t. [REL. -
masen ka] . Key Sentences (A) II Subject (first person) V masu fL tJ
fIt ,:. I!L Lot 50 Watashi ga kare ni I hsnsshi mash6. . (I will talk to
him.) (B) V masu iOO ,:. ft L ot 50 Eiga ni iki mash6. (Let's go to a
movie.) Fermation Vmasu Lot 5 mash6 L. L. ot 5 (I / We will talk;
Let's talk.) hanashimash6 -ft'" L ot 5 (I / We will eat; Let's eat.)
tabemash6
-masho 241

Examples

(a) fLJit,);=F

\t\

'- .t ? 0 Watashitachi ga tetsudaimasho. (We will help you.) (b) fL t,);ff

L .t ? tJ

o Watashi ga ikimasho ka. (Shall f go there?) (c) 1::. - Iv

;Tj.

'- .t ? 0 Biru 0 nomimasho. (Let's drink beer.) (d) 1f!-c:ff

'- .t ? t,)

o Kuruma de ikimasho ka. (Shall we go by car?)

em 1. Masho is a formal verb ending which is used to express the

first person's volition (KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b» or invitation (KS(B),
Exs. (c) and (d». 2. The sentence in the KS(A) pattern, which
includes the subject X ga, implies that' not others but X will do
something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but
simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omitted.
Compare the following sentences: (1 ) a. :t Q) t,)

If Iv

'-.t ? 0 Sono kaban 0 mochimasho. (I'll carry that bag.) b. fLtJ

:t Q) tJ

lf Iv

L..t ? 0 Watashi ga sono kaban 0 mochimasho. (I will carry that bag.)

3. In invitation situations like KS(B), the subject is usually omitted.
(Exs. (c) and (d» 4. Masho with the question marker ka asks whether
the hearer will accept the speaker's volitional action or invitation.
(Exs. (b) and (d» 5. Negative volition is usually expressed by simple
nonpast negatives, as seen in (2). (2) fL':t.r

-7..( - ,:.ff

-tt Iv o Watashi wa pati ni ikimasen. (I won't go to the party.)

= 1 = -= ==

!! == z

MI
242 -masho

(The negative volitional ending mai, as In ikumai C won't go', IS not

commonly used in modern colloquial Japanese.) 6. U Let's not do
s.t." is expressed by different constructions. (A) Vinf no wa
yamemasho / yoshimasho. (Lit. Let's stop doing s.t.) Example: (3) ,1

-T..( - ,:.ff < q

Hi

b? i: '-.t ? / J: '- i: '- .t ? 0 Pat; ni iku no wa yamemasho / yoshimasho.

(Let's not go to the party.) (B) Vneg naide okimasho (Lit. Let's leave -
undone.) Example:

(t:) oku)

(4) 7 v

t: ,:. ':t

bt

\t\-c: jO

i: '-.t ? 0 Fureddo ni wa iwanaide okimasho. (Let's not tell Fred.)

7. In indirect speech or in sentences with verbs like omou 'think' and

kesshinsuru ' make up one's mind', the informal volitional form is
used. (For the informal volitional forms of verbs, see Appendix 1.) (5)
f;tfE
N ,:t ::1 - 1:: -

AX t ? c!:

-:J t::.. o Murata-san wa kohi 0 nomo to itta. (Mr. Murata suggested

we drink coffee.) (6) fL':t*

a *"ff

? c!: l

, \t\ i: To Watashi wa rainen Nihon e iko to omoimasu. (I think I will go

to Japan next year.) 8. Unlike English, in Japanese the volitional
future and the simple future are expressed by different forms. Thus,
U I think I will see a movie." is expressed by either (7) or (8). (7)
fL':tP.*:OOi

J! J: ? c!: I

' ? 0 Watashi wa eiga 0 miyo to omou.

(8) fL':tP.*:OOi

J!Q c!:1

'?0 Watashi wa eiga 0 miru to omou. (7) is an example of the

volitional future, in which the speaker's voli- tion is expressed, while
(8) is an example of the simple future.

[Related Expression] An invitation by the speaker can also be

expressed through negative ques- tions, as in [1].
-masho/ mieru 243 [1] -T -1 -,:.fji!*1tAifJ'o Pat; ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn't you (like to) go to the party?) In invitation situations,
negative questions are more polite than masho- sentences because
the former are asking whether or not the hearer will do something
and, therefore, are hearer-oriented, while the latter do not consider
the hearer's volition and are more speaker-oriented. mieru J!;i Q v.
(Gr. 2) ) "-/'.."'-" i 5.0. or s.t. is passively I spontane- ously visible. ....
be visible; (can) see; look - [REL. mirareru] - - - - = 1 = -- == ======
. Key Sentences (A) Topic (experiencer) Visible Object fL 0:.) ';1 J!<
(j) b(j) tJ .1:< j!;tQ / j!;t *1-0 Watashi (ni) wa toku no mono ga yoku
mieru / miemasu. . . (Lit. To me distant objects are very visible. ( = I
can see distant objects very well.» (B) Topic (location) Visible Object
tJ t:> OJ:) #ij tJ j!;t Q I j!;t * To Mado kara (wa) umi ga mieru /
miemasu. . (Lit. From the window the ocean is visible. (=We can see
the ocean from the window.»

244 mieru

(C)

Visible Object Adj (adverbial form) / N +ni

a 'i

tJ

lli< j!;tQ / J!;t*To Kyo wa yama ga chikaku mieru / miemasu. (Today

the mountains look near.)

Examples
= 1 = ! ;c; ! -- . = = =

(a) fL':' 'i*Q) 1: Q) Ij"

tll

tJ

J!;t t::.. o Watashi ni wa ki no ue no chisana tori ga mieta. (I could

see small birds on the tree.) (b) JRJi(?1? - tJ

'iJRJi(Q)lRTtJ

J: < J!;t Q 0 Tokyo Ta wa kara wa Tokyo no machi ga yoku mieru.

(From Tokyo Tower you can get a good view of the towns of Tokyo.)
(c) ib Q) A 'i

J: !J -r -:J

< J!;t Q 0 Ano hito wa toshi yori zutto wakaku mieru. (He looks much
younger than his age.) (d) -fr: Q) A 'i

n \t \ ,:. J! ;t Q 0 Onna no hito wa yoru kireini mieru. (Women look

beautiful at night.) (e) rp

N ,:t

!:E ':.J!;t Q 0 Nakajima -san wa gakusei ni mieru. (Mr. Nakajima

looks like a student.)
8m 1. Mieru can mean 'look -' if it is preceded by the adverbial form
of an Adj (i) as in Ex. (c) or of an Adj (na) as in Ex. (d) or by a N ni as
in Ex. (e). 2. Mieru can be used as a polite version of kuru 'come t as
in:

(1) jOm:

IVt jO$

NtJ

;t t=: J: o O-ka-san. o-kyaku-san ga mieta yo. (Mom, we have

company!) (2)

,:. ':t1:fE96!:E t

;t t=:o Gakkai ni wa Veda-sensei mo mieta. (Lit. To the academic

meeting appeared Prof. Ueda, too. (= Prof. Ueda also attended the
academic conference.»

mieru 245

Mieru can be used as an honorific polite verb because it is a more

indirect reference to a superior's act of ' coming '. In other words, the
speaker is referring to a superior's appearance as if it were a
spontaneous, natural phenomenon of ' visibility'. 3. A visible object is
marked by ga, not by o.
[Related Expression] Mieru is different from the regular potential
form of miru, i.e., mirareru, in that mieru indicates that s.t. or s.o. is
passively visible regardless of the voli- tion of the speaker; mirareru,
on the other hand, indicates that the speaker or the subject of the
sentence can see s.t. or s.o. actively rather than pas- sively. Thus,
[1]

'i B tJ;

;t fl L' / *

';i1,fl L '0 Boku wa me ga miensi / *miTsTensi. (I'm blind.) [2] T v 1::*

J( -:J t::.. tJ

T v 1::* tJ;

.; i1,.Q / *

;t .Q 0 Terebi 0 katta kara terebi ga miTSTeTU / *mieTu. (Because I

bought a TV I can now watch TV.) [3] ib Q)P.*:OOH:t

-c:

';i1, *1" / *

*1"tJ

o Ano eiga wa doko de miTsTemssu / *miemssu ka. (Where can we

see the movie?) [4] J: <
;tflL' / *

';i1,flL'tJ

AT-yQ)lli< ':.ff

?o Yoku miensi / *miTsTensi kara suteji no chikaku ni iko. (We can't

see it well, so let's go closer to the stage.) [ 5]

,:.

\t \ 1::* Iv tJ;

-:J t= Q) -c: JlJ tJ;

;t /

.; i1, tl < tl -:J t::.. 0 Tonari ni takai biru ga tatta node yama ga mie /
miTsTe naku natta. (Because a tall building was built next door, the
mountains are not visible any more / we can't see the mountains any
more.) Note that in [5] both mieru and mirareru are possible,
depending on how the speaker perceives the visible object; if he
thinks that the situation is beyond his control and has to give up
looking at the mountains, he uses mieru; if not, he uses mirareru.

M=

;ii

== ;;::; ==-
246 miru miru h?J aux. v. (Gr. 2) "-"-,, j do s.t. to see what it's like or
what will happen ""'""-'"'"' do s.t. and see; try to do s.t. [REL. yo to
suru] . Key Sentence Topic (subject) Vte fL ,:t 13* (j) IJ" i1CAi"'t! 1-J..
Q / 1-J.. * T 0 Watashi wa Nihon no shosetsu 0 yonde miru /
mimasu. (I will read Japanese novels (to see what they are like).)
Formation V te 1-J.. Q miru 5 '- -c J.J. Q hanashite miru (try to talk)
M = iCi 1t -c J.J. Q tabete miru (try to eat) Examples W t'- - -:J (j)
ff-:J-cJ.J.* o Om oshiro son a konsato datta node itte mimashita.
(Since it seemed interesting, I went to the concert (to see what it was
like).) (b) (j)JPIJJt':t \t\ L \t\-C:T.1: o ft -c 1-J.. * TtJ o Koko no sashimi
wa oishiidesu yo. Tabete mimasu ka. (Sashimi here is good. Will you
try it?) CD Miru is used as an auxiliary verb with V te meaning 'make
an attempt at doing s.t. to see what it is like or what will happen'.
[Related Expression] A similar expression, - yo to suru, means
simply 'try to do s.t.' When these two expressions are used in the
past tense, however, their meanings are not the same. For example,
[Ia] means that Mr. Brown did put on Tom's undershirt, whereas [Ib]
means that Mr. Brown tried to put it on, with the implication that he
couldn't or didn't actually do it.

miru / mol 247 [1] a. 77? N':t "A Q) .."C ht:: o Buraun-san wa Tomu
no shatsu 0 kite mita. (Mr. Brown tried Tom's undershirt on.) b. 77? N
,:t "A Q) .. .:; /:; l., t:: 0 Buraun-san wa Tomu no shatsu 0 kiva to
shita. (Mr. Brown tried to put Tom's undershirt on.) mol t> prt. a
particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceding ele-
ment X is also true when another similar proposition is true too; also;
(not) - either M = -- iii !i == - ==--..:: . Key Sentences (A) Subject fL t
!:E t!. / -C:T 0 Watashi mo gakusei da / desu. . (Lit. I, too, am a
student. (= I'm a student, too.» (B) Topic (subject) Direct Object fL ,:t
A -{ m t T / L * To Watashi wa supeingo mo hanasu / hanashimasu. .
(I speak Spanish, too.)

248 mol

(C)
Topic (subject) Indirect Object fL ,:t ft

Iv ,:. t 7°v-t!

"

ib

f Q / Watashi wa Murayama-san ni mo purezento 0 ageru / ib

f* To agemasu. . (I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.)

Formation

(i) N t mo

fL t (I, too / me (as direct object), too) watashi mo

( ii) N (Prt) t mo

' .M

!!! :
 ===-

a * Oc.) t (in / to Japan, too) Nihon (ni) mo 7 j !J tJ (-..) t (to America,

too) Amerika (e) mo (iii) N Prt t mo

:it

'Co t sensei ni mo

(to / for the teacher, too (indirect object»

7 7 :"--.A tJ

t? t (from France, too) Furansu kara mo

,{ =¥ !J.A -c: t (in England, too) Igirisu de mo ti:

c!: t (with my friend, too) tomodachi to mo

Examples

(a)

,-"

Iv':ta*-..ff-:Jt::..o /v-{ A
lvt (a*-..)ff-:Jt::.. o Hato-san wa Nihon e itta. Ruisu-san mo (Nihon e)
itta. (Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.)

mol 249

(b) **

Iv ,:t T'::' A

'- i: To (tgH:t)::f Iv 7 t l., i: To Hayashi-san wa tenisu 0 shimasu. (Kare

wa) gorufu mo shimasu. (Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf,
too.)

(c)

(/) IRT-c:,:t ffi '- '-I\f!J.tJ; R;l i: -tt Iv o

(/)IRT-Z; t (ffi '- '-I\f!J.tJ;) J(;l i: -tt Iv o Kono machi de wa atarashii

sakana ga kaemasen. Tonari no machi de mo (atarashii sakana ga)
kaemasen. (You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in
the next town, either.)

taD

1. In general t when the element X mo appears in a sentence, a

related sentence with the element Y (plus particle if necessary) in
place of X mo is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states
(1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed. ( 1 ) fL ,:t.::. .::z. - 3 -
-.. t ff -:J t.:. 0 Watashi wa Nyuyoku e mo itta. (I went to New York,
too.)

(2) fL':t

A"

-..ff -:J t::.. o Watashi wa Bosuton e itta. (I went to Boston.) Thus,

when X mo appears In a sentence, X mo is always the element
under focus in that sentence.

M = -- !!!

!!!

!!i

2. There are cases in which X mo is used, although it does not

exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For
example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a).

(3) a. fL(/)*':t.@'r

'tJ;-tti: '-1\0 Watashi no ie wa ima ga sernai. (The living room of my

house is small.)

b. -t: tL ,:. iH

rt
fJ! t.: 0 Sore ni daidokoro mo fubenda. (On top of that, the kitchen is
inconvenient, too.) In this case, the speaker implies that his house is
inconvenient when he says (3a), and this implication is the
presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the
inconvenience. 3. U X mo A da" cannot be used to mean ' X is also
At in the sense that

250 mol / m0 2

X is A as well as something else. "X mo A da U can be used only

when "Y wa I ga A da U is presupposed. Thus, (4) does not mean
(5). (In fact, (4) is nonsensical if it is stated by the same person.)

(4) fL':t

t.:o *fLt 96!:Et.: o Watashi wa isha da. *Watashi mo sensei da. (5) I
am a (medical) doctor. I am also a teacher. The idea that someone is
a doctor as well as a teacher is expressed as in (6). (6) fL'i

t.:o -t:'--c96!:E

ti).Qo Watashi wa isha da. Soshite sensei de mo BTU. (I am a

(medical) doctor and also a teacher.)

= II
mo 2 t> prt.

"'"''''

,,

a marker which indicates emphasis

'.

..

even; as many / much / long / ...as; (not) even (one); (not) any

. Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Noun

.v-

Iv
'i

Iv fJ. II l.,L\

*t

b?

/ Mtb?*-To Gure-san

wa konna muzukashii kanji mo yomeru / yomemasu. (Mr. Gray can

read even difficult kanji like this.) ,,"' !J A

Iv ,:t

Iv fJ.

l.,L\

*t

b? t

\t\ /

b? *- -tt Iv o Harisu-san wa konna yasashii kanji mo yomenai /

yomemasen. (Mr. Harris cannot read even easy kanji like this.)

mo 2 251

(B)
Topic (subject) Quantifier Predicate (affirmati ve) fL 'i

J\=f t 1-JJ-:J-c \t\Q / \t\*To Watashi wa kanji 0 hassen mo shitte iru /

imasu. (I know as many as eight thousand kanji.)

(C)

Topic (subject) One Counter Predicate (negative) fL 'i

- -:> t 1-JJ

\t \ / 1-JJ !J * -tt Iv 0 Watashi wa kanji 0 hito tsu mo shiranai /

shirimasen. . (I don't know even one kanji.)

(D)

Topic (subject) WH-word Predicate (negative) fL ,:t fPJ t ft

tJ
-:J t:.. / ft

* -tt N -c: L t::..o Watashi . wa nani mo tabenakatta /

tabemasendeshita. (I didn't eat anything.)

=1=

!!!

!!i =======

(E)

Topic (subject) V masu -r

- ,:t fL (j)

tLt

\t \ / '- * -tt N 0 Nanshi wa watashi no hanashi 0 kiki mo shinai /

shima sen. (Nancy doesn't even listen to me.)

Formatien
KS(A): See mol Formation. KS(B) : Quantifier t mo

Ji:+ t gojiJ mo sA t (as many as a hundred people) hyakunin mo

(as many as fifty)

252 m0 2

KS(C) : One Counter t mo

-A t «not) even one person) hitori mo

- --::>

«not) even one -)

hitotsu mo
KS(D) : WH-word t mo

fPJ t «not) anything) nanimo

t.:tL t «not) anybody) daremo

=== ' M = . -=-

KS(E): Vmasu t Lt

\r\ mo shinai

L t Lt

\r\ hanashi mo shinai

(don't even talk)

:tt-: t L t

\r\ tabe mo shinai

(don't even eat)

Examples

(a)

:9J'i-

!:EQ)t::.. L_ t '£

t,

tfi*t

\r\o Haruo wa ichinensei no tashizan mo matomoni dekinai. (Haruo

cannot do even the first-year addition correctly.)

(b)

a 'i.tJ

+# t7etLt::.. o Ky6 wa kuruma ga judai mo ureta. (As many as ten

cars sold today.)

(c) 7cQ)/

-7;( -'

'i::9:Q)-r'i-A t*t

tJ
-:Jt::..o Sono pati ni wa onna no ko wa hitori mo konakatta. (No (lit.
Not even one) girl came to the party.)

(d) t.: tL t 7c Q):::

?31 !) '£ it No Daremo sono koto 0 shirimasen. (Nobody knows

about it.)

m0 2 253

(e) fL'i*tt

IvtJ

< tLt::..*

*t.:

t '--c",t

",o Watashi wa Kimura-san ga kureta hon 0 mada mi mo shite inai. (I

haven't even seen the book Mr. Kimura gave me yet.)

..

1. Mo as an emphatic marker is an extended use of mol. (t:) mol)

The following examples show the transition of meaning from the
original idea , also' to the emphatic use ' even'.

(1) a.

. v-

Iv 'i

,;:jit '- "'

*t

.'5 0 Gure-san wa hijoni muzukashii kanji mo yomeru. (Lit. Mr. Gray

can read very difficult kanji, too. (= Mr. Gray can read even very
difficult kanji.» b. /"'

Ivfi

';:

L"'

*tMG

t
""o Harisu-san wa hij6ni yasashii kanji mo yomenai. (Lit. Mr. Harris
cannot read very easy kanji, either. (= Mr. Harris cannot read even
very easy kanji.» 2. Nanimo and daremo are used only in negative
sentences. Other WH- words with mo can be used in both affirmative
sentences and negative sentences.

=1=

:= i:

(2) "'--:)b itsumo )!

t (everywhere; anywhere) dokomo

(always; anytime)

)! t>

t (both; neither of the two -) do chira m0 )! ? t (somehow) domo Note

the following examples: (3) a. **tt'iL\-:>tA';:tJlWlt.: o Oki-kun wa
itsumo hito ni shinsetsuda. (Mr. Oki is always kind to people.) b.
IJ'\11Hi L \-:> t

t
"'0 Koyama wa itsumo yakusoku 0 mamoranai. (Koyama never
keeps his promise.) 3. V masu mo is always followed by a negative
form of suru 'do' as In KS(E) and Ex. (e).

254 mo me) t>? adv. , """- """-A.. ", "-"",,,,,,-,, S.o. or s.t. is no longer
in the same I I ! state that he or it was in some time ago. "-, (not) any
more; (not) any longer; already; yet; now [REL. mada] . Key
Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Predicate (affirmative) fL 'i b? !fi ft.,.:..
t=. / ft.,.:.. a; l., t=.o Watashi wa mo hirugohan 0 tabeta /
tabemashita. (I have already eaten my lunch.) (B) = M = ! ! -=- Topic
(subject) Predicate (negative) t: /v Iv 'i b? a*rn t!l l.,-c L \ f L \ / L \ a; it
Ai 0 Hiru-san wa mo nihongo 0 benkyoshite inai / imasen. (Mr. Hill is
not studying Japanese any longer.) , Examples (a) A: b? m& '- '£ '-
t::..tJ o Mo shukudai 0 shimashita ka. (Have you done your
homework yet (or already)?) B : 'i \, b? '- '£ L t::.. o Hai, mo
shimashita. (Yes, I've already done it.) (b) fL'i b ? jfj 7J. '£ it Iv o
Watashi wa mo sake 0 nomimasen. (I won't drink sake any more.)
(c) :9J tt'i b ? :* 1.: J: ? -c,;T 0 Haruo-kun wa mo daijobudesu. (Haruo
is all right now.)

mo / -mo -mo 255 em 1. Mo expresses the idea that someone or

something is not in the same state he or it was in some time ago.
Thus, mo corresponds to ' already' or 'now' in affirmative declarative
sentences, 'yet' or 'already' in affirm- ative interrogative sentences,
and '(not) any more' or '(not) any longer' in negative sentences. 2.
The opposite concept of mo is expressed by mada. (t:) mada) -mo -
mo - t> - t> str. ! I both - and -; neither - nor the repeated use of a
particle mean- t ing' also' to list elements belonging to the same part
of speech "'- - "' - - - !!!! !!!! iiiii . Key Sentences (A) Noun Noun m A, t
A, t T {- " ,;: JJJ "'( , / '*To Tanaka-san mo Nakayama-san mo depato
ni tsutomete iru I imasu. (Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are
working for a department store.) (B) Noun Prt Noun Prt Jj( 'i J'( A -c: t
. !Ii -c: t ft t / ft t * To Kyoto e wa basu de mo densha de mo ikeru /
ikemasu. (We can o to Kyoto either by bus or by electric train (lit. by
both bus and electric train).)
256 -mo -mo

(C)

Adj (I) ste

Adj (i) ste

=-(1) ?t> 'i

<t

<tt

\r \ / Kono uchi wa hird:.ku mo sema'iku mo nai / (b !) '£ it Iv o

arimasen. . (This house is neither big nor small.)

Fermatien

( i) N(Prt) t N(Prt) t (N(Prt) t)

mo

mo
mo

96!:E t

!:E t (both teachers and students) sensei mo gakusei mo (ii) Adj (i)
stem < b Adj (i) stem < t Neg ku mo ku mo

= "' = == -=-

===

"* t! < t IJ'

<tt

\r \ okiku mo chisaku mo nai

(s.t. is neither big nor small)

(iii) {Adj (na) stem / N}"'t: t de mo

{Adj (na) stem / N} "'t: t Neg de mo

fj!flJ -c,; t

fj!-c,; t t

\r \ benride mo fubende mo nai

(s.t. is neither convenient nor Incon- venient)

96!:E "'t: t

!:E -c,; t t

\r \ sensei de mo gakusei de mo nai

(s.o. is neither a teacher por a student)

Examples

(a) a *A t 7 j !J 11 A t J;. < 1111 < 0 Nihonjin mo amerikajin mo yoku

hataraku. (Both Japanese and Americans work hard.) (b) JlJ } I(

Iv 'i

t t::.. Ii =- t

!) '£ it Iv 0 Yamakawa-san wa sake mo tabako mo yarimasen. (Mr.

Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.)
(c) l¥H

t*

J\ 'J"'(

!) * '- t::.. o Ototo ni mo imoto ni mo hon 0 katte yarimashita. (I

bought books for both my younger brother and younger sister.)

-mo -mo / mono (da) 257 (d) fQtt'j: A -r: t A -r: t t,f. \ 0 Kazue wa bijin
demo fubijin demo nai. (Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.) (e) Q) ij!
'j: tL \ -r: t:sLim -r: t NJ '£ it Iv o Kono tatemono wa kireide mo
rippade mo arimasen. (This building is neither pretty nor
magnificent.) em 1. Noun mo Noun mo can be used as the subject
as in Ex. (a), as the direct object as in Ex. (b), as the indirect object
as in Ex. (c) or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is
used. (t:) mol) 2. Although Noun mo Noun mo can be an indefinitely
long noun phrase, normally Noun mo is not repeated more than
three or four times. 3. The predicate that corresponds to the Noun
mo Noun mo phrase can be affirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c) or
negative as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e). mono (da) 'b (1) (t::) n. = "' = - - -
- == :!!!::! ==:ii == ! The speaker presents some situation"l as if it
were a tangible object. "",,,-,,-r.! because; how could -!; used to;
should like to; should [REL. kara; no da] . Key Sentences (A) A: B:
?'-"'( fftJ t,f.\r\ Q)? t!. -:J "'(, it '- \r \ t Q)o Doshi te ikanai no? Datte,
isogashii mono. (How come you don't go there?) ('Cause I'm busy.)
(B) Vinf ct< NJ Iv t,f. 7'-" W*-l> tQ) t!. / -r:T ! Y oku anna otoko to deto
dekiTu mono da / desu f (How could you date that kind of guy!)

258 mono (da)

(C)

Vinf. past

'i ct<

OO

J! t:: tQ) t!. / "'C:' T 0 a Mukashi wa yoku eiga 0 mita mono da / desu.
(I used to see movies a lot.)

(D)

V masu .:. Iv t,f. \r' \r' ? t> ,:: -gr

1v"'C:' J! t::.. \r' tQ) t!. / -c,; -r 0 Konna /I uchi ni ichido sunde mi tai
mono da / desu. (I'd like to live in such a nice house.)

(E)

= "' =

-=-

===--==
Vinf. nonpast tm A ,::

-:J t::.. t:J r tHi ct ? .J

? tQ) t!. / -c,;-r 0 Asa hito ni a ttara II Ohayo " to iu mono da / desu.
(Y ou should say U Good morning" when you see people in the
morning.)

(F)

V masu

J&.'5

Q) .:.

gl., t::.. tJ

.'5 tQ) t!. / -c,; -r 0 a T osh; 0 toru to mukashi no koto 0 hanashl

tagaru mono da / desu. (When one gets old, he wants to talk about
his past.)

Fermation
( i) {Vinf / V masu tail t Q) t!.. mono da

u-r t Q) t!. (s.o. should talk) hanasu mono da

'- t:: t Q) t!. (s.o. used to talk) hanashita mono da

5 '- t::.. \r' t Q) t!. (s.o. would like to talk) hanashitai mono da

mono (da) 259

(ii) (Adj (i) / Adj (na») inf t Q) (t!.) mono (da) rf1i \r\ t Cf) ('Cause s.t. is
expensive) takai mono

tJ

-:Jt::.. tQ) ('Cause s.t. was expensive) takakatta mono

tJ

-:J t::.. t Cf) t!. (s.t. used to be expensive) takakatta mono da 1(fttJ

t!. t Q) ('Cause s.t. is quiet) shizukada mono r;tJ

t!. -:J t::.. t Cf) ('Cause s.t. was quiet) shizukadatta mono

1(ft tJ

t!. -:J t::.. t Q) t.!.. shizukadatta mono da

(s.t. used to be quiet)

Examples

(a) A:

oj L"'(1tr-:t

\r\Q)? Doshite tabenai no? (Why don't you eat it?) B : t!. -:J "'(, '£ -r \r
\ t Q) 0 Datte. mazui mono. ('Cause it doesn't taste good.) (b) A:

oj L",( -t: Q)*, Mf'£ t

\r\ Iv t!. \r\? Doshite sono hon. yomanai n dai? (Why don't you read
that book?) B : t!. -:J "'(, ct < 7ttJ

\r\ Iv t!. t Q) 0 Datte. yoku wakaranai n da mono. ('Cause I don't

understand it well.)

= 1 = - - - - -=-

(c) ct < -t: Ivt

'1.tJ
t

=.l:

Lt::.. t Q)t!.! Y oku sonna bakana koto 0 shita mono da! (How could
you do such a foolish thing!) (d) J) a Q):ll-? Q) 'i 1f! \r \ t Q) t!. 0 T
sukihi no tatsu no wa hayai mono da. (Lit. The passing of days and
months is so quick! (= How fast time flies I»

260 mono (da) (e) tr'i::: cry}IU;: t1!J.tJ

It't::.. t (/)t:. o Mukashi wa kono kawa ni mo sakana ga ita mono da.

(There used to be fish in this river, too.) (f) -lft

F-

';: 7-.::. A

'- t::.. It' t (/)""t:TtJ o Ichido zehi isshoni tenisu 0 shitai mono desu nee
(I'd like to play tennis with you once.) (g) A(/)* ,;: fj < n

'i jQ 7J.

'f

-:J "'( fj < t (/)""t: To Hito no ie ni iku toki wa o-miyage 0 motte iku
mono desu. (When you visit someone, you should take a gift with
you.) (h)

t
1t*

'-"'( It'.'5

,;: t

It' t (/) t:. o Sukina shigoto 0 shite iru to byoki ni naranai mono da.
(When you are doing work you love, you don't become ill.)

= "' = :!! -=- :!!

.. = =

em 1. Because the speaker presents a situation before mono (da) as

if it were a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing
degrees of emotion. KSs (A) through (F) represent emotive excuse,
exclamation, nostalgic reminiscence, desire, indirect command and
conviction, re- spectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed
here is not an instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a
current event but an emotion nurtured in one's mind for a relatively
long period time. 2. When mono indicates a reason or an excuse it is
used only in very informal speech. 3. Mono is contracted into mon in
very colloquial speech. 4. The usage of mono in KS(A) does not take
da / desu, unless it appears in a subordinate clause, as in (1). (1)

tJ

t
It' t Iv\:!

OO t

tLt

It' Iv t:. o Kane ga nai man de eiga mo mirarenai n da. (Because I

don't have money, I can't see even a movie, you know.) (Related
Expression] In KSs(A), (C), (D), (E) and (F) mono can be replaced
by no, but with a slightly different meaning. Mono sounds more
emotive than no, probably due to the semantic difference between
mono' a tangible object' and no ' a nomi- nalizer of a directly
perceptible state or action'. Thus, the mono (da) version is more
indirectly emotive, and is not necessarily geared to the current
moment, whereas the no (da) version is more directly emotive and is
geared to the current moment. Observe the following:

mono (da) / morau l 261 [1] t:" - )vtJ; 7J. t::.. \N / * t (1)-e,;T 0 Ima
biru ga nomitai n / *mono desu. (I'd like to drink beer now.) [2] T < \ '
ff < N / *t (1) T 0 Ima sugu ai ni iku n / *mono desu. (You should go
see him at once.) Note that mono in KS(A) can be replaced by kara,
but the latter is free from the emotive overtones which are attached
to mono. morau 1 t> ? v. (Gr. 1) ..../"-"'-..""-' "'"'-"" '" - The first person
or s.o. the speaker empathizes with receives s.t. from s.o. whose
status is not as high as the receiver's. get; receive; be gi ven [REL.
kUTeTu l (ageru l )] = 1 = == == == == !! "'-"-'" . Key Sentence Topic
(subject) Gi ver Direct Object (Receiver) (fL 'i) D-J* 1v ,:. * t t:J -:J t::..
/ t t:J ''1 L t::.. 0 (Watashi wa) Yamamoto-san ni hon 0 moratta /
moraimashita. (I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.) Examples (a) D-
J}II Iv 'itl* Iv' ?.{ A:\=- - t t:J -:J t::.. o Yamakawa-san wa Hashimoto-
san ni uisuki 0 moratta. (Mr. Yamakawa got whiskey from Mr.
Hashimoto.) (b) ( (b It t:: 'i) !J A Iv ' fiiJ t -:J t::.. (f) ? (Anata wa)
Morisu-san ni nani 0 moratta no? (What did you get from Mr.
Morris?)
262 morau l

em 1. Morau, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs,

means , get'. Unlike the English get, however, morau is used only
when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the
speaker em- pathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group).
Thus, (1) is unacceptable.

:== y = : z=- ,

=-=-===

( 1) * U-J *

Iv Ii fL ,:. m

-:J t::.. 0 *Yamamoto-san wa watashi ni sake 0 moratta. (Mr.

Yamamoto got sake from me.) The reason for this is as follows:
morau requires the receiver's point of view when describing an
event, and when an event involves the first person, the event is
normally described from the first person's point of view. Therefore, if
the first person is the giver in morau-sentences, a viewpoint conflict
arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (The situation seen in
(1) is usually described using ageru.) (t:) ageTu l ) 2. The humble
polite version of morau is itadaku. Example: (2) fL 'i 96!:E ,:. *

L \ t=. t=. L \ t=. 0 Watashi wa sensei ni hon 0 itadaita. (I was given a

book by my teacher.) 3. The giver can also be marked by the source
kara 'from' (i.e., karal). (
n/

(3) fL'iU-J*

Iv I:: / tJ\';*

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa Yamamoto-san ni / kaTa hon 0 moratta. (I got a

book from Mr. Yamamoto.) However, if the giver is not human, kara
is more appropriate than ni, as seen in (4). (4) fL'i f3 *

JfftJ\'; / ? ?I:: t3

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa Nihonseifu kaTa / ?? ni o-kane 0 moratta. (I

received some money from the Japanese government.) This seems
to be due to the fact that karal carries the idea of source, while ni
conveys the idea of direct contact. That is, unlike the situa- tion in
(3), the speaker in (4) does not have direct contact with the giver, the
Japanese government, when receiving money. Rather, the Japanese
government in (4) is merely the source of the money received. 4. In
declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often

morau 1 I morau 2 263

omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the

hearer, it is often omitted. (See KS and Ex. (b).)
morau 2 t> b ?

aux. v. (Gr. 1)

)"""""'-"-"-

"-"'

'" "''--''''',

The first person or s.o. the speaker

; empathizes with receives some bene- 5

fit from an action by someone whose 1 I status is not as high as the

receiver's. ;. ) ( -..

.../"../'v""'

""',",v'-

recel ve benefi t from an action by s.o.; have s.t. done by s.o.; have
s.o. do s.t. [REL. kUTeTu 2 (ageru 2 )]

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Giver Direct Object Vte (Recei ver) (fL 'i)

,:. iJJ.=j

A-:J-c b t;, -:J t::.. I (Watashi wa) chichi ni kamera 0 katte moratta I b
t;, "" i: L t::.. o moraimashita. (My father bought a camera for me.)

M=

i!!

!!i E !!! ===-

(B)

Topic (subject) Giver Vte (Receiver) (fL 'i) :.&

,:. *-c b t;, -:J t::.. I b t;, "" i: L t::.. o (Watashi wa) tomodachi - nl kite
moratta I moraimashita. (I had my friend come (for my benefit).)

Formation

V te b t;, ? morau

'- -c b

? hanashite morau
(have s.o. talk for my sake)

264 morau 2

it"'-c b

? tabete morau

(have s.o. eat for my sake)

Examples

(a) *f1

lv'i:kJf

Iv':..

it L -C b

-:J t::.. o Kimura-san wa Dno-san ni kuruma 0 kashite moratta. (Mr.

Kimura had Mr. Ono lend him his car.) (b) (

'i)

':I
1v':'fPJ

L -C b

""'! L t::.tJ

o (Kimi wa) Bekku-san ni nani 0 shite moraimashita ka. (Lit. What did
you have Mr. Beck do for you? (= What did Mr. Beck do for you?» (c)
.y 3

'.J

Iv'iffi*

Iv':. f3*m

;t -C b

-:J-C""Qo Jonson-san wa Suzuki-san ni nihongo 0 oshiete moratte

iru. (Mr. Johnson has Mr. Suzuki teaching him Japanese.)

=y=

! 5 =-

em 1. Morau is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte. The meaning of

Vte morau is ' receive some benefit from someone's action' or ' have
someone do something for s.o.'s sake'. Like sentences with morau
as a main verb, when the auxiliary verb morau is used, the recipient
of the favor (i.e., the person in the subject position) must be the first
person or some- one with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a
member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1a) is grammatical, but
(1b) is not. (1) a. fk l;t

Q) A

:.

it '- -C b

-:J t::.. 0 Watashi wa tonari no hito ni pen 0 kashite moratta. (Lit. I

had the man next to me lend me a pen. (= I borrowed a pen from the
man next to me.» b. *

Q)A'ifkl=

it '- -C b

-:J t::.. o *Tonari no hito wa watashi ni pen 0 kashite moratta. (Lit.

The man next to me had me lend him a pen. (= The man next to me
borrowed a pen from me.» Note that if the giver of the favor is the
first person, sentences with Vte morau are ungrammatical even if the
recipient of the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in
(2). (t:) mOTau l , Note 1) (2) *t(UifL':. 7.y;t

it '- -C b

-:J t::.. o *Ot6to wa watashi ni rajio 0 kashite moratta. (My younger

brother had me lend him a radio.)

morau 2 265
3. The humble polite version of morau as an auxiliary verb is itadaku.
Example:

(3) fL'i96!:E':.*

it L -c L \t= t::L \t=o Watashi wa sensei ni hon 0 kashite itadaita. (Lit. I

had my teacher lend me a book. ( = I borrowed a book from my
teacher.» 4. Unlike sentences with morau l , the giver cannot be
marked by kara In sentences with morau 2 .

5. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often

omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the
hearer, it is of- ten omitted. (KS(A) (B) and Ex. (b).)

- M - = =oK iiiii = ====

266 na na t;;. prt. ./'../"' /" /" ,..."...,-./"',. "./""...,.. '-"""' ""- a negative
imperative marker used by a male speaker in very informal speech
Don't do - '-/".- -"""',..... . Key Sentence Vinf. nonpast t::..fi I!&? t !
Tabako 0 suu na! (Don't smoke !) Formation Vinf. nonpast t.t, na t"
t.t, hanasu na (Don't talk!) it'" Q t.t, taberu na (Don't eat!) ' N = -
Examples (a) Mi OJ * !> ut ! Sake 0 amar; nomu na! (Don't drink too
much sake!) (b) Iv t.t,m':' b ? ff < t.t, ! Sonna tokoro ni mo iku na!
(Don't go to such a place any more!) (c) OJ Iv t .9J c!: 'i t" Q t.t, !
Anna otoko to wa kekkonsuru na!) (Don't marry that kind of man!) (d)
b? -:J --C*Q t ! Mo kaette kuru na! (Don't come home any more!) em
1. - na is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in
highly
na I nado 267 emotional situations. However, the addition of yo after
na serves to soften the force of the statement. (1) Mi OJ * Uf J:o
Sake 0 amari nomu na yo. (Don't drink too much sake, OK?) 2. A
female speaker normally does not use the na imperative. She uses
Vneg nai de, as in hanasanai de ' Don't talk.' or tabenai de ' Don't
eat.' (t:) ,.", kudasai, Note 3) nado fJ:. C prt. ..........""-"" ./'..../"' """"'"
./',......./''''''"...."......,...,...., ( a marker that indicates exempli fica- S l
tion ? """" """ "\...'-...... "" I and so on; and the like; for example; things
like [REL. nanka] . Key Sentence Noun Noun f3* (/) 1t (/) qt 1:' 'i Tl., -
r ,5t; t,t tJ Jf Nihon no tabemono no naka de wa sushi ya tenpuTa
nado ga suki- t!. I 1- 1:' T 0 da I sukidesu. (Among Japanese foods I
like things like sushi and tempura.) = = N = Examples (a) A: f*lj. 'i c.*
,;:ff * L J: ? tJ o Fuyuyasumi wa doko ni ikimasho ka. (Where shall
we go during the winter vacation?) B : /' 'J ..{ t,t c.* ? 1:'TtJ o Hawai
nado do desu ka. (How about Hawaii, for example?) (b) * 1:"'i 7 7 :A
ilt t:..{ t,t c.* %t L t.: o Daigaku de wa furansugo ya doitsugo nado 0
benkyoshita. (In college I studied French and German and the like.)

268 nado

(c) =. Q):k¥':, 'i qtOO

"OOt

E tJ

!:EtJ

:k

* * To K ono daigaku ni wa Chugoku ya Kankoku nado kara gakusei

ga 6zei kimasu. (A lot of students from China, Korea and so on come
to this college.) (d) A: tI
¥

J!f

t" Q 0 b !J

T tJ

o K eizaigaku 0 senk6suru tsumori desu ka. (Are you going to major

in economics?) B : "" ",,;t, tI

¥t

c!:

J!f

T Q 0 b !J 'i lb !J * -it Iv o ie, keizaigaku nado senk6suru tsumori wa

arimasen. (No, I have no intention of majoring in things like
economics.) (e) A: =. Q) ft

L -c < t.:

"" * -it Iv tJ\o Kono hon'yaku 0 shite kudasaimasen ka. (Could you
kindly translate this for me?) B : =.Iv t

ji L "" t Q), fLt

c!:

,:. 'i m* * -tt Iv o Konna muzukashii mono, watashi nado ni wa

dekimasen. (A person like me cannot translate such a difficult thing.)

em 1. A particle normally follows nado, as in: nado {wa / ga / (0) / (ni)

I kara / de I el yori I etc.} 'N I Particles other than ga, 0, and wa can
precede nado, but, depending on the context, this order gives the
sentence a more derogatory meaning. Examples: (1)

-c: f

C 1tr-:.

tL t

""0 Hashi de nado taberarenai. (We can't eat with damned

chopsticks.) (2)

c-c:1t'" Q A b "" Q 0 Hashi nado de taberu hito mo iru. (Some people

eat it with chopsticks (and the like).) 2. If the main predicate is
negated, as in Exs. (d) and (e), nado often conveys a sense of
humbleness especially when the subject is the speaker or a member
of his in-group. In other cases, it is generally derogatory.

(Related Expression] Nanka is the informal, colloquial version of

nado. It is used as nado is used except that in a context conveying
undesirability or contempt there is more emphasis on the derogatory
meaning.

nagara 269 nagara fJ:. '/J'( b conj. ",- ""-""",,-r,,,,. "'-"-"- "-"- a
conjunction which indicates that the action expressed by the
preceding ; verb takes place concurrentl y or si - > multaneously with
the action ex- ? in t n ,,- V while; over; with [REL. aida] . Key
Sentence Topic (subject) Secondary Action V masu EB 1v 'i \0b ffiflfJ
3j. t tJ Taguchi-san wa itsumo shin bun 0 yami nagara . Primary
Action iWJ !1i it'" Q / 1t'" * To asagohan 0 taberu / tabemasu. (Mr.
Taguchi always reads a newspaper while eating his breakfast.) V
masu t tJ rJ nagara = = N = i i Formatien ;1 '- t tJ t J (while talking /
talk while doing s.t.) hanashi nagara 1tr-.:: t tJ J (while eating / eat
while doing s.t.) tabe nagara Examples (a) tfi; t tJ 6* UQ) ilb t \-C:-
T.to Aruki nagara hon 0 yomu no wa abunaidesu yo. (It is dangerous
to read while walking.) (b) JlJ Ivfi \t tJ; fLQ) flfJ \-c \t::..o Yamaguchi-
san wa warai nagara watashi no hanashi 0 kiite ita. (Mr. Yamaguchi
was listening to me with a smile. (Lit. While smiling, Mr. Yamaguchi
was listening to my story.»

270 nagara

(c) fL'i

tJ

/J'f

uQ)tJ

t.: o Watashi wa ne nagara sh6setsu 0 yomu no ga sukida. (I like to

read novels in bed. (Lit. While in bed, I like to read novels.» (d) b Q)

1t

tJ
'- -c 'i "" ,t * -tt Iv o Mono 0 tabe nagara hanashite wa ikemasen.
(Don't talk with food in your mouth. (Lit. You must not talk while
eating things.» (e) *f1"

'i

.t

1tJJ

tJ

f5c':.ff -:J -c "" Q 0 Kimura-kun wa kaisha de hataraki nagara gakko

ni itte iru. (Mr. I{imura works for a company while going to school.)

N=i

em 1. V masu nagara expresses an action that occurs concurrently

or simul- taneously with another action. The action expressed by V
masu nagara is always secondary to the action expressed in the
main clause. Thus, in (1), B is acceptable as a response to A, but C
is not. (1) A:

J: -:J !:
tJ

'- t::.. "', Iv

1" tJ

o Chotto hanashi ga shitai n desu ga. (I'd like to have a little talk with
you.) B: 1:

, :1 -

lj. fllJ< ;

'- * '- J: ? 0 Ja, k6hi 0 nomi nagaTa hanashimasho. (Then, let's talk
over a cup of coffee.) C : * 1:

'- fllJ< ; :1 -

lj. * '- J: ? 0 *Ja, hanashi nagaTa k6hi 0 nomimash6. (Then, let's

drink a cup of coffee while talking.) Note that in English, U while -
ing" is not always the secondary action. 2. V masu nagara cannot be
used when the subjects of the two actions are di fferent, as in (2). (2)
* Iv- A j. - " tJ

.A T v::t
fi8

tJ

fL'i

%t '- t::.. o *Rumumeto ga sutereo 0 kiki nagara watashi wa

benky6shita. (I studied while my roommate was listening to the
stereo set.) (In this case, aida is used. (t:) aida»

- nai de 271 -nai de - L '--c' phr. a negative te-form of a verb ./'./'J J )

do not do s.t. and; without do- Ing - [REL. nakute; zu ni] . Key
Sentence Adverbial Clause Topic (subject) Vneg T - 'i Q)? 1NJ =:!&
f( t.t. "', 1:' ¥ .-.. ff -:J t::.. / N anshi wa kino asagohan 0 tabe nai de
gakko e itta / ff * Lt::.. o ikimashita. (Nancy went to school yesterday
without eating her breakfast.) Formation' V neg t.t. "" -r: nai de t.t. ""
1:' (without talking) hanasanai de it" t.t. "" 1:' (without eating) tabenai
de N = i I Exa m pies (a) a:ftEB lv'i* ':.fftJ t.t.""1:'Jj(tlH:.ff-:J t::.. o
Nakada-san wa Osaka ni ikanai de Kyoto ni itta. (Mr. Nakada didn't
go to Osaka; he went to Kyoto.) (b) . bt.t.""1:'MfIv1:' < t!. ""0 Jisho 0
tsukawanai de yon de kudasai. (Please read it without using a
dictionary.) ( c ) * t!. t.t. "" 1:' < t!. "" 0 Mada kaeranai de kudasai.
(Please don't go home yet.) (d) . L t.t. "" -r: L ""0 Denwashinai de
hoshii. (Lit. I want you not to call me. ( = Don't call me.»

272 -nai de

(e)

tJ
L < Lt

\"t* t

\t::..

\o Yakamashiku shinai de moraitai. (Lit. I want you not to make

noises. (= Don't make any noise.»

(f)

t.:cbQtJ

A:bt

\"t*to

Lt::.. o Mada aru kara kawanai de okimashita. (Because I still have it,
I didn't buy it (in advance).)

mD 1. If a nai de clause expresses something one is expected to do,

as in KS where there is the expectation that Nancy should eat
breakfast, the trans- lation is 'without - ing', but if not, it is 'do not do -
and -', as in Ex. (a). 2. - nai de is often used to combine two
sentences as in KS and Exs. (a) and (b) but can also be used with
kudasai 'please do s.t.', as in Ex. (c), hoshii ' want', as in Ex. (d),
morau 'receive a favor', as in Ex. (e), and te oku 'do s.t. in advance',
as in Ex. (f). 3. - nai de is used only with verbs. It cannot be used
with adjectives. 4. In cases where no auxiliaries such as kudasai,
hoshii, morau and te oku are used, nai de implies that the speaker is
emphasizing negation, because somehow the proposition expressed
in the nai de clause is contrary to his expectation.

==N=

[Related Expressions] I. - nai de can be replaced by - zu ni, if de of

nai de somehow retains the original meaning of ' and', as in KS, Exs.
(a), (b) and (f). Thus, the sen- tences in [1] are all grammatical, but
those in [2] are all ungrammatical: [1] a. T

- 'i

q) ?

.:."!!i a:1t

"f I::

BC-..ff -:J t::.. o Nanshi wa kino asagohan 0 tabezu ni gakko e itta.

(Cp. KS) b.

fB

Iv 'i*

':.fftJ
"f I:: Ji(t(H:.ff -:J t::.. o Nakada-san wa Osaka ni ikazu ni Kyoto ni itta.
(Cp. Ex. (a» c.

. a:

:b"f I:: MCIv "t* < t.:

\o Jisho 0 tsukawazu ni yonde kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (b» d.

t.: cb Q tJ

A :b"f I:: to

L t::.. 0 Mada aru kara kawazu ni okimashita. (Cp. Ex. (f» [2] a. *

t.:

"fl:: < t.:

\o *Mada kaerazu ni kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (c»

- nai de 273

b. *m

-tt"f f::
L

\o *Denwasezu ni hoshii. (Cp. Ex. (d» The only difference between

nai de and zu ni is that of style: zu ni is used in formal speech or
written Japanese. The formation is exactly the same as nai de,
namely, Vinf. neg zu ni. However, the zu ni form for suru-verbs is not
shi zu ni, but se zu ni, as in benky6sezu ni ' without studying' . II. -nai
de can be replaced by nakute only when the nai de clause indicates
some cause for human emotion which is expressed in the main
clause. Otherwise, the nakute version is unacceptable, as in [5]. [3]

'i

mt.J

-tttlL\

/ ???"ff:: / tl < -cJK;-rtJ

LtJ

-:Jt::..o Boku wa eigo ga hanasenai de / ?? ?zu ni / nakute

hazukashi- katta. (I felt ashamed because I couldn 9 t speak
English.) [4] A -.y - tJ;JHVq:.*tl L \

/ ?? ?"ff:: / tl < -c JJJJtJ

-:J t::.. o StJji ga asobi ni konai de / ?? ?zu ni / nakute tasukatta. (I

felt relieved, because Susie didn't come see me.) [5] a. -

'imT

JBttJ;tlL\
/ "ff:: / *tl < -ctmm':'A-:J t::.. o Ichiro wa boshi 0 nuganai de / zu ni
/*nakute heya ni haitta. (Ichiro entered the room without taking off his
hat.) b.

tl L \

/ *"ff:: / *tl < -c < t!.

\o Minai de / * zu ni / *nakute kudasai. (Please don 9 t look at it.) c .

1t '" tl L \

/ "f f:: / * tl < -c:l'd

\ t::.. 0 Tabenai de / zu ni / *nakute oita. (I left it uneaten.) It is also

noted that the idea of' X is not Y but Z 9 is expressed by nakute
rather than nai de, as in [6]. [6] fL'i

!:E

'itl < -c / *tlL\

96!:E

To Watashi wa gakusei de wa nakute / *nai de sensei desu. (I am not

a student but a teacher.)

==N=

274 - nakereba naranai -nakereba naranai - ljtLlt b L\ i "'-"'- "' "'-"''''

/"-./"\./'\.../''- "'''' I It won't do if s.o. does not take some < action or if
s.o. or s. t. is not in some S state. ( ./'-. "'''-'''-''J'. '-''''- . Key Sentences
(A) phr. have to; must; need [REL. -nai to ikenai; -nake- reba ikenai; -
nakute wa ikenai; -nakute wa naranai; -neba naranai] (ANT. -nai de
mo ii; -nakute mo ii; -te wa ikenai; -te wa naranai) A: .!;fI 'i fj/j tJ t,t < "
( t \ \ Iv "(*T tJ o Kyo wa hatarakanakute mo /I n desu ka. (Don't you
have to work today?) INi ======= B: Vinf.neg \ \;tt ifJ tJ\ t,t ,t h ,i t,t!J
it Iv o ie, hataTaka nakereba narimasen. (Yes, I have to work.) (B)
Topic (subject) Adj (i) stem /{ .A -7 ":I ,, -)V (/) 'i * < t,t ,t h''! t,t t,t \ /
Basukettoboru no senshu wa oki ku nakereba naranai / t,t !J -tt Iv o
narimasen. (Basketball players have to be big.)

- nakereba naranai 275

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem

.tii

'i DtJ\

t.t ,t h'i t.t

t.t

\ / t.t !J

-tt Ivo Toshokan E wa shizuka de nakereba naranai / narimasen.

(Libraries have to be quiet.)

(D)

Topic Noun =.(/) ft* 'i

!t:

t.t ,t h,i t.t

t.t

\ / t.t !J

-tt Ivo Kono shigoto

wa gakusei de nakereba naranai / narimasen. (Lit. Speaking of this

job, it has to be students. ( = Only students can apply for this job.»

Formatien

( i) Vneg t.t ,t h'i t.t

t.t

\ nakereba naranai

t.t ,t h'i t.t

t.t

\ hanasa nakereba naranai it'" t.t ,t h'i t.t

ti

\ tabenakereba naranai (ii) Adj (i) stem < t.t ,t h,i t.t

t.t

\ ku nakereba naranai
(s.o. has to talk)

(5.0. has to eat)

NE==

!;< < t.t ,t

1-'i t.t C'J t.t

\. (s.t. has to be inexpensive) yasu kunakereba naranai (iii) {Adj (na)

stem / N}

t.t ,t

t'i t.t

t.t

\ de nakereba naranai ,r;l.p

t.t'th'! t.t

t.t

\ (s.t. has to be quiet) shizukadenakereba naranai %1:

,t

t'i t.t
t.t

\ (s.o. has to be a teacher) sensei de nakereba naranai

Examples

(a) fL'i cb L t::..

JL

':'

t.t ,t h'it.t !J

-tt Ivo Watashi wa ashita asa goji ni okinakereba narimasen. (I have

to get up at five tomorrow morning.)

276 - nakereba naranai

(b) cb q)tml

Ui t ?

<t

Jt h'i't

!J
-tt Ivo Ano heya wa mo sukoshi hirokunakereba narimasen. (That
room has to be a bit larger.) (c)

q)tt*

T Q t::.."th ,:. 'i

mtJ

l:

Jt h'i t

'? t

\o Kono shigoto 0 suru tame ni wa eigo ga jozu de nakereba naranai.

(To do this job, your English has to be good.) (d)

q):f)v7m

? t::.."th':"ij

Jth'it

'?t
\o Kono gorufujo 0 tsukau tame ni wa menba de nakereba naranai.
(To use this golf course, you have to be a member.)

BID

=N=

1. V neg nakereba naranai expresses the idea of obligation. The

contracted forms Vneg nakerya naranai and Vneg nakya(a) naranai
are also used in conversation. Sometimes, naranai is omitted if the
context is clear. Example: (1) t?

'? t

Jt h'i /

'? t

Jt !J

'? t

(cb)o Mo kaeranakereba / kaeranakerya / kearanakya(a). (I have to

go home now.) 2. Negative obligation, i.e., "do not have to" cannot
be expressed by the negative form of this pattern. It is expressed by
- nakutemo ii ' It is all right if - doesn't do s.t.' (t:)",., te mo ii)
[Related Expression] In addition to - nakereba naranai / ikenai there
are at least four other ex- pressions of obligation. They are as
follows: [1] a .

< -c I

.; t

L \ / L \ It t

L \ 0 Hanasanakute wa naTanai / ikenai. b.

L \ t; L \ It t

L\/*t

.; t

L \ 0 Hanasanai to ikenai / *naTanai.

c.

iJ'it
.;t

L\ / *L\ltt

L\o Hanasaneba naTanai / *ikenai. [lc] is the written version of -

nakereba naranai. [la], [lb] and hanasa nakereba naranai / ikenai
carry essentially the same meaning. Nakute wa is often contracted
into - nakucha, - nakucha, - nakutcha, and - nakutcha.

- naku naru 277 - naku naru - f;j. < t:I. Q phr. I t has reached the
point where some state or action does not take place any more. not -
any more [REL. yoni naru; mo - naIl ( . Key Sentence Vinf. neg L \ * t
.It t < t -:J t::.. / t L t::.. 0 Yasashii kanji mo kake naku natta /
narimashita. (I cannot even write easy kanji any more.) Formation ( i)
Vinf.neg t < t Q naku naru where V is often a potential verb { / -tt} t <
t Q {hanasa / hanase} naku naru (s.o. doesn't / can't talk any more)
{ft / 1t h} tet. < t Q {tabe / taberare} naku naru (s.o. doesn't / can't eat
any more) = N = =z = - - - - =z = - - - - - - - - - - - - ( ii) Adj (i) stem < t
< tet. Q ku naku naru rf6 < t < t Q takaku naku naru (s.t. isntt
expensive any more) (iii) {Adj (na) stem / N} { 'i / l: } t < t Q {de wa /
ja} naku naru {r;tJ 'i / r;tJ l: } t < t Q (s.t. isntt quiet any more)
{shizukade wa / shizukaja} naku naru {;'G!:E 'i / %!:E l: } t < t 0 (s.o.
isn't a teacher any more) {sensei de wa / sensei ja} naku naru Exa m
pies (a) wHimi ct < Iv \t::..tJ t ;: q)tJHi t < t Lt::.. o Mae wa sake 0
yoku nonde ita ga. konogoro wa nomanaku narimashita. (I used to
drink sake a lot, but now I dontt drink any more.)

=N=

ii

278 - naku naru

(b)

'i WI J: < iI

tJ

Jt "( *

L t.: tJ

, t? tJ

Jt "( *t

<t

!J

L t::.. o Kare wa mae yoku denwa 0 kakete kimashita ga, mo kakete

konaku nari- mashita. (He used to call me frequently, but he doesn't
call me any more.) (c) t3 *

lHi t ? it L < tet. < tet. !J

L t.: o Nihongo wa mo muzukashikunaku narimashita. <J apanese

isntt difficult for me any more.)

(d)

q)

1S
t!Hrf

tJ

*"(

f!

'itet. < tet. -:J t.: o Kono kogai mo chikatetsu ga kite fubende wa naku
natta. (This suburban area is no longer inconvenient because there
is a subway now (lit. the subway has reached here).) (e)

-:J c!: *

l!l ,,(

!:E

'i tet. < t

!J

L t::.. o Yatto daigaku 0 dete gakusei de wa naku narimashita. (I

finally graduated from college and am not a student any longer.)

(Related Expressions] Compare naku naru, Vinf.neg yoni naru and

mo -nai In the following sentences:

[1] t3 *

HtJ
5-ttt

<t

"':) t::. o Nihongo ga hanasenaku natta. (I cannot speak Japanese

any more.) [2] t3 *

HtJ

5-ttt

L \ J: ? I:. t

"':) t::. o Nihongo ga hanasenai yani natta. (rve reached the point
where I cantt speak Japanese.) [3] t3*alftJ

=& ?

-ttt

L\o Nihongo ga ma hanasenai. (I cannot speak Japanese any more.)

[1] and [2] focus on both process and result, but [3] focuses only on
result. Thus, [1] and [2] can take time expressions indicating the
period of change, such as ichinen no uchi ni ' within a year', kytJni'
suddenly', toto 'finally', but [3] cannot. [1] is different from [2] in that
the latter focuses on an in- direct, circumstantial cause for the
change, whereas the former focuses on a more direct one. Thus, [1]
implies that the speaker cannot speak Japanese any more because
he has simply forgotten Japanese but [2] implies that he cannot
speak Japanese because the situation is such that there are no
native speakers around to speak with. (t:) yani naTu)
- nakute 279 - nakute - f;j: < --C phr. '- a te-form of the negative nai,
which j indica es a cause / reason for a state or action .... "'- do not
do s.t. and -; is not - and - ; because - do not do s.t. [REL. nai de; nai
kara; nai node; nakute mo] . Key Sentence Sentence (cause)
Sentence (effect) Vinf. neg -t ,:. ;n t < "( tI: ,:. ht::.. / tLi: Lt::.. o Asa
shichiji ni okiT8Te nakute kaisha ni okureta /okuremashita. (I couldn't
get up at seven and was late for work (at my company).) Formation
(i) Vinf.neg t < "( naku te where V is often a potential verb { 5 / !-tt}
tet. < "( {hanasa / hanase} nakute {:tt / 1t h} tet. < "( {tabe / taberare}
nakute ( ii) Adj (i) stem < tet. < "( ku nakute (s.o. doesntt / can't talk
and -) (s.o. doesn't / cantt eat and -) N = =z = - = = = = rf6 < tet. < "(
takaku naku te (s.t. isn't expensive and -) (iii) {Adj (na) stem / N} { 'j: /
l: } tet. < "( {de wa / ja} nakute {r;tJ (t / f;n\ l: ) t < "( (s.t. isn't quiet and
-) {shizukade wa / shizukaja} nakute {;'G!:E (t / %1: l: ;)} tet. < "( (s.o.
isn't a teacher and -) {sensei de wa / sensei ja} nakute Examples (a)
96!:Eq) JyJ tJ tJ\ t < "( m i: L t::.. o Sensei no setsumei ga
wakaranakute komarimashita. (I didn't understand the teacher's
explanation and had a difficult time.)

280 - naku te

(b) t3 *

'i t3 *

lftJ

-tt t,t < "( 1J

L t::.. o Nihon de wa nihongo ga hanasenakute zannendeshita. (Ies

regrettable that I couldn't speak Japanese in Japan.) (c)
'iil L < t,t < "( J: tJ

-:J t::..

TiJo Shiken wa muzukashiku nakute yokattadesu nee (Lit. The exam

wasn't difficult and it was good, wasn't it? (= Arentt you glad that the
exam wasn't difficult i»

(d) *tJ

l:

l:

t,t < "(JHl-rtJ

\Iv

T 0 J i ga jozuja nakute hazukashii n desu. (My handwriting is so

poor that I feel ashamed.) (e)

VL

\;t!:E l:

t,t < "( J: tJ

-:J t::.. o Kibishii sensei ja nakute yokatta. (Lit. He wasn't a strict

teacher and it was good. (= rm glad that he wasntt a strict teacher.»

'N=
 i;

[Related Expressions] I. Nakute mo means '(even) if - not -' [1]

IJ'JIUiilJ!tJ

\tJ

f1l%i Lt

< -c=&JR*':'Ah.'5 J: o Ogawa wa atama ga ii kara benkyoshinakute

mo Todai ni haireru yo. (Ogawa is bright, so he can enter Tokyo
University even if he doesn't study.) [2] ;: q)Jft L

*'ijtx.t

< -c=&

TtJ

? Kono muzukashii kanji wa oboenakute mo iidesu ka? (Is it all right

if I don't memorize this difficult kanji?) I I. The cause and effect
relation indicated by nakute is much weaker and more indirectly
presented than that of nai kara or nai node. Thus, KS can be
rewritten in four versions, including nai de, as shown in [3].
[3]

-t;

,:.

ht

< -c / t

L\

/t

tJ\ ':) t:. tJ\ i:;, / t

tJ\ ':) t:. 0)

U: ':.Jl!

'L

L t::.. o Asa shichiji ni okirarenakute / nai de / nakatta kaTa / nakatta

node kaisha ni okuremashita. The most direct presentation of the
cause-effect relation is nakatta kara, and the presentation becomes
more indirect in the following order: na- katta node, nai de, and
nakute. For an excuse for one's lateness the least direct one is of
course preferred, because the more indirect, the politer the
expression. (t:) kaTa; node; -te)
nara 281 nara f;j. b conj. ""V'-...... "' a conjunction which indicates
that the preceding sentence IS the speaker's supposition about the
truth of a present or past fact or the actu- alization of something in
the future if it is true that; if it is the case that; if; would; could [REL.
taTa (ba, t0 4 )] . Key Sentence Sentence I Sent ence 2 t EB tJ * Q (
q)) t t:J 'i fftJ t \ / ff -tt Ivo Matsuda ga kuru (no) nara boku wa ikanai /
ikimasen. (If it is true that Matsuda will come, I won't go.) Formation (
i) {V / Adj (i)} inf (q)) t t:J (no) nara {gIST / glS L- t:::.} (q)) t "J (if it is
true that s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} (no) nara { \ /iNitJ
-:Jt::..} (q)) t t:J (if it is true that s.t. is twas expensive) iHI {takai /
takakatta} (no) nara ( ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0 / t!. -:J t::.. (q))} tet. rJ
{o / datta (no)} nara {r;tJ / trfttJ t!.-:Jt::. (q))} t t:J (if it is true that s.t. is
/ was quiet) {shizuka / shizukadatta (no») nara {9G!:E / 96!:E t!. -:J
t::.. (q))} t t:J {sensei / sensei datta (no)} nara (if it is true that s.o. is /
was a teacher) Examples (a) j} ::f -..ff < q) t t:J r .A -c:ff t \o Shikago e
iku no nara basu de ikinasai. (If you go to Chicago, go by bus.) (b) t
EB tJ * t::.. q) t t:J fj: Q 0 Sugita ga kita no nara boku wa kaeru. (If
Sugita has come, rll go home.)

Hi

282 nara

(c) -t:- N t,t

:. rflj \t' C1) t,t t:J

;t

it No S onna ni takai no nara kaemasen. (If it is that expensive, I

can't buy it.)
(d)

fB

NtJ

9.f

t,t t:J-=FkiJ;

.\t't::.. t:J E ? -C:TtJ

o Yamada-san ga suki nara tegami 0 kaitara do desu ka. (If you like
Mr. Yamada, why don't you write a letter to him?) (e)

fljt!:E t,t t:J -t:- C1) =-

1dJ -:J -C \t' Q -c: '- J: ? 0 Takahashi-sensei nara sono koto 0 shitte
iru desho. (Lit. If it is Prof. Takahashi, he probably knows about it. (=
Prof. Takahashi would probably know about it.»

CD

1. Basical1y, S nara expresses the speaker's supposition concerning

the truth of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in
the future. 2. Nara is the simplified form of naraba, the conditional
form of the copula da. (t:) ba) In modern Japanese, however, ba is
usually omitted. 3. Since nara is the simplified conditional form of the
copula, it requires a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the
preceding element is not a noun, it is nominalized by no (t:) no 3 ),
although this no is optional in modern Japanese. (The stems of na-
type adjectives behave like nouns; therefore, they can precede nara
without being nominalized. See For- mation (ii).) 4. When SI is
nonpast, SI nara S2 cannot be used if it is nonsensical to suppose
the truth of SI. Thus, the sentences in (1) - (3) are all un- acceptable.
(1) is unacceptable because it never fails to become ten o'clock; (2)
is unacceptable because one can never tell whether it is true or not
that it will rain tomorrow; (3) is unacceptable because the speaker
already knows it is true that he wants to go.

(1) *+

,:. t,t Q fJ.; /

A tJ

*Q 'if-C:T 0 *Juji ni naru naTa basu ga kuru hazu desu. (Lit. The bus
is expected to come if it is true that it becomes ten o'clock.) (2) * cb '-
t::..fijtJ

Q fJ.;

it'i t,t \t'-C: '- J: ? 0 *Ashita ame ga furu naTa shiai wa nai desho. (If it
is true that it will rain tomorrow, there will probably be no game.)

nara 283

(3) *

tJ

fT

t::.. \1\ f
;, fn-=f t fT

t::. tJ

-:J -c \1\ Q 'i f-c: To *Boku ga ikitai naTa, Kazuko mo ikita gatte iru
hazu desu. (If it is true that I want to go, I expect that Kazuko also
wants to go. ) As seen above, SI nara S2 cannot be used (A) if SI
never fails to happen, (B) if one can never tell if it is true or not that
SI will happen, or (C) if the speaker already knows SI is the fact. If SI
is counterfactual, SI nara S2 can be used. For example, (4) is
acceptable because SI expresses the speaker's counterfactual
feeling. Note that in this case the nominalizer no is preferred.

(4) m t.J

fT

t::.. \1\ 0) f

; t! tL ,:. t

b -r ,:. -A -c:fT < J: 0 Boku ga ikitai no naTa dare ni mo iwazu ni hitori

de iku yo. (If it were the case that I wanted to go, I would go by
myself without telling anybody.) 5. SI nara S2 cannot be used if the
completion or actualization of SI brings about 8 2 . (5) *

-=f C1) 7 /{ - "

fT < / fT -:J t::.. f

;-R

t.J

\1\ t::.. o *Haruko no apato e iku / itta naTa Ichiro ga ita. (When I
went to Haruko's apartment, Ichiro was there.) (6) * T - 7° v ::I - ?i''' -
A? / Jf. -:J t::. f

; T - 7°

< tL t::.. 0 *Tepurek6da 0 kau / katta naTa tepu 0 kureta. (When I

bought a tape-recorder, they gave me a tape.) If S2 does not
express a past event or a present habitual event, but ex- presses a
present state, the speaker's opinion, volition, judgment, command,
request or suggestion, SI nara can be used as in (7). (7) a. :::';:2.-3-

fT< (O))f

;!J

j]-

?i'-tJ

:t3t '-0\1\ -C:T J: 0 (Opinion) Nyuy6ku e iku (no) naTa Rinkan Senta
ga omoshiroidesu yo. (If you go to New York, Lincoln Center is
interesting.) b. :::. ;:2. - 3 -

fT < (0)) f

; !J

j] -

·
?i'-

fT

To (V olition) Nyuy6ku e iku (no) naTa Rinkan Senta e ikimasu. (If I

go to New York, I will go to Lincoln Center.) c. T - 7° v ::I - ?i'. -

? / A -:J t::.. f

; T - 7°

< tL Q 'i -r -c: T 0 (J udgment) Tepurek6da 0 kau / katta naTa tepu 0

kureru hazu desu.

Ni

284 nara / - nasai (If you buy / have bought a tape-recorder, they
should give you a tape.) 6. When S2 in SI nara S2 is past, SI must
be a past event or state. For example, in (8), SI represents a past
event, and SI nara indicates that the speaker supposes the truth of
SI. (8) mt.J -:J t::.. (0)) fj. ; -g.'j:tcttJ -:J t::..'j:f-C:To Ame ga futta (no)
naTa shiai wa nakatta hazu desu. (If it is true that it rained, there
should have been no game.) (8) can also be used in a counterfactual
situation where it means ' If it were true that it rained, there should
have been no game.' In this case the nominalizer no is preferred. 7.
No nara often becomes n nara in conversation. -nasai - t, aux. v. N ,
/- , -...../""-..""-""""\.."-""- "--"'...' -.../ S a polite imperative used by
superiors such as parents or teachers to their inferiors (= people of
younger age I and of lower rank) , ""'/'....""'"'""-"-""-" "- Do s.t. [REL. -
kudasai] . Key Sentence V masu t-:J t::.. < Iv tct \1'0 Motto takusan
tabe nasai. (Eat more.) Formation V masu tct \I' nasai i5l., tct \I'
(Talk.) hanashinasai

- nasai 285

1t

t,t

\I' tabenasai

(Eat.)

Exa m pies

(a) jQf'-f't,t \I'

%l '- t,t

\1'0 Asobanaide benky6shinasai. (Don't play. Study.) (b) !f! < ?

,:.

-:J -c *t,t
\I' J: 0 Hayaku uchi ni kaette kinasai yo. (Come home early, OK?) (c)
t? :td

\I'tJ

ti

M\I'-c

t,t

\1'0 M6 osoi kara ha 0 migaite nenasai. (It's late now, so brush your
teeth and go to bed.)

&!D 1. -nasai is the imperative form of the verb nasaru ' do' (polite
honorific). 2. - nasai is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives. (t:)
Appendix 1, Basic Conjugations) (1) a. fvCJ.}.t,t

\1\0 (a polite imperative) Y ominasai. (Read it.) b. foefh! (a nonpolite

imperative) Yome! (Read it!) (2) a. :tt

t,t

\1'0 (a polite imperative) Tabenasai. (Eat it.) b. 1t

6! (a nonpolite imperative) Tabero! (Eat it!)

=N=iI

[Related Expression] In contrast to nasai, kudasai is used by an

inferior towards his superior when he asks a favor of the latter.
[1] ;t!:E, :)C

ft

-C < t=

L' / *ft

L'o Sensei, bunp6 0 oshiete kudasai / *oshienasai. (Professor,

please teach me grammar.)

286 ne ne tJ prt. r-; ; ;;; ;;I; h;;i;di l 5 the speaker's request for
confirmation ! ! or agreement from the hearer about some shared
knowledge '"'-"-"'/ ( English tag question (such as isn't it?; is it?; don't
you?; do you?); you know . Key Sentence Sentence #i* 1v 'i t:. 'I =-
bt,t\t\ / \t\ -ttlv tJ. o Sakamoto-san wa tabako 0 suwanai / suimasen
nee (Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, does he? / Mr. Sakamoto, you
don't smoke, do you?) Examples == N = i (a) A: J3 'i \t\ \t\:X T tJ. o
Ky6 wa ii tenki desu ne. (Today is a fine day, isn't it?) B : * ,:. ? TtJ.o
Hont6 ni s6 desu nee (Isn't it!) (b) cb t,t t::.. 'i !:E T tJ. 0 Anata wa
gakusei desu nee (You are a student, aren't you?) (c) /{-=j-.{ -f:.\t\ -:J
'- \t\ TtJ.? Pati ni irasshaimasu ne? (You are going to the party, aren't
you?) em 1. In this construction the sentence preceding ne can be
any informal or formal sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus,
(1) a. * no *Yome nee (Read it, will you?) b. .7j. t,t \t\no Yominasai
nee (Read it, will you?)

ne 287
c. MfN

< t.:

\t'no Y onde kudasai ne. (Please read it, will you?) 2. Ne can be
used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from the
addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker's strong
impression of something, ne indicates the speaker's request for
agreement from the hearer, as in Ex. (a). When a sentence
expresses something emotively neutral, ne indicates the speaker's
request for confirmation from the hearer, as in KS and Exs. (b) and
(c). Here, however, KS can also be a request for agreement, if the
speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke. These two
uses of ne have different intonations: the ne of agreement uses
falling intonation and the ne of confirmation uses rising intonation.
The ne of agreement becomes ne if the speaker is excited about the
content of his statement. In other words, S ne is an exclamatory
sentence, as in (2). (2) A::td t L 0 \t'

nm

l., t::..n;i ! Omoshiroi eiga deshita nil (It was such an interesting film,
wasn't it!) B :

L t:. n;i ! So deshita nil (Wasn't it!) On the other hand, the ne of
confirmation has no exclamatory overtones; it implies something like'
I am assuming X but can you confirm it?' Thus, in KS the speaker
doesn't like people who smoke, and for some reason or other, he
wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of those people. 3. Ne
is sometimes used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the
hearer's attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has
understood what has been said up to that point. Ne is typically used
in this manner in telephone conversations.
- N - !!!! E

(3) t Lt L,

n, mJM

tJ

fmQtJ

n, +-

IJH:.t.tQ .1:0 Moshi moshi, konban ne, Ginza de nonde kara kaeru
kara ne, juichijihan goro ni naru yo. (Lit. Hello, tonight, OK? I go
home after drinking in Ginza, you understand?, so I'll be home
around 11: 30. ( = Hello, tonight I'll go to the Ginza to drink, so I'll be
home around 11: 30.»

288 ne
4. (- te / kara) ne is specifically used to give a reason or a cause for
the speaker's state of mind or feelings in a very indirect and vague
fashion. Examples follow: (4) a. cb q)jt!:E'i

-C t

a '- < -c /

a l., v\fJ'; no Ano sensei wa totemo kibishikute / kibishii kSTS nee

«It's because) that teacher is very strict, you know?) b.

P?

,qi

7J.-r

-C /

7J.-r

t::..fJ' ;no Yube wa nomisugite / nomisugita kSTS nee «It's because)

1 drank too much last night, you know?) Ne here indicates the
speaker's request for agreement from the hearer based on shared
knowledge. 5. The ne of confirmation or agreement is used after
another sentence- final particle yo of assertion. Yo ne means ' 1
assert that - but don't you agree? / am I right?'. This ne is
pronounced with rising intonation (5) a.

mtJ

7ttJ

Q J:no Eigo ga wakaru yo nee (Lit. 1 assert that you understand

English but am 1 right? ( = You understand English, don't you?»

=N=
 i

b. cb q)jt!:E'i v\ v\jt!:E

-r J:no Ano sensei wa ii sensei desu yo ne. (That teacher is a good

teacher. Don't you think so?) 6. The ne of confirmation or agreement
is used after another sentence- 'final particle, the question marker
ka. Ka ne means ' 1 am not sure if -, am I right? '. The ne of ka ne is
pronounced with falling intonation.

(6) a.

'i»:*'

AtL

-rfJ'no Yamashita-kun wa Ky6dai ni hairemasuks nee (Lit. I'm not

sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto University, but am 1
right? (= I'm not sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto
University. What do you say?» b. cb q)jt!:E 'i v\ v\jt!:E

-rfJ'no Ano sensei wa ii sensei desu ks nee (I doubt that he is a good

teacher.)

nil 289 nil, prt. "' "-"'-"-"- } a particle that indicates a point of > time at
which s.t. takes place at. in. on , , [REL. de 4 ] . Key Sentence Topic
(subject) Noun (time) fL 'i W) .L. * ,:. Q / To /, . Watashi . maiasa TO
kujih an ni okiru /okimasu. wa . (I get up at six thirty every morning.)
Examples (a) fL'i 1m JJ - J3 ':.!:E '* tL '* L t::.. o Watashi wa shigatsu
tsuitachi ni umaremashita. (I was born on April 1st.) (b) W)'i3i ':'? t:J
l:fj Lt::.. o Kesa wa gojihan ni uchi 0 demashita. (This morning 1 left
home at five thirty.) (c) * q)J[o:.) m1*fT TQ0 t !J To Rainen no natsu
(ni) gaikokuryok6 0 suru tsumori desu. (I intend to make a trip
abroad next summer.) (d) TgttJ ,:.fT -:J -C \1\ Q r ' ,:.-=¥kiJ; .\1\ t::.. o
Kodomo ga gakk6 ni itte iru aidao ni tegami 0 kaita. (I wrote a letter
while my children were away at school.) (e) fB q:t 'i* ,:. \1\ Q 0:.) q) Iv
l:fj -:J t::.. o Tanaka wa daigaku ni iru toki (ni) ima no okusan to
deatta. (Tanaka met his present wife when he was in college.) - N =
&!D 1. There are a number of time expressions that cannot take ni;
the typical ones are asa ' morning', ashita C tomorrow t, kin6 '
yesterday t, ky6 ' today', ototoi 'the day before yesterday', rainen
'next year', saikin 'lately t, etc. Generally speaking, if a time
expression can be specified uniquely in terms of digits, the adverb
can take ni; otherwise, it cannot. Getsuy6bi , Monday' is the 'first' day
of the week, so it can take ni. So can

=N=

290 nil

kurisumasu ' Christmas', because it is December 25. But ky6 'today'

cannot take ni, because 'today t cannot be uniquely specified by
date. 2. Ni is optional with certain time nouns, such as natsu
'summer' (as in Ex. (c» and toki ' time t (as in Ex. (e». The version
with ni stresses the point of time more than the version without ni
does. 3. The time noun aid a also takes ni if the event in the main
clause does not continue for the entire duration of the event in the
aida clause, as seen in Ex. (d). I f the event in the main clause
covers the same duration as the event in the aida clause, ni cannot
be used. (t:) aida (ni» (1) T

tJ
':.fT -:J -C \1\ Q ra,-=¥ki1;

if\l\ -C \1\ t::.. o Kodomo ga gakk6 ni itte iru aida tegami 0 kaite ita. (I
was writing letters while my children were away at school.) 4. When
a specific time expression takes goro 'about' as in (2), ni may drop.
(2) .l;W)3i

*1:}1 0:.)

'- t::.. o Kesa gojihan gOTO (ni) okimashita. (I got up at about five
thirty.) 5. Ni as a particle for a point of time can be used freely with
various time expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression
that can be uniquely specified in terms of digits. (t:) Note 1) (3) a. -

3i7tf= ichiji gofun ni (at 1: 05) b. =:JJ 1m J3 f= sangatsu yokka ni (on

March 4) c. JJ PI J3 f= getsuy6bi ni (on Monday) d. =fiL13/\+Im

f= sen-kyuhyaku-hachijuyo(n)nen ni (in 1984) e. = +-iitkC f=

nijuisseiki ni (in the 21st century)

nil / ni 2 291

6. Ni is optional with the names of the four seasons. Thus,

(4)

(f=)
'-

To Haru (ni) kekkonshimasu. (I'm getting married in the Spring.)

ni 2 I

prt.

-...

....,..

'-"

,,-"'... """-""""-

( > an indirect object marker > ( "

"-"-"""-"

to; for

. Key Sentence
Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object fL 'i -a ,:. -=¥kiJ;

.1:< _< /.

To Watashi wa haha ni tegami 0 yoku kaku / kakimasu. (I often write

letters to my mother.)

=N=

-i

Examples

(a)

'i

'

Gt

< tLt::.. o Chichi wa boku ni tokei 0 kureta. (My father gave me a

watch.) (b) 1JQKi jt!:E 'i 7 j !J :b A q) ¥!:E ,:. f3 *X¥

;t -C \I \
0 Kata-sensei wa amerikajin no gakusei ni nihonbungaku 0 oshiete
iru. (Prof. Kato is teaching Japanese literature to American
students.)

(c) fL'i

'::td

'-

!J

L t::.. o Watashi wa imato ni o-kane 0 sukoshi yarimashita. (I gave a

little money to my younger sister.) (d)

Iv ,:. m

i5 '-

'- t::.. tJ

\1\ '* it Iv

'- t::.. o Imai-san ni denwashimashita ga imasendeshita. (I called Mr.

Imai, but he wasn't there.) (e) *Jlljt!:E'i¥!:E'

t5k t.t

,J!-ttt::.. o Okawa-sensei wa gakusei ni iroirona jisho 0 miseta. (Prof.

Okawa showed various dictionaries to his students.)
292 ni 2 / ni 3

Notes

1. In this construction, as seen In KS, the verb is typically transitive

and is related to an action that involves something that can be
transferred from one person to another J such as ageru ' gi ve "
hanasu ' talk', kureru , give', miseru ' show', nageru' throw', oshieru '
teach' and yaru ' give'. 2. Any transitive verb used in the Vte ageru or
Vte kureru construction can take ni, if the verb does not take a
human direct object. For example, yomu ' read', which does not take
a human object, can take nl"2, if used in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru
construction, as shown in (1), but homeru , praise', which takes a
human object, cannot take ni, as shown in (2).

= = N = = ==a

(1) IJ'\

\fP.ji3

Iv 'if!':: J: < *
Iv

< tLt::.. o Chisai toki o-ka-san wa watashi ni yoku hon 0 yonde

kureta. (When I was small, my mother often read me books.) (2)
96!:E 'if!

/ * I:: '1

-c < t.:

\ * '- t::.. o Sensei wa watashi 0 / *ni homete kudasaimashita. (My

teacher praised me.) An intransitive verb can never take ni even if it
is used In the V te ageru or V te kureru construction. Thus, (3) .y 3

'i j 7 !J - (]) / *,:: .r

-7 1" - ,:.*-c N.>

:ft::..o Jon wa Meari no / *ni pat; ni kite ageta. (J ohn came to Mary's
party (for her sake).)

(t:) ageTu 2 ; kUTeTu 2 )

ni 3 r:. prt.

"'

"-""".."""'",
a particle that indicates an agent or a source in passive, causative,
morau / te morau and other receiving con- structions J

"V"-'

by; from [REL. karal)

ni 3 293

. Key Sentences (A)

Sentence (passive) Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Verb

(passive) -

'i 1.ii! . ,.:

tLt::.. /

tL* Lt::.. o Kazuo

wa tomodschi

ni tegami

0 yomsreta / yomsremashita. - (Kazuo's friend read his (= Kazuo's)

letter (and Kazuo was unhappy).)
(B)

Sentence (causative) Topic Agent Direct Object Verb (causative)

(subject) fJ\ -1-

'i : !:f:. ,:.

IJi. :

fF

-ttt::.. / fF

-tt* Lt

o IC - '- : Akiko

wa HiTOshn nl gohan

0 tsukUTsseta / tsukUTssemashita. (Akiko made Hiroshi fix a meal.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Vte fA

Lt :x: ,.: !ff

A?-c b G -:J t::.. / b t J \t \ * L t::.. o Watashi

wa chichi
ni kuru ma

0 kstte moratta / moraimashita. (Lit. I had my car bought by my

father. (= My father bought me a car.» .

=N=--------

(D)

Topic (subject) Source .y;r.-

'i 1lJ1f ;t

,.: !:E It:ffi

f1-:J t::.. / f1 \t\ * L t::.. o Jen wa y smsno -sensei

ni ikebana

0 naratta / naraimashita. (J ane took lessons in flower arranging from

Mrs. Yamano.)

Examples

(a) -tq)T'j:jO
Iv,.:ptGtL* Lt::.. o Sono ko wa o-ka-san ni shikararemashita. (The
child was scolded by its mother.)

294 ni 3

(b) A:.:c (7) *

-1 'i t.= tL ,;: b G -:J t::..1v -r: T tJ

o Sono nekutai wa dare ni moratta n desu ka. (Lit. From whom did
you receive that tie? (= Who gave you that tie? »

B:

,;: b t J \t \ * L t.: 0 Chichi ni moraimashita. (Lit. I received it from my

father. (= My father did.» (c) -m 'i 7 }

j] A '

tt;t -C b t J -:J t.: 0 Boku wa amerikajin ni eigo 0 oshiete moratta. (I

had an American teach me English.)

(d) JL'ifA'
JL

'b

fi

-tt * L t::.. o Ani wa watashi ni gojikan mo untensasemashita. (My

older brother made me drive for as long as five hours.)

(e) A: sEE

/vtJ

L t::..7c ? ""C:T.t o Yoshida-san ga kekkonshita s6desu yo. (I heard

that Mr. Yoshida got married.)

B : "C? -r: T tJ

o t.= tL,

fI8

* L t::.. tJ

o S6 desu ka. Dare ni kikimashita ka. (Is that right? Who told you
so?) !NI em

1. Ni 3 is typically used in passive, causative, morau / te morau

constructions and with verbs such as kariru 'borrow', kiku 'hear',
morau 'receive', narau ' learn " osowaru ' learn' which require a noun
phrase represent- ing the source of the direct object. (t:) TSTeTU;
ssseTU; mOT SUi ; mOTsu 2 )

2. Nouns that take ni 3 as in KSs (A), (B) and (C) all represent
agents of the main verb's action. Thus, KSs (A), (B) and (C) include
(1), (2) and (3), respectively as part of their meaning.

(1) Q:fft tJ

:=f.

Iv t.= 0 Tomodachi ga tegami 0 yonda. (His friend read a letter.)

(2) r* tJ

.::* !OC

{'f -:J t::.. 0 Hiroshi ga gohan 0 tsukutta. (Hiroshi fixed a meal.)

ni3 / ni 4 295

(3)

tJ;*
J\ -:J t::.. o Chichi ga kuruma 0 katta. (My father bought a car.) 3. Ni
3 of source as in KS (D), Exs. (b) and (e) can be replaced by karal,
but ni 3 of agent, as in KSs (A), (B), (C), Exs. (a), (c) and (d), cannot.

(Related Expression] The difference between ni 3 (of source) and

karal is that the former indicates the speaker's psychological
closeness to a human source, whereas the latter doesn't. This
difference explains why ni 3 is ungrammatical if the source is an
impersonal institution to which the speaker can hardly feel close, as
shown in [1]. [1] e JV

1v'j:)Cfi6

fJ\; / *f::

\* Lt=.o Hiru-san wa monbusho kSTS / *ni sh6gakukin 0

moraimashita. (Mr. Hill has received a scholarship from the Ministry
of Education.)

ni 4 I:.

prt.

-N-
=

a particle that indicates the surface of s.t. upon which some action
di- rectly takes place

on; onto [REL. del; e (made, nP); ni 6 )

. Key Sentence

Subject Direct Object Verb (action) -1-

tJ

fj£ ,:.

ftli

\ t::.. / ftli

* L t::.. 0 Kodomo ga ksmi nl e 0 kaita / kakimashi ta. . . . (A child has

drawn a picture on the paper.)

Exampl

s
(a)

OJ t

t::.. (7) 1. fjiJ

fi:m

=-

, -c < t!.

'o Koko ni anata no namae to jilsho 0 kaite kudasai. (Please write

your name and address here.)

296 ni 4

(b) A..!1::1 7' ?1 - tJ

UJ (7) J: ,;: to !J i: '- t::.. o Herikoputa ga yama no ue ni orimashita.

(A helicoptor landed on the top of the mountain.) (c) ;t-.r

-'j:.I"

jl-';:tJ

ft-C < t!.

\t'o Dba wa hanga ni kakete kudasai. (Please hang your overcoat on
the hanger.) (d) .:t Iv t

m,

:lz: -:J -C \t' -'5 !: m: t

\t' "'(* T J: 0 Sonna tokoro ni tatte iru to abunaidesu yo. (It's

dangerous to keep standing in such a place.)

(Related Expressions] I. Ni 4 should not be confused with del, a

particle that indicates a location in which some action takes place.
(t:) del) Consider the difference in meaning between [la] and [lb]: [1]
a. mf=

Wi\t't::..o Michi ni e 0 kaita. (I drew a picture on the street.)

=N=

b. m-c:

Wi\t't::..o Michi de e 0 kaita. (I drew a picture in the street.) 1 I. Ni 4

should not be confused with nl"6, a particle that indicates the
location where someone or something exists. (t:) ni 6 ) Examples:
[2] a. -t(7)

'j:*

f=N.>-'5o Sono tera wa Kyoto ni aru. (That temple is in Kyoto.) b.

fA'j:filt

f=\t't::..o Watashi wa heya ni ita. (I was in the room.)

ni 5 297

ni S r: prt.

a particle which indicates purpose

when s.o. moves from one place to I another

to do s.t.; in order to do s.t. [REL. tame ni)

. Key Sentence

Topic V masu Verb (motion) (subject) fA ,j: T /

- " '"
!J

At,\ ,;: fi -:J t::.. / fi

'£ '- t=. 0 Watashi

wa depato e okurimono 0 kai ni itta / ikimashita. (I went to a

department store to buy a gift.)

Fermation

V masu ,.: ni

8 '- ,.: hanashi ni

(to talk)

1t

,;: tabe nl

(to eat)

---=N=
E

Examples

(a)

!:EtJ

'

L ,;:*t::.. o Gakusei ga shitsumon 0 shi ni kita. (A student came to ask

questions.)

(b) :t;:"'fPJ

L,;:fi( Iv-r:TtJ

o Soko e nani 0 shi ni iku n desu ka. (Lit. To do what are you going
there? (= For what are you gOing there? )) (c) tt#

1v'j:

;:*!OC

1t

,;:?
"'

-:Jt::..o Murai-san wa hirugohan 0 tabe ni uchi e kaetta. (Mr. Murai

went home to eat his lunch.)

em 1. V masu ni, meaning' to do s.t.', can be used only with verbs of

motion, (i.e., verbs which express a movement from one place to
another), such

298 ni 5

as iku ' go " kuru' come', kaeru ' return', hairu ' enter' and deru '
leave'. Verbs like aruku ' walk', hashiru ' run' and oyogu 'swim' are
not con- sidered motion verbs because they express a manner of
movement rather than a movement from one place to another.
Therefore, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

(1) *fL'j:t

(7)-m

fiJ
\t::..o *Watashi wa sakura no hana 0 mi ni koen 0 aruita. (I walked
through the park to see cherry blossoms.) 2. If the verb in V masu ni
is a compound verb of the structure N suru, such as shigotosuru '
work', benkyosuru ' study' and shitsumonsuru ' ask a question', suru
is sometimes omitted.

(2) a. *UJ

Iv'itt*(L),

fj-:Jt::..o Oyama-san wa shigoto(shi) ni itta. (Mr. Oyama went to

work.) b.

!:EtJ

' (L) ,

*t::..o Gakusei ga shitsumon(shi) ni kita. (A student came to ask

questions.)

N=Ii

(Related Expression] Vinf. nonpast tame ni is also used to express

purpose in an action. However, the uses of Vinf.nonpast tame ni and
Vmasu ni differ in some ways. First, unlike V masu ni, Vinf. nonpast
tame ni can be used with any verb. Ex- amples :
[1] fL'j:-1-

(7)

tio t=

f:' j} j 7

J\ -:J t::.. o Watashi wa kodomo no shashin 0 toru tame ni kamera 0

katta. (I bought a camera to take pictures of my child.) [2] fL';! 7 j !1 j}
A(7)Q:ji

tTt=

f:.

t!l%i L -C

\ 0 0 Watashi wa amerikajin no tomodachi to hanasu tame ni eigo 0

benkyoshite iru. (I'm studying English in order to speak with my
American friend.) Second, when Vmasu ni and Vinf.nonpast tame ni
are used with verbs of motion,. V masu ni can be used without a
directional phrase, but Vinf. nonpast tame ni cannot, unless that
information is clear from the context. Examples:

[3] m'j:

Jj. f:.fj -:J t::.. o Boku wa sake 0 nomi ni itta. (I went (somewhere) to
drink.)
ni 5 / ni 6 299

[4] a.

'j:

ut= cY) f::

ii(7)*'

ff -:J t::.. o Boku wa sake 0 nomu tame ni tomodachi no ie ni itta. (I

went to his friend's house to drink.) b. *m'j:

ut= cY) f::ff -:J t::.. o *Boku wa sake 0 nomu tame ni itta. (I went to
drink.) Third, when Vinf.nonpast tame ni and Vmasu ni are used with
verbs of motion, Vinf.nonpast tame ni usually expresses a rather
important purpose, while V masu ni can be used even to express
something insignificant. Ex- amples: [5] a.

*Jj!f

::r - e -

Jj. f::ff -:J t::.. o Kissaten e k6hi 0 nomi ni itta. (I went to a coffee shop
to drink coffee.) b. ? ?

Jj!f
::r - e -

ut=cY) f::ff-:J t::.. o ??Kissaten e k6hi 0 nomu tame ni itta. (I went to

a coffee shop to drink coffee.)

N=

ni 6 I:. prt.

../""'\..;I""\./"

/""'\../"'.J"""'/"J"Vv"""'./'../"- ,..""..-"...

.-../"...- ! a particle which indicates the loca-

tion where s.o. or s.t. exists < (

""""'./'/"'./''''./''/'''.J'''''

v
in. at. O n , ,

[REL. del; ni 4 )

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Noun (location) Verb (existence) e Iv

Iv 'i

:; :I './ ') './

Iv (]) 7/'( - f-. ,.: \t'o / \t'*To Hiru-san wa ima Jonson-san no apato ni
iru / imasu. (Mr. Hill is at Mr. Johnson's apartment now.)

300 ni 6

(B)

Topic (location) Subject Verb (existence) fk (]) ? "5 A

,=. 'i

mA q)

!:E tJ
,

'*To Wstsshi no kUTSSU

ni wa chugokujin no gakusei ga iru / imasu. (There is a Chinese

student in my class.)

Examples

(a) .:c q)*'i

q)¥:

q)

=i=

'

!J * To S ona hon wa kono gakko no toshokan ni arimasu. (That book

is in this school's library.) (b) ::. q)$f5c ,=. 'i 7° - Iv tJ

\t'o K ono gakko ni wa puru ga nai. (There is no swimming pool at

this school.)

'N=
 !

(c) nQjjJ

Iv'i*

li':.ttlv

\t' "* To Kato-san wa Osaka ni sunde imasu. (Mr. Kato lives in

Osaka.) (d) M'

q)*tJ

:lz: -:J -C \t' 0 0 Niwa ni sakura no ki ga tatte iru. (There is a cherry

tree standing in the yard.) (e) ::. q)lf)c'=' ,:t)C

q) * t:> tJ

, tJ

t::.. <

Iv J! G

'1 Q 0 Kono sakubun ni wa bunpo no machigai ga takusan mirareru.

(Lit. A lot of grammatical mistakes can be seen in this composition. (
= There are a lot of grammatical mistakes in this composition.» (f)
:mTtJ

Jj.q) Q q)
'

J1£ -:J -C \t' Q 0 Hanako ga Minoru no tona". ni suwatte iru. (Hanako

is sitting next to Minoru.)

em 1. Ni 6 indicates the location where someone or something

exists. Verbs such as iru '(animate things) exist', aru '(inanimate
things) exist' and sumu ' live' typically occur with the locational ni. (t:)
STU I ; iTU I ) 2. The verb aru often takes the particle ni, but when
aru is used for an event, ni cannot be used. In this case, de is used.
(t:) STU I ; del) 3. Noun phrases with ni often occur as topics, as in
KS(B) and Ex. (b).

ni 6 301

4. If a location phrase which indicates the existence of someone or

some- thing modifies a noun phrase, as in 'an apartment in New
York', ni cannot be used. In this case, no is used. (t:) nol) (1) '::'.:L - 3
-

(]) / *,:: 7 /

- " Nyuyoku no / *ni apato (an apartment in New York)

(Related Expressions] I. Del also indicates location, but not a

location where someone / something exists. Thus, in the following
sentences de is ungrammatical.

[1] a. fL(7)?
,:: / *1:'i7 v e

tJ

\t\o Watashi no uchi ni / *de wa terebi ga nai. (There is no TV set in

my house.) b. A

Iv 'i

':: / *1: \t\ 0 0 Sumisu-san wa ima kaigishitsu ni / *de iru. (Mr. Smith is
in the conference room now.) On the other hand, ni is used only to
indicate the location where someone / something exists, but not an
event; therefore, in the following sentences, ni is ungrammatical.

[2] a. fL'i \t\".) b

.tif1: / *'::

5i Too Watashi wa itsumo toshokan de / *ni benkyosuru. (I always

study at the library.) b. .:: (7) 7 J;- ':I "'i a *1: / *,:: 'i JL7J fIJ <' G \t \ t!.
0 Kono raketto wa Nihon de /*ni wa goman' en gurai da. (This racket
costs about 50,000 yen in Japan.) c. 7c (7) /

-7 .{ - 'i " A (7)*1: / *,::

-:J t.: o Sono pat; wa Tomu no ie de / *ni atta. (The party was held at
Tom's.) II. In some sentences, both the locational ni and the
locational de can be used. For example, in [3] both ni and de are
appropriate. [3] fL'i

W':: / 1: \t\ \t\*

J!".) It t.: o Watashi wa Kyoto ni / de ii ie 0 mitsuketa. (I found a good
house in Kyoto.) However, the nuances of a sentence with ni and
that with de are dif- ferent. Namely, the sentence with ni implies that"
I found a good house

== N = ==a = - -

== - - - - - - - - - - - -

302 ni 6 / nj7

which is in Kyoto ", while the one with de means" In Kyoto I found a
good house". Therefore, in [4] the ni version and the de version
mean di fferent things.

[4] fL'iJR)j(f= / "'C:tt*

J!

t t::.. o Watashi wa T6ky6 ni / de shigoto 0 mitsuketa. (I found a job in

Tokyo.) Namely, in the sentence with ni, the job is in Tokyo and the
place the speaker found it might not have been Tokyo. On the other
hand, the sentence with de means that the place the speaker found
the job was Tokyo and the place where he is going to work is not
necessarily Tokyo.

nP r:. prt.
>

a particle which indicates a place .:

toward which s.o. or s.t. moves

to; toward [REL. e]

. Key Sentence

N=Ii

Topic (subject) Noun (place) fL 'i

(7)? it:,l75:,1

A::J ,:. ff -:J t::.. / ff

'* '- t.: o Watashi

wa kin 6 SsnfuTsnshisuko ni itta / ikimashita. (I went to San

Francisco yesterday.)

Exa m pies

(a) .y A 'i*
7 j. !J j} ':'

o Jimu wa rainen Amerika ni kaeru. (Jim is going back to America

next year.) (b) \,\

tJ

fL(7) ? 't? 1:'* '* -tt Iv tJ

o Itsuka watashi no uchi ni kimasen ka. (Wouldn't you like to come to

my house sometime?) (c) t!i

'i 1lJ (7) v A " '7

':'A -:J t::.. o Karera wa kado no resutoran ni haitta. (They entered

the restaurant around the corner.)

ni1 303

*Semantic Derivations of Ni

< Direct Contact> ni 4

t& r=

fIB v \ t
o Kokuban ni e 0 kaita. (I drew a picture on the blackboard.) <
Locational existence> n,"6 l-! =. =. r=tI

iJ;UJ

o r ni < contact >

Koko ni denwa ga aru. (Here is a telephone.) < Direction> ni1 --+ fL'i
p

r-:

r=ff -:J t::.. o Watashi wa Rondon ni itta. (I went to London.) <

Purpose> ni 5 4 1J!fi

R v\ r=ff -:J t:. o Boku wa sakana 0 kai ni itta. (I went to buy fish.) <
Indirect Object> nt'- -+ :t

'i:tETr=*

it '- t::.. o Taro wa Hanako ni hon 0 kashita. (Taro lent a book to

Hanako.) < Source / Agent> n,"3 -+

:tfij 7!J -r=mrf

-:Jt::.. o Bobu wa Mear; ni kippu 0 moratta. (Bob received a ticket

from Mary.) < Point of time> nil -+ =

r=

]iiJ;*t::..o Niji ni tomodachi ga kita. (A friend of mine came at 2

o'clock.)
-N=

= mi ==

304 ni chigainai ni chigainai r: -; fJ'(L ' L , phr. -" r/'\""""'/'.

/"../"'"",,",/""v"" "" /""\../'".... The speaker is convinced that there > i is
no mistake on his part in guessing 5 something. ,, ""' ./ /" there is no
doubt that -; must be -; no doubt [REL. dar6; hazu; kamoshi- renai] .
Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Vinf r fE Iv 'i f3 (J) =.c nt= ,:. i?iJ
v\t v\ / Shimoda-san wa ky6 no koto 0 wasuTeta ni chigainai / i?iJ
v\&;!) *-ttlv o chigaiarimasen. (Mr. Shimoda must have forgotten
today's plans (lit. about things of today).) (B) = N = i Topic (subject)
Adj (i) inf &;(J) 96!:E (J) 'i JlL.L' ,:. i?iJ v\t v\ / i?iJ v\&;!) *-ttlv o Ano
sensei no shiken wa muzukashii ni chigainai / chigaiarimasen. (That
teacher's exams must be hard.) (C) Topic Adj (na) (experiencer)
stem "-{!J- Iv 'i ::;- :::.. A tJ J:.¥- ,:. i?tJ v\t v\ / i?iJ v\&;!) *-ttlv o Beiri-
san wa tenisu E ga j6zu ni chigainai / chigaiarimasen. (Mr. Bailey
must be good at tennis.) (D) Topic (subject) Noun &;(J) A 'i 8*,A. ,:. i?
iJ v\t v\ / i?iJ v\&;!) *-ttlv o Ano hito wa nihonjin ni chigainai /
chigaiarimasen. (That person must be Japanese.)

ni chigainai 305

Fermatien

KSs (A) and (B): {Vinf / Adj(/)} inf ,:.

tJ

v\ t
v\ ni chigainai {

T/

IS '- t::..} ,=-

tJ

v\ t

v\ {hanasu / hanashita} ni chigainai

(s.o. will no doubt talk / s.o. no doubt talked)

{1t-:

/1t.-:t

} ,:.

iJ

v\t

v\ {taberu / tabeta} ni chigainai {rf1i v \ / rfJJ tJ

-:J t::..} ,:.

iJ

V\t

V \ {takai / takakatta} ni chigainai

(s.o. will no doubt eat / s.o. no doubt ate) (s.t. is / was no doubt
expensive)

KSs (C) and (D): {Adj (na) stem / N} {0 / t=. -:J t

} ,:.

iJ

v\ t

v\ {o / da tta } ni chigai nai {"tJ

/ "tJ

t.: -:J t::..} ,:.

tJ

v\ t

v\ (s.t. is / was no doubt quiet) {shizuka / shizukadatta} ni chigalnai

{96!:E /:%!:E t.: -:J t::..} ,:.

tJ

v\ t

v\ (s.o. is / was no doubt a teacher) {sensei / sensei da tta} ni

chigainai

(a) =A'i4-

'" TJ..{
'- <

v\

v\

,:.

iJ

v\t

v\o Futari wa imagoro Hawai de tanoshiku oyoide iru ni chigainai.

(The two must now be enjoying swimming in Hawaii.) (b) -A

OO"'ff< (7)'i*

':'

iJ

v\t

v\o Hitor; de gaikoku e iku no wa taihen ni chigainai. (It must be hard

to go to a foreign country alone.) (c) UJ 1=1

lv'ijJitJ

v\v\':'

iJ

v\t
v\o Yamaguchi-san wa atama ga ii ni chigainai. (Mr. Yamaguchi must
be bright.) (d) UJtL'i"

7 '/

Iv ,:.

tJ

v\ t

v\o Are wa Tonpuson-san ni chigainai. (That must be Mr.

Thompson.)

ij - -

Examples

306 ni chigainai

aD

The sentence-equivalent that precedes ni chigainai can be

nominalized by no in written Japanese, yielding more credibility to
the speaker's assertion. Examples: (t:) no 3 ) (1) a. a*(7)t!iR'iJ: < t
-:Jt

(1.H:.

tJ

v\t

v\o Nihon no keizai wa yoku natta no ni chigainai. (The Japanese

economy must have really improved.) b. *

R ? (7) 'i &; * !) Jim '- < t

v\(1.H:. i? tJ

v\ t

v\o Ie 0 kau no wa amari muzukashikunai no ni chigainai. (Buying a

house is no doubt not so difficult.)

(Related Expressions] I. There are cases where ni chigainai can

sometimes be replaced by hazu da. In such cases, however, the
former is always a conjecture and the latter is the speaker's
expectation based on objective facts. (t:) hazu) II. The degree of
probability implied by daro, kamoshirenai, and ni chigai- nai is as
follows:

Least probable

Most probable
= N = = -- = --

kamoshirenai

dar6

ni chigai nai

-nikui 307 -nikui , < L' OUX. adj. (i) I S.t. or s.o. is hard to ? ,....,..
hard to - ; difficult to - ; don't do s.t. easily; not readily; not prone to -
(ANT. - yasui) . Key Sentence Topic (subject) V masu :"(J) * 'i * ,:. < It
\ / ,:. < It \ "'C? i" 0 - Kono hon wa taihen yomi ni kui / nikuidesu.
(This book is very hard to read.) Fermatien V masu ,:. < It\ nikui ffiS '-
,:. < It\ (s.o. is hard to talk to) hanashinikui it-: ,:. < It\ tabenikui (s.t. is
hard to eat) = N - i Examples (a) :.. (J) r-: 7 'if*] ,:. < It\'''C?i".P. o
Kono doa wa akinikuidesu nee (This door doesn't open easily, does
it?) (b) UJ (J) A (J) wUi:Jt ;{. ,:. < It \ 0 Ano hito no namae wa
oboenikui. (His name is hard to remember.) (c) tV.> (J)96!:E'i '- ,:. <
It\ i" 0 Ano sensei wa hanashinikuidesu. (That teacher is hard to talk
to.) (d) :.. (J)¥ft 'i !J ,:. < It\ i" 0 Kono kutsu wa hashirinikuidesu.
(These shoes are hard to run in.)

308 -nikui

em

1. V masu+nikui conjugates exactly like an Adj (I).

Informal Formal Nonpast

'-,:.<v\ g

'- ,:. < v\

T hanashi nikui hanashinikuidesu Aff. Past g

'- ,:. < tJ

-:J t=.

'- ,:. < tJ

-:J t=.

T hanashinikukatta hanashinikukattadesu Nonpast

'- ,:. < < t

v\ g

L. ,:. < < tV.>

it Iv hanashinikukunai hanashinikukuari masen Neg. Past g

'- ,:. < < t

tJ

-:J t::.. ffiS '- ,:. < < UJ !J

it Iv '"t: '- t=. hanashi nikukunaka tta hanashi nikukuarimasendeshi ta

= N = I II

2. In both English and Japanese the subject of the nikui-construction

can be the subject of an intransitive verb, as in Ex. (a) where kono
doa , this door' is the subject of aku ' open'. I t can also be the direct
object of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (b) where ana hito no namae '
his name' is the direct object of oboeru ' remember'. It can be the
indirect object of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (c) where ano sensei'
that teacher' is the indirect object of hanasu 'talk'. Finally, the subject
can be N + Particle such as kono kutsu de 'with these shoes'
corresponding in English to Preposition + N. In this construction, as
in Exs. (c) and (d), note that the preposition in the English sentence
is retained but the corresponding particle in the Japanese sentence
is deleted. 3. - yasui 'easy to do -' is an antonym of -nikui. The basic
formation of the yasui-construction is identical to the nikui-
construction. (t:) -yasui)

- ni shite wa 309 -ni shite wa - r: "t' I prt. /"'../' ........., v a phrase that
indicates a generally agreed upon standard (The entire sentence
that includes this phrase ? expresses some deviation from that (
standard.) ? < ( -.. ........."" ""- ""'- -. for -; considering that - [REL. ,.",
to shite wa] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Noun reiUJ 1v 'i 8*A
,:. '- 'i * \,\ / * \'\ To Takayama-san - wa nihonjin ni shite wa 6kii /
6kiidesu. (Mr. Takayama is big for a Japanese person.) (B) Topic Vinf
(subject) 7" 'i f3 * lt J:< J!! L.-c L \;Q ,.:. L 'i r.:Ft.: / Bobu wa nihongo 0
yoku benky6shite iTU ni shite wa hetada / r.:F To hetadesu.
(Considering that Bob is studying Japanese hard, he is poor at it.) =
N = - - Formatien KS(A) : N (t.: -:J t::..) ,:. '- 'i (datta) ni shite wa 96!:E
(t.: -:J t=.) I:. '- 'i (considering that s.o. is / was a teacher) sensei
(datta) ni shite wa KS(B) : Vinf ,:. '- 'i ni shite wa

310 -ni shite wa / -ni suru { T / L t::..} ,:. L",( 'i (considering that s.o.
talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} ni shite wa Examples (a) J\J) ,:.
L",( 'iVj( L v\ '1: T.P.o Hachigatsu ni shite wa suzushiidesu nee (For
August it is cool, isn't it?) (b) t 'i f3 * (J) 1f! ,:. L "'( 'i *- v \ '1: T .P. 0
Kore wa Nihon no kuruma ni shite wa 6kiidesu nee (For a Japanese
car this is big, isn't it?) (c) t!i'i v A=}- t!. -:J t,:J:. L "'( 'i1*tJ /J' v\o Kare
wa resura datta ni shite wa karada ga chisai. (Considering that he
was a wrestler, he is small.) (d) w* Iv 'i 7 j. !J j} ,:. + v\ t::.. ,:. L "'( 'j:
lttJ UJ * !) l:.:F t:. tJ: v\o Aoki-san wa Amerika ni jtJnen ita ni shite wa
eigo ga amar; j6zujanai. (Considering that Mr. Aoki spent ten years
in America, his English is not very good.) &D N = I I -ni shite wa is
the te-form of ni suru 'make it -, decide on - ' plus wa 'if'. The literal
meaning is 'if one makes it -' -ni suru -' 9 phr. -".....,. ...."" ,.."""""..-."..
/"'\.../"'/" ../"'../' "" ) \ S.o. has decided on s.t. ' ) < . ./"" """""," decide on
-; make it - [REL. ni kimeru] . Key Sentence Topic (subject) Noun fL 'i
(!) 7/'(- t- ,:. T / L*To Watashi wa kana spito ni suru / shimasu. (I've
decided on this apartment.)

-ni suru 311

Examples

(a) A: UJ t

t::.. 'i fPH:. '- * T tJ

o Anata wa nan ni shimasu ka. (Lit. What have you decided on? (=
What will you have?» B : fL'i A 7" - :t- ,:. '- * T 0 Watashi wa suteki ni
shimasu. (Lit. I've decided on steak. ( = I'll have steak.» (b) fMj fE

Iv 'i 7 j. !J j} (7). ,:. '- * '- t::.. o Okada-san wa Amerika no kuruma ni

shimashita. (Mr. Okada (has) decided on an American car.)

em 1. Ni suru is usually preceded by a noun or a noun equivalent. ni

SUTU) However, a noun with a particle is also possible.
(t:) koto Example:

(1)

lt (7) 1*ff 'i ;::. .:z. - 3 -

,:. L. * To Kondo no ryok6 wa Nyuy6ku made ni shimasu. (Next trip,

I'll make it as far as New York.) 2. If the tense is nonpast, ni suru
implies that a decision has just been made, as in KS and Ex. (a). If
the past tense is used, the sentence is ambiguous; it means either
that a decision has been made but no action has been taken or that
a decision was made and an action was also taken. (Ex. (b»

N = ! I ==:

(Related Expression] Ni kimeru also means 'decide on' and ni suru

and ni kimeru can be used interchangeably, although ni kimeru is
usually used in situations where a decision is considered significant
or important. Thus, in situations like Ex. (a), ni kimeru is not used.

312 not no 1 (J) prt. a particle which, with a preceding noun phrase,
forms a phrase to modify a following noun phrase ( j 's. of. in. at. f o
r. b y . fr o m , , , , , , [REL. no 2 ] . Key Sentences (A) Noun Noun
::tL 'i ;t f/) * t!. / T 0 Kore wa sensei no hon da / desu. (This is my
teacher's book.) (B) N = : -= : -= Noun Particle Noun ::tL 'i :& fJ\ f/) t!.
/ To Kore wa tomodschi kSTS no tegami da / desu. (This is a letter
from my friend.) Formation ( i ) Nf/)N no JIJqt 1v f/)* (Mr. Tanaka's
house) Tanaka-san no ie 7 :) 1) 'j] f/) * (a university in America)
Amerika no daigaku ( ii ) N Prt f/) N no 13* f/) ft* (a job in Japan)
Nihon de no shigoto :) 7 1) - -.. f/) 7v-t! " Mear; e no purezento (a
present for Mary)

not 313

Examples

(a) fL f/) *

f/)

M 4-J3f/)

f18 watashi no hon gakko no namae kyo no shinbun (my book) (the
name of the school) (today's paper) (b) J3*f/)

f/)m

Nihon no tera eki no denwa (a temple in Japan) (a telephone at

the station) (c)

*f/)* J3*mf/)

bijutsu no hon nihongo no shiken (a book on fine arts) (an exam

on Japanese) (d)

f/)
#

f/) * /

A f/)W

sakura no hana momo no ki basu no kippu (a cherry blossom) (a

peach tree) (a bus ticket) tJ

1f f/)

kaze no kusuri (cold medicine) (e) J3*mf/)96!:E

f/)

!:E nihongo no sensei ongaku no gakusei (a teacher of Japanese) (a

student of music) = (I) t. 0 j}

f/)

-"-

f/)

7;t--rf/)1tf =N= i _ Pikaso no e Betoben no ongaku Fodo no kuruma

(a picture by Picasso) (music by Beethoven) (a car made by Ford)
(g)

Jif/)**

Iv
f/)

JIJ

1v j}7-f/)

. tomodachi no Oki-san isha no Morita-san kar8 no shashin (my

friend Mr. Oki) (a medical doctor, Dr. (a photo in color) Morita) +

f/)T

jussai no kodomo (a ten-year-old child) (h) *tlf/) r v A tL Iv tJ

f/) * kinu no doresu renga no ie (a silk dress) (a brick house) (i) 1\

tJ

'? f/)/

-7

- 96!:E c!:: f/)

'- ft \t \ hachiji kara no pati sensei to no hanashiai (a party which

starts (a discussion with the at eight o'clock) teacher)

314 nol

em
1. Generally, no combines two noun phrases into a larger noun
phrase. In A no B, A no modifies B and indicates a specific
member(s) of B among all the members of B. A and B in A no B
relate to each other in various ways, and these relationships are
determined by context. Some common relationships follow.

(A) A is the possessor of B. (Ex. (a» B of A; A's B

==- = N = i

(B) A is the location where B exists. (Ex. (b» B in / at A (c) B is about

/ on A. (Ex. (c» B on A; B about A (D) A is a specific kind of B. (Ex.
(d» AB; B of A; B for A (E) A is the object and B is the subject. (Ex.
(e» AB; B of A (F) A created B. (Ex. (f» A's B; B by A; B created by A
(G) A is an attribute of B. (Ex. (g)) A, B; B, who / which is A

(II) B is made of / from A. (Ex. (h» AB

2. In A no B, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in

KS(B) and Ex. (i). Note that no cannot be omitted in this case,
because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle
modifies the following noun phrase. Without no, the noun phrase
with the particle is interpreted as an adverbial phrase which modifies
the predicate in the clause. For example, in (la) hachiji kara ' from
eight o'clock' modi- fies ikimashita ' went', while in (lb) hachiji kara no
modifies pati' party'.
(1) a. J \

fJ\ ;; ,r

- 7' .-( -

:. ff

t:: 0 Hschiji kSTS pati ni ikimsshits. I i (I went to the party at (lit. from)
eight o'clock.)

nol I n0 2 315

b. J\

fJ\'; (]) /'( - T -t -

:. ff

'1 L t::.. o Hschiji kSTS no pati ni ikimashita. I i (I went to the party

which had started at (lit. from) eight o'clock.) 3. The "A no B "
construction can be extended as in "A no B no C no. . ." Examples:

(2) a . fL (]) 96!:E (]) * watashi no sensei no hon (my teacher's book)
b. a *m (]) 96!:E (]) JE qt 96!:E nihongo no sensei no Tanaka -sensei
(the Japanese teacher, Prof. Tanaka) 4. In A no B, B can be omitted
if it is apparent from context. Examples:
(3) :: tL'ifL(]) (*) -c:-t 0 Kore wa watashi no (hon) desu. (This is mine
(= my book).) (4) :: Q) v A " 7

(]) (A 7" -

) 'i J: <

!) '1-it No Kono resutoran no (sutek!) wa yokuarimasen. (This

restaurant's (steak) is not good.)

===- N =

n0 2 (J) pro.

,....",.""-""-

....",.....r"""",",""""""""'

a dependent indefinite pronoun "

""'

"""""...;

"""'''''''''''''''

''''''-'J'''''''''''
''''...

one [REL. no l ; n0 3 ]

. Key Sentences (A)

Adj fL 'i *

L\ Q)

Jfl.

t::.. I Jfl. \1\ '1 L t::.. o Watashi wa okii no 0 katta I kaimashita. (I

bought a big one.)

316 n0 2

(B)

Relati ve Clause fL 'i

H "':) t=. f/)

{t -:J t::.. / {t
\ '1 '- t::.. o Watashi wa kyonen katta no o tsukatta / tsukaimashita. (I
used the one I bought last year.)

Formation

KS(A) : ( i) Adj (i) inf. nonpast f/) no

r@j

\ f/) takai no

(expensive one)

(ii) Adj (na) stem t.t. f/) na no

t:, .t ?

tet f/) jobuna no

(durable one)

KS(B) : Same formation rules as those for relative clauses. (t:)

Relative Clause)
=N=

Examples

(a) A: E Ivt.t.Jt!tJ

ll '-

TtJ

o Donna kuruma ga hoshiidesu ka. (What kind of car do you want?)

B: IJ,

\f/)tJ

'-

To Chisai no ga hoshiidesu. (I want a small one.) (b)

Ji tJ

!7
ftA J.j. t::.. tJ

-:J t:.. f/)

f/) oj M -:J t::.. f/)

If:j '- t:.. 0 Tomodachi ga wain 0 nomitagatta node kino katta no 0

dashita. (My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I
bought yesterday.)

em

1. The indefinite pronoun no is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be

used by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative
clause. 2. No is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is
clear from the context or the situation. Things referred to by no are
not necessarily tangible. Example:

n0 2 317

(1) 4-

fI8

\ t::.. 7
-1' 7 Q) qt

'i JIJ tttttJ

-:J t::.. 0) tJ

-m= J:

? t!. 0 Ima made kiita aidea no naka de wa Tamura-kun ga itta no ga

ichiban yosa soda. (Among the ideas we've heard so far, the one Mr.
Tamura told us seems the best.)

[Related Expressions] The indefinite pronoun no (i.e., n0 2 ) is

different from the particle no (i.e., nol) and the nominalizer no (i.e.,
n0 3 ). First, [1] shows the difference be- tween nol and n0 2 .
Namely, in [la] Tomu no is the omitted form of Tomu no pen. On the
other hand, [lb] is not an omitted form; that is, if a noun is inserted
after kuroi no in [lb], the sentence becomes ungrammatical as seen
in [lc]. In fact, what [lb] means is [ld], if no 'one' refers to a pen. [1] a.
nol (particle) fL'i "A 0) (

) tJql '-

\o Watashi wa Tomu no (pen) ga hoshii. (I want Tom's pen.) b. n0 2

(indefinite pronoun) fL'j:m

\ 0) tJ

'1 L

\o Watashi wa kuroi no ga hoshii. (I want a black one.) c. *fL'im

\ 0)

tJ

11 '-

\o *Watashi wa kuroi no pen ga hoshii. (I want a black pen.) d. fL'im

tJql '-

\o Watashi wa kuroi pen ga hoshii. (I want a black pen.) Next, [2]

shows the difference between n0 2 and n0 3 . That is, the meaning
of the sentence depends on whether the no in [2] is interpreted as n0
2 or n0 3 , as shown in the two English translations. [2]

JIJ

Iv tJ;it -:J -C

\ t.: 0)

jO I£;t -C

\ * T tJ

o Takada-san ga tsukatte ita no 0 oboete imasu ka. «A) [Indefinite

pronoun] Do you remember the one Mr. Takada was using?) «B)
[Nominalizer] Do you remember that Mr. Takada was using
(something)?)

= N = =- =
318 n0 3

n0 3 (J:) nom.

-"".""'""-

"-

-....",., "i"""\."'-"'-"""".....

a nominalizer which is used when

i the nominalized sentence expresses !

a directly perceptible event (

..;""'../"'./' ""-V

that -; to do s.t.; doing s.t. [REL. ko to 2 ; no 2 ]

. Key Sentences (A)

Sentence (informal)t a*m

ft;{

,:t JI L

\ / JI '-

To Nihongo 0 oshieTU no wa muzukashii / muzukashiidesu.

(Teaching Japanese is difficult.)

(B)

= = N = = ... = ... =

Topic Sentence (informal)t (subject) fL

'i

1v tJ

-Jv

fiXe
J!t::.. / J! '! '- t::.. o Watashi

wa Yuklko-san ga biru o nomu no 0 mita / mimashita. (I saw Yukiko

drink beer.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf (/) no

{giST / giS '- t.:}

(that s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} no {

\ / t6tJ''''J t.:}

(that s.t. is I was expensive) {takai / takakatta} no (ii) {Adj (na) stem /
N} {t

/ t!. -:J t.:}

{na / datta} no {r; tJ\t

/ f{ft tJ, t!. -:J t::..}

(that s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana / shizukadatta} no

{jIG!:E t

/ 96!:E t!. -:J t::..}

{sensei na / sensei datta} no

(that s.o. is / was a teacher)

n0 3 319

Examples

(a) EI*-..ff < Q)';tft1jlti

To Nihon e iku no wa kantandesu. (Going to Japan is easy.) (b) fL'i

1]-,4*

Iv tJ

o7J

\ -C

\ -'5 Q)
\ t::.. o Watashi wa Kobayashi-san ga piano 0 hiite iru no 0 kiita. (I
heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.) (c)

7-

IvtJ

77

A-..ff< Q)

-:J-C

\'1TtJ

o Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku no 0 shitte imasu ka. (Do you know

that Mr. Clark is going to France?)

CD 1. No makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. KS(A) and Ex.

(a) are examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are
used in subject position, and KS(B) and Exs. (b) and (c) are
examples where nominalized sentences are used as direct objects.
A nominalized sentence can occur in any position where a noun
phrase can appear, except in the position of B in "A wa B da". In that
situation, the nominalizer koto (i.e., kot0 2 ) is used as in (1). (1) :: '1
-:J t::.. Q) / :: c!:: 'i

tJ

* '? tL tel

\:: c!:: / * Q) t!. 0 Komatta no / kota wa kare ga korarenai koto / *no

da. (The trouble is that he can't come.) 2. N ominalized sentences
are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic marker wa cannot
occur, as seen in (2). (t:) gal) (2)

'i '(} OT

IvfJ( / *,;t

o7 J

\ -C

\ -'5 Q)

fI8

\ t::.. o Boku wa Hiroko-san ga / *wa piano 0 hiite iru no 0 kiita. (I

heard Hiroko playing the piano.) 3. There is another nominalizer,
koto. No and koto are sometimes mutually interchangeable. (t:) koto
2 ) For example, Exs. (a) and (c) can be restated as:

N=

(3) EI *-..ff < =. J= 'i Mlti

To Nihon e iku koto wa kantandesu. (Going to Japan is easy.) (4)

7-
lvtJ

77

A-..ff< =.J=

-?-C

\'1TtJ

o Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku koto 0 shitte imasu ka. (Do you know
that Mr. Clark is going to France?)

320 n0 3

However, in general, no is used when the preceding clause

expresses some- thing rather concrete or perceptible, while koto is
used when the preceding clause expresses something rather
abstract or imperceptible. In KS(B), Ex. (b) and (5), for example, koto
cannot be used because the nominalized clauses in these examples
all express concrete, perceptible events. (5) fL'i B 7tQ)1*tJ

-3 X. -C \1\ -3 (J) / *

J=

1.:, t::.. o Watashi wa jibun no karada ga furuete iru no / *koto 0

kanjita. (I felt my body trembling.) Also, there are a number of
idiomatic phrases with koto where koto cannot be replaced by no. (t:)
koto ga aTU; koto ga dekiTu; koto ni naTU; koto ni SUTU) (6) lists
verbs and adjectives and their appropriate nominalizers.

(6) no koto J!-3 , see ' * miru v J!x.-3 'be visible' * mieru v fJ!1< ,
hear' * kiku v fI8

x.-3 'be audible' * ki koeru v =N=

1.:, -3 = =-

' feel' * kanjiru v J!:

-3 'stop (v.t.)' * v tomeru

':) , wait' * v matsu J! "":) It -3 , discover' ? mitsukeru v

-tt <

, protect' ? fusegu v

-3 'get to know' shiru v v :gtL-3 , forget' v v wasureru o=-)

tJ;' "":) < , notice' (ni) ki ga tsuku v v

,\I\ If:j T , recall ' omoidasu v v

n0 3 321 :W:*--'5 no koto oboeru ' learn' v v

-'5 mi tomeru ' admit' v J;f It -'5 v sakeru , avoid' v J!:

-'5 v , . ya meru qUI t ' v

mT-'5 v kokaisuru , regret' v (tJ

) 7ttJ

-'5 v (ga) wakaru ' understand' v (tJ

t:!. v (ga) sukida ' like' (tJ

'? "'t:!. v v (ga) kiraida ' dislike' v (tJ

) 1m'" v (ga) kowai , afraid' v (tJ

) ? tL '- '" v (ga) ureshii ' happy' v (tJ

'- '" v (ga) kanashii ' sad' =N= v

'- ", v

I , yasashii eas y , v . '- ", v muzukashii ' difficult' v WJ

T-'5 v kitaisuru , expect' ? m 1.:, -'5 v shinjiru ' bel ieve ' ?? TT

-'5 v susumeru , advise' ??

;t-'5 v kangaeru ' think' *

tf v tanomu ' ask' * 1frr 1.:, -'5 v meijiru , order' * v

322 n0 3 / no" no koto (tJ

) m*iS C can do' * (ga) dekiru v (tJ

) (biS 'there are / were * (ga) aru ti mes when' v 0:.) TiS , decide' *
(nl) suru v 0;::) t,t. is 'be decided' * (nl) naru v 0:.) J: is 'be due to' *
(ni) yoru v

n0 4 (J) prt.

"'v'- a sentence-final particle used by a female speaker or a child to

indicate j an explanation or emoti ve emphasis

..!

it is that - [REL. no da]

N-I_

. Key Sentences (A)

A: Vinf B: Vinf C?'--c

n"\-C " \

Q)? jQ!I}

1v tJ

" \ tl " \ Q)o Doshi te naite iTU no? Q-ka-san ga inai no. (How come
you are crying?) ('Cause mommy's gone.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (i) inf (bQ) A ''i c-ct

L."\ Q)o Ano hito wa totemo yasashii no. . (He is so gentle, you
know.)

n0 4 323

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem -a} 'i *- t!. c-ct - A:::r t

(])o :n:

Haha wa mada totemo genki na no. (My mother is still quite fine.)
(D)

Topic (subject) Noun :l:A 'i I.,:/:;=-7 t

(])o Shujin wa enjinia na no. (My husband is an engineer.)

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf (]) no

I5T /

'- t::..} (]) (s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} no {tt-";s /

-"t::..} (]) (s.o. eats / ate) {taberu / tabeta} no

_H-I_

tk

\/*

tJ
-:J t::..} (]) {6kii /6kikatta} no (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {t

/ t!. -:J t::..} (]) {na / datta} no

(s. t. is / was big)

{r;tJ

/ ffttJ

t!. -:J t::..} (]) (s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana / shizukadatta} no {;'G!:E
t

/ %!:E t!. -:J t::..} (]) (s.o. is / was a teacher) {sensei na / sensei datta}
no

Examples

(a) A: c? L. -ctt-"t

\(])? D6shite tabenai no? (How come you don't eat it?)

324 n0 4
B: jot

tJ

(tJ

\-C(

\)t

\Q)o Onaka (ga) suite (I)nai no. ('Cause I'm not .hungry.) (b) A: c? '-
t::.. Q) ? D6shita no? (What's the matter with you?) B : 1mtJ

1Wi

\Q)o A tama ga itai no. (I have a headache.) (c) ?

Q)-r-''i"* t.: IJ'

!:Et

Q)o Uchi no ko wa mada sh6gakusei na no.) (My child is still in

grade school.) (d) *

'i 7°!J

A"

t!. -:J t::.. Q)o Daigaku wa Purinsuton datta no. (My university was
Princeton.)
=N=

!!!! i

CD 1. The sentence-final no is derived from no da / no desu through

deletion of da / desu. 2. This no is used by females or children only
in an informal situation. There are times when adult male speakers
use no in questions, as In Exs. (a) and (b), but they do not use it in
declarative sentences, as in Exs. (c) and (d).

[Related Expression] The sentence-final particle n0 4 IS the same in

its meaning as no of no da. (t:) no da)

no da (J)t=. phr. ; ; d;;g hi;hi; 1 > that the speaker is explaining or

ask- ; ing for an explanation about some in- formation shared with
the hearer, or ' is talking about something emotively, as if it were of
common interest to I the speaker and the hearer no da 325 The
explanation is that -; The reason is that -; The fact is that -; It is that -
. Key Sentences A: Sentence (informal)t fPJ L-C \Q Iv / (/) -c:-t tJ to
Nan; 0 shite iru n / no desu ka. (What are you doing?) B: Sentence
(informal)t a*m %iL-C \Q lv/(/) -c:-t:o Nihongo 0 benky6shite iru n /
no desu. (I'm studying Japanese.) t Da after Adj (na) stem and N
changes to na. tInformal form: fPJ L -C \ Q Iv t!. \o Nani 0 shite iru n
dai. fPJ L-C \Q (/)? Nani 0 shite iru no') :Informal form: ... %iL-C \Q Iv
t.:.o ...benky6shite iru n da. ...ff!l%iL-C \Q (/)0 ."benky6shite iru no.
Fermation ( i) {V I Adj (i)} inf (/) t!. no da N = i (male) (t:) dsi) (female)
(t:) no 4 ) (male) (female)

326 no da
{

5T /

15 '- t.:} (]) t!. (s.o. (will) talk / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} no da {j@j

\ / j@j tJ \ -:J t.:} (]) t!. (s. t. is I was expensi ve) {takai / takakatta} no
da (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {t

/ t!. -:J t::..} (]) t!. {na / datta} no da {fit tJ \ t

/ f(Jt tJ\ t!. -:J t::.. (]) t!. (s. t. is / was quiet) {shizukana I shizukadatta}
no da {:it!:E t

/ ;'6!:E t!. -:J t.:} (]) t!. (s.o. is / was a teacher) {sensei na / sensei
datta} no da

Examples

(a) A: c oj '--Cjo

AX"*t

\Iv

TtJ

o D6shite o-sake 0 nomanai n desu ka. (Why don't you drink sake?)
B : fL'i"* t!.+-t:;t

Iv
T 0 Watashi wa mada jtJshichi na n desu. «The reason is that) I'm
still seventeen.)

'N=

ii

(b) -m'i4-a(]).I

-T1-':.ff

t"*-ttlvo mmtJ

<

1v(bi5Iv

To Boku wa ky6 no pati ni ikemasen. Shukudai ga takusan aru n

desu. (I can't go to today's party. I have a lot of homework.)

(c) (b t

t::.. C

L t::..

\ Iv
T 0 Anata to kekkonshitai n desu. (I want to marry you.)

em 1. In conversation, no da / desu often becomes n da / desu. In

informal speech, male speakers use n da and female speakers use
no. (For the informal forms of no da in interrogative sentences, see
kai and dai.)

2. Basically, S no da is used when the speaker is explaining or

asking for an explanation about information shared with the hearer.
The in- formation is often what the speaker and the hearer have
observed or heard. F or example, in KSs, A uses no desu because
he is asking for an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also
uses no desu be- cause he is explaining his actions. In this situation,
(1) is odd.

no da 327

(l)A: fij

'--C

\"!TtJ

o Nani 0 shite imasu ka. (What are you doing?)

B: a*m
%t'--C

\"!To Nihongo 0 benky6shite imasu. (I'm studying Japanese.) If,

however, A is only assuming that B is doing something, A can ask
the question in (2), and B can answer as B does in (1).

(2) (b t

'J: 4-M

'- -C

\"! T tJ

o Anata wa ima nani 0 shite imasu ka. (What are you doing now?) In
Ex. (a), as in KS, A uses n desu because A observes that B isn't
drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses n
desu because he is explaining about what A observed. In Ex. (b), the
speaker uses n desu in the second sentence because it is an
explanation about the information which has been given in the first
sentence. 3. S no da is also used when no information is shared by
the speaker and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or
asking for an ex- planation about anything. In this case, the speaker
is talking as if some information were shared with the hearer and the
effects of this are, for example, (A) to involve the hearer in the affairs
he is talking about (See (3) and (4) below.),

N=ii

and / or (B) to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to
emphasize his idea emotively. (See (5) below.)
Examples: (3) 4- a 7 ';I "

-IV tJ

(b is Ai -C:T tJ

-a '=-ff

"! -tt Iv tJ

o Ky6 futtob6ru ga aru n desu ga isshoni ikimasen ka. (There is a

football game today. Wouldn't you like to go (to- gether) with me?)
(4) ;'6!:E, W -:J -C

\ is Ai-C:T 0 JJ1Ht -C < t=.

\o Sensei, komatte iru n desu. Tasukete kudasai. (Teacher, I'm in

trouble. Please help me.)

328 no da / node (5) a *mQ)xl1Hi. '- \ TtJ jQ t '- \N-C:T J: o Nihongo

no bunp6 wa muzukashiidesu ga omoshiroi n desu yo. (J apanese
grammar is difficult, but it is interesting, you know.) node (J) conj. "'/' i
a subordinate conjunction which ex- ! I presses a reason or a cause
(.. /'"'V'/'V"V so; since; because [REL. de 3 ; kara 3 ] . Key Sentence
N = i i Subordinate Clause (cause I reason) Main Clause Sentence
(informal)t jQ t:. < Iv f1.1v f=. Q) < t,t. -:J t::.. I t,t. '- t::.. 0 Q-sake 0
takusan nonda node nemuku natta I narimashita. (Because I drank a
lot of sake, I got sleepy.) tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to
na. Formation ( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf Q) node { 5T / '- t::.} Q) (because
s.o. (will) talk / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} node {j@j \ / tJ -:J t::.} Q)
(because s. t. is / was expensive) {takai / takakatta} node (ii) {Adj
(na) stem / N} {t,t. I t.: -:J t::..} Q) {na / datta} node {ffttJ\t,t. / ffttJ\t.: -:J
t::..} Q) (because s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana / shizukadatta} node
L$t!:E t,t. I ;'6!:E t.: -:J t::..} Q) (because s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei na / sensei datta} node

node 329

Examples

(a) mmtJ

t::.. <

Iv

(]) 'T! r

-=r -{ - ';:ff

t"* it Iv o Shukudai ga takusan aru node pat; ni ikemasen. (Since I

have a lot of homework, I can't go to the party.) (b)

(]) *'iit16 tJ

-:J t::.. (]) 'T!

bt

tJ

-:J t::.. o Sono hon wa takakatta node kawanakatta. (Because that

book was expensive, I didn't buy one.)
(c) fL(])tf61

Hir;tJ

(])'T! J: <

%tm*"* To Watashi no heya wa shizukana node yoku benky6

dekimasu. (My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.) (d) .y.:r. -

'i"* t!.qt

!:Et

(])'T!.

fim*t

\o Jen wa mada chugakusei na node kuruma 0 unten dekinai.

(Because Jane is still a junior high student, she can't drive a car.)

CD

Etymologically, node is the te-form of no da. (t:) no da) However, in

modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or
cause.
[Related Expressions] I. The conj unction kara also expresses
reason or cause. However, kara and node differ in the following way.
Node is used when the speaker believes that the information he
provides in SI node as cause or reason for S2 is valid and is also
evident and acceptable to the hearer. (Exs. (a)-(d» SI kara S2,
however, does not involve that assumption. There- fore, node cannot
be used and kara must be used in the following situ- ations:

= N = == == ; !

(A) Sl (i.e., reason I cause clause) expresses the speaker's

conjecture about something. [1] AtJ

t::.. <

Iv*

t!.

? '/J\; / *C1)

1t

t (])

t::.. <

Iv

-:J-C jo

\ t::.. o Hito ga takusan kuru dar6 kaTa / *node tabemono 0 takusan

katte oita. (Because many people will probably come, I've bought a
lot of food.) (B) S2 (i.e., the main clause) is a command, request,
suggestion or invitation.
330 node

[2] Command

Q)!I.*:OOUi t::..'dJ ,=. t,t..Q '/J\;; I *(J)-c:ff

t,t.

\o Kono eiga wa tame ni naru kSTS / *node ikinasai. (Because this

movie is good for you, go (see it).)

[3] Request (b '- t::.. Q)

3 - 'iiQ t '-

\'/J\;; / *(J)

1ft} J!':'* -c < t!.

\o Ashita no sh6 wa omoshiroi kSTS I *node zehi mi ni kite kudasai.

(Tomorrow's show is interesting, so please come to see it.)

[4] Suggestion

Q) *'i c -C t to t '-
\ '/J\;; / * (J)-r! J.J.1v t,t. t ME Iv t.:11 ? tJ

\ J: 0 Kono hon wa totemo omoshiroi kSTS / *node minna mo yonda

h6 ga ii yo. (This book is very interesting, so you'd better read it,
too.) [5] Invitation

t t:J -:J t::..'/J\;; / *(J)

-a ':.AXJ.J. "* '- J: ? tJ\o Ii sake 0 moratta kSTS I *node isshoni

nomimash6 ka. (I got some good sake, so shall we drink it together?)

=-==- N =

(0) S2 expresses the speaker's volition or personal opinion. [6]

Volition fIPP

Iv tJ

ff < '/J\;; / *(J)-C:

t ff
? 0 Tanaka-san ga iku kSTS / *node boku mo ik6. (Since Mr. Tanaka
is going (there), I'll go, too.) [7] Personal Opinion mtJ

J: <

-:J-C

\.Q'/J\;; / *(J)

*r.., J: ?

-c,;To Boku ga yoku shitte iru kSTS / *node daij6budesu. (I know it

well, so there will be no problem.)

I I. The particle de is also used to express a reason or cause. (t:) de

3 ; Semantic Derivations of De) De, however, can be used only with
nouns, while node and kara are used only with sentences. Compare
[8] and [9].

[8] am-c: / *'/J\;; I *(J)-c:*tJ

t::.. <

Ivt::..iQht::.. o TaiftJ de / *kSTS I *node ie ga takusan taoreta. (Many

houses fell down due to the typhoon.)

node / noni l 331 [9] %t \mtJ \t::..tJ\; / (/)-c: / *-c:*tJ;t::.. < Ivt::.. ht::..o
Tsuyoi kaze ga fuita kSTS / node / *de ie ga takusan taoreta. (Lit.
Many houses fell down because a strong wind blew.) nani! 0) I='
conj. )V"V"' "'v"'v,-,", '/' I Contrary to everybody's expectation S based
on the sentence preceding noni, I the proposition in the sentence fol-
1 lowing noni is the case. 5 even though; despite the fact that -;
although; but; in spite of the fact that - [REL. ga; keredo(mo)] .
...,.-......", . Key Sentences (A) Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vinf
fiI:a * L.-C L\ Q) ,-=- J:< jt;t G.l'L t \ / Mainichi kanji 0 benkyoshite ITU
non; yoku oboerarenai I jt;t Gh*-t!'lv o oboeraremasen. (Although I'm
studying kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.) N = - = --
:::::: (B) Topic (subject) Adj (i) inf :'Q) A7- 'i L\ Q) ,=. \ '- < t \ / \ '- <
(b!J *-t!'lv o Kono suteki wa tsksi non; oishikunai / oishikuarimasen.
(In spite of the fact that this steak is expensive, it isn't delicious.)

332 noni l

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem iff7k

1v 'i =f Iv 7 tJ

"'f¥- fi- Q) ,=. *

t!. / Shimizu-san wa goru fu ga heta na noni dai-sukida / *M-

To dai-sukidesu. (Although Mr. Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves

it.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun *-lv

1v 'i 7;1. UnA. fi- Q.>'=,

tJ

;t

\ t!. /

T 0 Horu-san . ameTikajin noni niku ga kiraida / kiraidesu.

wa na (In spite of the fact that Mr. Hall is an American, he doesn't

like meat.)

Formation

' N = I i ======

KSs(A) and (B): {V / Adj (i)} inf Q) ,=. noni

T/

L- t::..} Q) ,=- (although s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} noni

{
,,\ /

tJ

-:Jt::..} Q)'=, {takai / takakatta} noni KSs(C) and (D): {Adj (na) stem/
N} {t,t / t!. -:J t::..} Q) ,=. {na / datta} noni {r;tJ

t,t / r;tJ

t.: -:J t:.} Q) ,=. (although s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana /

shizukadatta} noni {96!:E t,t / 96!:E t!. -:J t::..} Q) ,=. (although s.o. is
/ was a teacher) {sensei na / sensei datta} noni

(although s.t. is / was expensive)

Examples

(a) J:fJ

f3C

:A

m
L- t::..Q) ,:. * t!.

mtJ;

1t* -it Ivo Chiigaku to koko de rokunenkan mo eigo 0 benkyoshita

noni mada eigo ga hanasemasen.

noni t 333

(I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior
high, but I still cannot speak it.) (b) *

\ (/)'

;t -.I

tft

\"'t: tfj tJ

t t::.. o Samui noni oba 0 kin a ide dekaketa. (Although it was cold,
he went out without wearing an overcoat.) (c)

(/).A 'i t:°7 J tJ

J:
t

(/)'

-:J t::.. ':.W

* -it Ivo Ano hito wa piano ga jozuna noni metta ni hikimasen. (He is
good at piano, but seldom plays.) (d)

'i it +

(/) ,:. * t.:fifJ

\ -C

\ * To Chichi wa kyujussai na noni mada hataraite imasu. (My father

i.s still working in spite of the fact that he IS ninety years old.)

CD 1. Noni IS the nominalizer no plus the particle ni 'to', meaning 'in

contrast to the fact that - '. The noni clause expresses a highly pre-
supposed, speaker-oriented action or state. (t:) noS) In other words,
the speaker of SI noni S2 is personally involved with the proposition
of SI. This personal involvement tends to create some emotive
overtone. 2. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is
predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence
expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker. (1) A:

lvt

t(/)

Gt
\J:o Sonna mono iranai yo. (I don't need that kind of stuff.) B : it -:J tJ

<

fG

? 0) 1=0 Sekkaku ageru to iu noni. (Lit. Although I'm kindly saying

that I'll give it to you. (= I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.»

=N=

(Related Expressions] I. Because of the speaker-oriented character

of the noni clause, certain types of constructions involving the hearer
cannot be used in the main clause in this construction. If the main
clause is a request, sug- gestion, question, command or request for
permission, only keredo(mo) can be used. Examples of the above
categories can be seen in [1] through [5] below:

334 noni l

====-- N =
 :: ;ca

[1] iEL-

\ltn

/ *0)1= L--C

-C < t::

\o Muzukashii keTedo / *noni shite mite kudasai. (It is difficult, but try
it, please.) [2]

*!J jo

\L- < t

\ltn

/ *o)l=1t

-C

*-itlvtJ

o Amari oishiku nai keTedo / *noni tabete mimasen ka. (Ies not so
good, but do you want to try it?) [3] a. *

\Itn

/ *o)l=
,:.tfj*TtJ

o Samui keTedo / *noni so to ni demasu ka. (Ies cold, but are you
going outside?) b. *

\Itn

/ o)l=71-,:.tfjGIv"'t:TtJ

o Samui keTedo / noni soto ni deru n desu ka. (Ies cold, but (lit. is it
that you are going outside?) are you going outside?) [4]

* Gt

\ltn

/ *o)l=

,,\o Tsumaranai keTedo / *noni yominasai. (Ies boring, but read it.) [5]
""f

t:: Itn c!:. / *r

0) 1= L- -C t

\ "'t:TtJ
o Hetada keTedo / *Hetana non; shite mo iidesu ka. (rm not good at
it, but can I do it?) [3b] is acceptable, because the scope of the
question is not the main verb deru ' go outside' but the whole
sentence nominalized by n. II. The main clause cannot be an
expression of intention as in [6], because the expression is directed
not towards the speaker but towards the hearer.

[6] fttJ

Gt

\ltn

/ *0)1=.1: < #x. -C

t !J"'t:T / #x. -C

.1:?

\ * T 0 Wakaranai keTedo / *noni yoku kangaete miru tsumori desu /

kangaete miyo to omoimasu. (Although I dontt understand it, I intend
to really think about it / I think I will really think about it.)

I I I. Due to the nominalizer no, the noni clause tends to express

something with which the speaker is emotively involved. But
keredo(mo) is rela- tively free from the speakerts emotive
involvement; in short, it is more objective than noni. (t:) noS) IV. Noni
in Exs. (a) through (d) can also be replaced by the disjunctive
conjunction ga 'but '. For example, Ex. (d) can be rewritten as [7].

noni 1 / noni 2 335

[7]

'iJL+

t.:tJ

, * t.:ft1Jv'"'(v' Go Chichi wa kyujussai da ga. mada hataraite iru. (My

father is ninety years old, but he is still working.) The disjunctive
meaning of ga is much weaker than that of noni, and ga is free from
the restrictions imposed on noni. The style of the noni clause is
always informal, but depending on the style of the second sentence,
the style of the sentence preceding ga can be either informal or
formal, as shown below:

Sinf ga Sinf / fml Sfml ga Sfml

vs.

Sinf noni Sinf / fml

nani! (J) r
conj.

ess or for the purpose of 1 j doing s.t. expressed in the no-nomi- j

nalized clause ( (

I"V"..

in the process of doing -; (in order) to do - ; for the purpose of - [REL.

ni s ; tame (nl)]

==N=

! =======

. Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause Topic (subject) Main Clause Vinf. nonpast fL 'i a

*m (/) ffif18

t; (/) ,

$.
? / i7t Watashi wa nihongo no shinbun 0 yomu noni jisho 0 tsukau /

v'*To tsukaimasu. (I use a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.)

Formation

Vinf. nonpast (/) ,

noni

T (/) ,:. hanasu noni

(in order to talk)

336 noni 2

1t

-3 q) ,:. taberu noni

(in order to eat)

Examples

(a) T

f'F -3 q) ,:. ,:1 MtJ;

!J * T tJ

o Sukiyaki 0 tsukuru noni wa nani ga irimasu ka. (What do you need

to make sukiyaki?) (b)

q) v

-"

. < q) ,:.-tJ

jj tJ

tJ

!J * L-t::.. o Kono repoto 0 kaku noni ikkagetsu kakarimashita. (It took

me a month to write this paper.) (c)

tt,:.fj < q) ':'.r

It:$:

-:J -C
\ -3 0 Kaisha ni iku noni basu to densha 0 tsukatte iru. (I am using
the bus and the train to get to (lit. my company) work.)

em 1. In the noni 2 construction, only informal, nonpast, volitional

verbs can precede noni. (Cp. noni l ) 2. When the noni clause is
used as the topic (i.e., S noni wa), no is often deleted in
conversation, as in (1).

N=Ii

(1) T

fF-3 f::f;tMtJ;

!J *TtJ

o Sukiyaki 0 tsukuru ni wa nani ga irimasu ka. (What do you need to

make sukiyaki?)

(Related Expressions] I. When the main verb is a verb of motion, the

noni 2 construction con- trasts with that of V masu ni V(motion). (t:)
nt J ) Examples:

[1]

00i
J!f::.

---fj -:J t::.. o Eiga 0 mi ni Ginza e itta. (I went to Ginza to see a

movie.)

[2]

00i

J!-3 (1)f::mJM---fj-:J t::.. o Eiga 0 miru noni Ginza e itta. (I went to

Ginza for the purpose of seeing a movie.) [3]

00i

J!f:: / * J!-3 o)f::fj-:J t::.. o Eiga 0 mi ni /*miru noni itta. (I went to see /
*for the purpose of seeing a movie.) If a destination is specified, as in
[1] and [2], both constructions can be used. However, the noni
version implies that the subject of the

noni 2 / -no wa -da 337 sentence made a lot out of the entire
process. [2] can imply that the speaker shouldn't have used time and
money going to Ginza to see a movie. If a location is not specified,
only the V masu ni V (motion) construction- can be used, as shown
in [3]. II. Non,"? is similar in its meaning to Vinf.nonpast tame ni 'in
order to '. The latter purely means 'purpose' but the former retains
the meaning of 'in the process of', even when it means 'purpose'.
Thus, in a sentence such as [4] below in which the verb in the noni-
clause is incongruous with the meaning of ' process', noni cannot be
used. [4] !:E Q t= f= / *o)f=1t Q 0 Ikiru tame ni / *noni taberu. (We eat
in order to live.) Cpo q)1IfT"'t*!:E -Cv' < t= f= / o)f= =+JjPHj: , t.:o
Kono machi de ikite iku tame ni / non; tsuki nijiiman' en wa
hitsuyoda. (We need 200,000 yen a month in order to keep living in
this town.) -no wa -da -(J)I -t:. str. a structure that indicates new, Im-
portant information by placing it be- tween no wa and the copula da
(No is an indefinite pronoun (no 2 ) that replaces 'time', 'person',
'thing', 'place' or 'reason'.) < it is - that -; the one who - is - · the P
lace where - is -. , , the reason why - is -; the time when - is -; what -
IS = N = E i - [RE L. noS] . Key Sentences (A) Important Vinf
Information fL tJ JfJOO ,:. fj"':) t= q) Ii = M t!. / "'t* T 0 Watashi ga
Chiigoku ni itta no wa sannen mae da I desu. (It was three years ago
that I went to China. / The time when I went to China was three
years ago.)

338 -no wa -da

(B)

Important Adj (i) inf Information =.(/) ?7A "'t: -fB:

tJ

L'L' (/) f j: sfB

1v t.: / "'t: T 0 Kono kurasu de ichiban atama ga ii no wa Yoshida-san

da / desu. (The brightest one in this class is Mr. Yoshida.)

(C)

Important Adj (na) stem Information .,.. .,.. "'t: -fB:

tLL' ti. (/) 'j:

t!. / "'t:T 0
Koko de ichiban kiTe; na no wa yama da / desu. (The most beautiful
things here are mountains.)

Formatien,

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf f/) 'i - t!. no wa da

N=

ii

{ZIST / alS L t::..} (/) tt {hanasu / hanashita} no wa

t!. da

(it is - who talks / talked)

{ it,.;: -'5 / it

t::.. } (/) , ;t {taberu / tabeta} no wa

t!. da
(it is - who eats / ate)

{iWi

\/

tJ

-:J t::..} (/) 'j: - t!. {takai / takakatta} no wa - da (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N}
{t

/ t!. -:J t::..} (/) 'i - t!. {na / datta} no wa - da {fit tJ

/ r; tJ

t.: -:J t::..} (/) 'j: - t!. (it is - that is / was quiet) {shizukana /
shizukadatta} no wa - da

(it is - that is / was expensive)

{96!:E t

/ %1: t.: -:J t.:.} (/) 'j: - t!. (it is - who is / was a teacher) {sensei na /
sensei datta} no wa - da

Examplrs
(a)

fB

Iv,

t::.. tJ;

:tJ ::f,:.fj -:J t::.. (/) ,j:

"'t: TtJ

o Yamada-san, anata ga Shikago ni itta no wa itsu desu ka. (Mr.

Yamada, when was it that you went to Chicago?)

-no wa -da 339

(b) jo

\iHVq:.*t::"q)'if)(-r

Iv"'t*To Ototoi asobi ni kita no wa Akiko-san desu. (It was Akiko who
came to see me the day before yesterday.) (c) .:c -

7 Iv " tJ

*
,:. t

-:J t::.. q) 'i*

q)

T 0 Motsuaruto ga dai-sukini natta no wa daigaku ichinen no toki

desu. (It was during my freshman year that I became very fond of
Mozart.) (d)

tJ

\t

q) 'i T v 1::

t.: o Chichi ga kiraina no wa terebi da. (It is television that my father

hates.) (e) a *

jo

\ L-

\ q) ':1*!fo/J t.: o Nihon de oishii no wa kudamono da. (What is

delicious in Japan is fruit.)
CD 1. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between no
wa and da usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete
meaning (as in the cases of ga and 0), or if the meaning of the entire
sentence is somehow predictable. Examples follow. (1) I\

':'? i? ,:. * t::.. q) 'i

fB

Iv (*tJ<) t.: o Hachiji ni uchi ni kita no wa Morita-san (*ga) da. (It was
Mr. Morita who came to my house at eight otclock.) (2)

fB

Iv tJ

-:J -c *t::.. q) ,:1 -7 - =\7- (*

) t.: o Morita-san ga motte kita no wa keki (*0) da. (It was cake that
Mr. Morita brought here.) (3)

fB

IvtJ

-7-=\7-

<

tt

q)'i.m(f=) t.: o Morita-san ga keki 0 kureta no wa ototo (ni) da. (It was
to my brother that Mr. Morita gave cake.)

=N=
(4)

fB

Iv tJ

? i? ,:.*t::.. q) fi$1: t.: o Morita-san ga uchi ni kita no wa kuruma de

da. (It was by his car that Mr. Morita came to my house.) (5) a.

fB

Iv tJ

* t::.. q) ,:1 JtiJj(tJ\; t.: 0 Morita-san ga kita no wa Tokyo kaTa da. (It
was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita came.) b.

fB

Iv tJ

tfj

L- t::.. q) 'iJtiM (tJ\;) t.: o Morita-san ga shuppatsushita no wa Tokyo

(kaTa) da. (It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita departed.)

= N = ==

340 - no wa -da

(6) a.
fE

IvtJ

lvt.:q)'ifE

Iv 1::. t.:o Morita-san ga nonda no wa Tayama-san to da. (It was with

Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita drank.) b.

fE

Iv tJ

':.AXIv tf. q) 'i fE

Iv (1::.) t.: o Morita-san ga isshoni nonda no wa Tayama-san (to) da.

(It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita (lit. together) drank.) In (5b)
and (6b) the particles kara and to normally drop, because shup-
patsushita 'departed' and isshoni 'together' generally co-occur with
kara and to, respectively. 3. The element between no wa and da
cannot be a manner adverb. 1'he following sentences are all
unacceptable. (7) *

-rtJ

\ t::.. q) 'i tP ":) < f,J t!. 0 *Hanako ga aruita no wa yukkuTi da. (* It
was slowly that Hanako walked.) (8) *::t
tJ

ti

\ t::.. q) 'i

tL L \ f= t!. 0 *Taro ga ji 0 kaita no wa kiTeini da. (*It was beautifully

that Taro wrote characters.) 4. Unlike English, the copula da in this
construction is normally in the present tense. (9)

q)?

-:Jt::"q)':tAT v;t1:T / ???1: l.,t.: o Kino katta no wa sutereo desu / ???

deshita. (It was a stereo set that I bought yesterday.) 5. The number
of no wa -da sentences which can be produced from one sentence is
limited only by the number of elements which can be placed between
no wa and da. For example, four such sentences can be deri ved
from (10). Uo) :;:1:,1 tJ

:; % - :,I ':.JkJii"'t.* J\JJ ,:.

-:J t::. o Jon ga Jen ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta. (J ohn met Jane
in August in Tokyo.) (11) a. .y ;I: -

':.JR*"'t.* I\

,=-

-:J t::.. qj 'i:; :I :,I t.: 0 Jen ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa Jon
da. (It was John who met Jane in August in Tokyo.) b.

tJ

JRJi("'t.* I\
,=-

-:J t::.. q) 'i :; % - :,I t!. 0 Jon ga Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa

Jen da. (It was Jane whom John met in August in Tokyo.)

-no wa -da 341

c. .y 3

tJ;.y;I: -

':'/\

'

-:J t::"q)'iJR

(1:) t.: o Jon ga Jen ni hachigatsu ni atta no wa Tokyo (de) da. (It
was in Tokyo that John met Jane in August.) d. .y 3

tJ

.y;I: -

,:.*Jj("'t*

-:J t::..q) 'iJ\JJ t.: o Jon ga Jen ni Tokyo de atta no wa hachigatsu da.
(It was in August that John met Jane in Tokyo.) 6. Normally the no
clause takes wa, marking the entire clause as presup- posed, old,
unimportant information, and the element between no wa and da
represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes the
no clause takes ga, marking the clause as new, important informa-
tion. In this case the element between no ga and da indicates unim-
portant information.

(12) fL

f'F -:J -C

\ G (J) tJ( p iN' 'l ""'t* T 0 Watashi ga tsukutte iru no ga robotto desu.
(The one f 9 m making is a robot.) Cpo p

'l "r;tfL

f'F -:J -C

\ '1 To Robotto wa watashi ga tsukutte imasu. (Speaking of robots,

rm making one.)

(Related Expression] No in the present construction should not be

confused with the no used as a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the no
wa -da construction and [2], the nominalized sentence. (t:) noS) [1] *

Mf tr (J) 'i t::..

\ -C

\ 1X t:: 0 Hon 0 yomu no wa taitei yoru da. (It is usually at night that I
read books.) [2] *

Mftr(J) 'i

\
\

t:. o Hon 0 yomu no wa ii koto da. (It is a good thing to read books.)
One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if
the sentence can be restated by deleting no wa and da and placing
the element before no wa in an appropriate position. For example,
[1] can be restated as [3], but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].
[3] t::..

\-C

Metro T ai tei yoru hon 0 yomu. (I read books usually at night.)

= N == i

342 -no wa -da [4] a. *

\::.

tfo */i koto hon 0 yomu. b. **

\

\::.

Mftfo *Hon 0 ii koto yomu. c. **

Me tf It \ It \ ::.

0 *Hon 0 yomu ii koto.

====- ' N = : -=- ! !

0- 343 0- tQ pref. - ../"'...-.....,-. ./'../""t.J ""'j a prefix that expresses

politeness /""t..,J ............,.. ./' [REL. go-] . Key Sentences (A) V masu
;fiEE96!:E i m l., ,:. t -:J t::.. I t :t L t::.. 0 Ishida-sensei wa eigo de o-
hanashi ni natta I narimashita. (Prof. Ishida talked in English.) (B) V
masu fL i q)? w 96!:E ,:. L\ L t I L:t L t o Watashi wa kino Yamazaki-
sensei ni o- ai shita I shimashita. (I met Prof. Yamazaki yesterday.)
(C) Adj (i I na) 4'1t Iv i ::f Iv 7 tJ t= I -r:To Imamura-san wa gorufu ga
o- sukida I sukidesu. (Mr. Imamura likes golf.) = 0 = -=- == = = (D)
Noun iX3I- i {PI tJ J: 0 L ' T tJ",o O- nomimono wa nani ga
yoroshiidesu ka. (Lit. As for drinks, what would be good? (= What
would you like to drink?» Formation KS(A): V masu ,:. t Q 0- ni naru
(t:) 0 IWni naTu)

344 0- KS(B) : jO Vmasu TQ 0- suru KS(C) : jO Adj (i I na) 0- j01t L'-

'\ (s.o. is busy) o-isogashii j"3l:

tf. (s.o. is good at -) o-jozuda KS(D) : jON 0- jO

(money) o-kane

(t:) 0 IWSUTU)
E"xamples

(a) EEff96

'i4'

"( t jOit L '-'\0 Tamura-sensei wa ima totemo o-isogashii. (Prof.

Tamura is very busy now.)

(b) 4i} a jO!ilt\

Tho Mainichi o-atsuidesu nee (It's hot day after day, isn't it?) (c)
l:EE96!:E'i T':=' A tJ

jOl:

T 0 Veda-sensei wa tenisu ga o-jozudesu. (Prof. Ueda is good at

tennis.) (d) '8*

N q)

ti'i

"( t jO

tL It\ tf. 0 Miyamoto-san no okusama wa totemo o-kireida. (Mrs.

Miyamoto is very pretty.)

(e) !fff
N tJ

tj jOm

tJ

(b

:t L t::.. o Nomura-san kara o-denwa ga arimashita. (There was a

phone call from Mr. Nomura.) (f) jO

!r:Hi t ? 1t

:t L t::..tJ

o O-hirugohan wa mo tabemashita ka. (Have you had your lunch

yet?)

em 1. The polite prefix 0- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to

ex- press the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. 0- Vmasu ni
naru

0- 345

is an honorific polite expression and 0- V masu suru is a humble

polite expression. (t:) 0 IWni nSTU; 0 IWSUTU) 2. O-Adj can be
either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c) and (d), or a
simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b). 3. O-N is used in various
ways: (1) Honorific polite expression: 96!:E tJ
< t.:

"':t L t::.. o Sensei ga o-tegami 0 kudasaimashita. (My teacher wrote

me a letter.) (2) Humble polite expression:

mms

L(b

j:tTo Myonichi o-denwa 0 sashiagemasu. (rll call you tomorrow.) (3)

Simple polite expression: a!lf

i1

jWj < tet

:t L t

h;to O-yasai ga takaku narimashita nee (Vegetables have become

expensive, haventt they?) 4. 0 - cannot be attached to the following
words: (A) Adjectives and nouns which begin with the [0] sound:

* a:t3 t L 0 ", (interesting) *o-omoshiroi

* a:t3 ", L ", (delicious) *0 -oishii

*a*
'" (big) *0 -okii

* a:t3 1:-

Iv (uncle) *o-oji-san

jQ (}. (belt, sash) *0 -obi

=0=_i

(B) Long words: *

1:-

tJ

", t (potato) *0 -jagaimo

(cf. a 1:-

tJ

(potato» o -}aga

* a '1 ?
1,.Iv1/f. (spinach) *0 -horenso

(c) Foreign words: *

;I:. v

- (elevator) *0 -erebeta

A -;" A (Christmas) * 0 -kurisu masu

- (butter) *o-bata

346 0-

There are some exceptions to this rule. For example:

t::..ff::. (tobacco) o-tabako

'/ - A (sauce) o-sosu These exceptions are words which have been
part of the Japanese vo- cabulary long enough to sound like
Japanese-origin words to native speakers. 5. There are a few words
which are always used with the polite prefix 0- or go-. (For go-, see
Related Expression.) (4) jQ t

i1

(stomach) =:1Ji (cooked rice, meal) o-naka go-han

;(

(trousers) o-zubon

\:. -'v (beer) o -biru

[Related Expression] There is another polite prefix, go-. Basically,

go- is used for Chinese-origin words and 0- for Japanese-origin
words. Examples follow: [1] Na-type adjectives (I-type adjectives are
all Japanese-origin words; therefore, they are all preceded by 0-.) a.
Chinese-origin words:

ft

(kind)

"(lt'hlt' (polite) go-shinsetsu go-teinei

01

b. Japanese-origin words: ar;tJ

(quiet)

,:.€

tJ

(lively) o-shizuka o-nigiyaka [2] Nouns a. Chinese-origin words:

?i}f?E (research)

(marriage) go-kenkyu go-kekkon b. Japanese-origin words: a

(meat) afi (fish) o-niku o-sakana

fJ!flJ (convenient) go -benri

(fond) o-suki

* (book) go-hon

'i L (chopsticks) o-hashi

There are, however, some Chinese-origin words which require the
use of 0-. These exceptions are words which have become
assimilated to the point that native speakers no longer consider them
to be U borrowed" words. The words in [3] are examples of such
exceptions.

0-10 1 347 [3] a. Na-type adjectives: al: (skillful) o-jozu b. Nouns: aU

(telephone) o-denwa a 7C (healthy) o-genki at!l%i (study) o-benkyo
a JJI! (dishes) a rp' (time) o-ryori o-jikan aJit-r (confectionery) o -
kashi There are very few examples of go- Japanese-origin words. [4]
-:J < (slowly) t -:J t (reasonable) go-yukkuri go-mottomo 0 1 prt. ""'V
.;" ( particle which marks a direct ob- Ject 1 Topic (subject) Direct
Object Transitive Verb fL 'i 8*:1 t!l L""C '-"-3 I ""*To Watashi wa
nihongo 0 benkyoshi te iru / i masu. (rm studying Japanese.) = 0 = !!
; . Key Sentence Examples (a) MEa N'i q) ? 1\ -:J t::.. o Maeda-san
wa kino kuruma 0 katta. (Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.) (b) fiiJ
.7j. * TtJ o Nani 0 nomimasu ka. (What will you drink?)

348 0 1

em 1. 0 marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct

object in English is not always marked by 0 in Japanese. Compare
Japanese and English in the following sentences, for example. (1)
fL'i

mfJ(7ttJ

Q 0 Watashi wa eigo ga wakaru. (I understand English.) (

I'W wa I'W ga; wakaTu) (2) .y A 'i A: A I:: m

L t::.. o Jimu wa Besu ni denwashita. (Jim called Beth.) (3)

'i

q) ? EEl J:f:1

N I:: / Co 'bJ -:J t::. o Boku wa kino Tanaka-san ni / to atta. (I met Mr.
Tanaka yesterday.) 2. In some constructions, the direct object marker
0 can be replaced by the subject marker ga.

.0=

(4)

Iv

t-

tf -. miruku 0 nomu (drink milk) (5) a *iat-

T -. nihongo 0 hanasu (speak Japanese) (6) :t

t- mHt Z> -+ mado 0 akeru (open the window)

Iv

t- / fJ(

Jj. t.: L \ miruku 0 / ga nomitai (want to drink milk) a *iat- / fJ(

1t.Q nihongo 0 / ga hanaseTu (can speak Japanese) :t c!:

t- / fJ(mHt"( cf.>.Q (

aTu 2 ) mado 0 / ga akete aTU (The window has been opened.)

tai)

T aT8Tu 2 )

3. 0 cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct

object marker (i.e., 0 1 ) or the space marker (i.e., 0 2 ). Thus, in the
causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only
by ni if another element in the same clause is marked by o. (

sas8Tu) (7)

'ifLI:: / *t-

t-

:t-ttt::.o Chichi wa watashi ni / *0 sake 0 nomaseta. (My father made

me drink sake.) (8) btJi'ifLI:: / *t-

t
t-q)f!;-ttt::..o Tomodachi wa watashi ni / *0 kyuna saka 0 noboraseta.
(My friend made me go up a steep slope.) 4. If the direct object is
presented as a topic o

a contrastive element, 0 is replaced by wa.

0 1 / 0 2 349

(9) a *:ltl

1J1

:t -tt Ivo Nihongo wa shirimasen. (I dontt know Japanese.) (10) .:t q)*'

t?

Jj. :t L t::.. o Sono hon wa mo yomimashita. (I already read that

book.)

02

prt. I

a particle which indicates a space in '1 on / across / through / along

which

s.o. or s. t. moves ?

.....

,/"".../"'
in; on; across; through; along; over

[REL. del]

.Key Sentence

Noun (space) fL 'i 1i.m

tJi;

, t::.. / tJi;

:t L t.: o Watashi wa goban-gai 0 aruita / arukimashita. (I walked

along Fifth Avenue.)

_0-i

Examples.

(a)

im -:J "( +if}

:t L J: ? 0 Koen 0 totte kaerimasho. (Lees go home through the park
(lit. passing through the park).) (b)

i1

q) 1:

1R1v "t:

, :t To Tsuru ga mizuumi no ue 0 tonde imasu. (Cranes are flying

over the lake.) (c) a *"t: 'i!l! 'i if! q) li: fJtlJ

:t To Nihon de wa kuruma wa michi no hidarigawa 0 hashirimasu. (In

Japan they drive (lit. cars run) on the left side of the street.) (d) .:t :.
q)

t;J:. aB i1

-:J "( < t!.

"'0 Soko no kosaten 0 migi ni magatte kudasai. (Please turn to the

right at the intersection there.)

350 0 2

CD
When a sentence involves the verb noboru 'climb', there is an
important difference between the use of the particle 0 and that of ni,
as seen in (1).

(1) a. t:

'i JRJj( ?' 9 - t- q) f! -:J t::.. 0 Don wa Tokyo Tawa 0 nobotta. (Don
scaled Tokyo Tower.) b. t:

'iJRJj(?, 9 -I:. q) f! -:J t::.. o Don wa Tokyo Tawa ni nobotta. (Don

went up Tokyo Tower.)

[Related Expression] The particle del also marks the space in which
an action takes place. The difference between del and 0 is that del
can be used with any action verb, while 0 can be used only with
motion verbs such as aruku ' walk t, hashiru , run', tobu 'fly' and
oyogu 'swim t. Thus, 0 is ungrammatical in [1].

[1] fL'i

1: / *t-

L t::.. o Watashi wa toshokan de / *0 benkyoshita. (I studied at the

library.) When either del or 0 is possible, as in [2], there is usually a
subtle difference between them.

= 0 = = ....
[2] .y 3

'i) II 1: / t- 1* It' t.: 0 Jon wa kawa de / 0 oyoida. (John swam in the

river.) First, when del is used, other locations for an action are also
implied, but when 0 is used, there are no such implications. For
example, in [3] John has a choice between a pool and the river.
Here, del is acceptable, but 0 is not.

[3] .y 3

'i7°-,vtJ

;"'t.:tJ

;t::..lt'''(''')II1: / *t-1*<

0 Jon wa puru ga kiraida kara taitei kawa de / *0 oyogu. (john usually

swims in the river because he doesn't like pools.) Second, when del
is used, the sentence often indicates that the purpose of the action is
the action itself, whereas when 0 is used it seems that there is
another purpose behind the action. For example, in [4] John swam in
order to escape, and swimming was not the purpose of his action.
Therefore, 0 is acceptable but del is not.

0 2 I 0 3 351

[4]

3
i}lIt- I *\!i7J<"'

ft=o Jon wa kawa 0 I *de oyoide nigeta. (John escaped by swimming

in the river.)

03

prt. !

rticle that marks the locat

>

from which some movement begins )

[REL. karal]

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (space) fL 'i 1N) -t:;

,=- *

lfi
Ilfi:tTo Watashi wa asa shichijihan ni uchi 0 deru I demasu. (I leave
home at 7: 30 in the morning.)

Examples

(a) ft.tJ

"

-* Iv

lfi t::.. o Kisha ga tonneru 0 deta. (A train came out of the tunnel.) (b)
/

!J t=

ii';::

-:J t::.. o Basu 0 orita toki tomodachi ni atta. (I met a friend when I
got off the bus.) (c) a*

*tL"(

.; L "("'

o Nihon 0 hanarete gaikoku de kurashite iru. (He left Japan and is

living abroad.)
=0=-

[Related Expression] The particle 0 3 in Exs. (a), (b), (c) can be

replaced by karal 'from t. The basic difference between 0 3 and karat
is that 0 3 marks the location from which some movement begins
and karal marks the initial location in movement from one location to
another. Thus, when focusing on both the new and old loca- tion of
something or someone, kara should be used instead of o. Consider
the following examples. (t:) kSTS I )

352 0 3 / 0 4 [1] a. fL':1

WJJ\

tJt*

/ *f.)\

tfjt::o Watashi wa kesa hachiji goro ie 0 / *kSTS deta. (This morning I

left my house at about eight.) b.

(J) ? ,:1 ? 't:>f.)\

/*

,;: tfjfcl tJ\ -:J t::o Kino wa uchi kSTS /*0 soto ni denakatta.
(Yesterday I didn't go outside.) [la] focuses on a point of detachment,
so 0 is acceptable but kara isn't. [lb], however, focuses on a starting
point, so kara is acceptable but 0 isn't.
04

prt.

--

a particle that marks the cause of

some human emotion

. Key Sentences (A)

=0=Ii

Topic (subject) Noun Verb (emotive) tX

'i )(: (])

m lu

.It.: / m

h-
t::.. o Jiro wa chichi no shi 0 kanashinda / kanashimimashita. . (Jiro
was saddened at his father's death.)

=======

(B)

Topic (subject) Nominalizer Verb (emotive) tX

'i )(: b<

A, t=.

/(J)

t.: / Jiro wa chichi gs shinds koto / no 0 kanashinda / m

h-

Lt::.. o kanashimi mash; ta. (Jiro was sad that his father died.)

0 4 353
Examples

(a) fL'i

Q)*

tt

t:. o Watashi wa Hiroshi no daigakunyugaku 0 yorokonda. (I was

happy about Hiroshi's entering college.) (b) 3 - tJ

.I

.A,:t

t::..

$tJ

tL-C

\ 0 0 Y oroppajin wa mata senso ga okiru koto 0 osorete iru.

(Europeans are afraid that war will break out again.) (c) mT'i*tB

Q)-¥

t
tJ

t!.o Nobuko wa Kyoto de no ichinen 0 natsukashinda. (Nobuko

nostalgically recollected her year in Kyoto.) (d) *'i

mtJ

tli*f

\oo Hayashi wa eigo ga dekinai koto 0 nayande iru. (Hayashi is

worried that he cannot speak English.)

em 1. Because the main verbs used in the KSs and the Exs., such
as kanashimu C sadden', yorokobu C rejoice', osoreru C fear',
natsukashimu C nostalgically recollect' and nayamu C worry' are all
inwardly-oriented psychological verbs they cannot be considered
transitive verbs in Japanese. Therefore, the particle 0 4 preceding
these verbs cannot be the ordinary direct object marker 0 which
normally marks an outwardly-oriented event. Rather it indicates the
cause for human emotion expressed by the main verb. Thus, it is
sometimes possible to rewrite the sentence in question using I 0 II
node C because '. (t:) node) For example, KS(A) and Ex. (a) can be
paraphrased as (1a) and (1b), respectively. (1) a. tX
'i

tJ

Iv t!. O)"'t!

'-

t:. 0 Jiro wa chichi ga shinda node kanashinda. (Jiro was sad

because his father died.) b. fL'iri'itJ

'

t::..o)"'t!tt

t!.o Watashi wa Hiroshi ga daigaku ni nyugakushita node yoro-

konda. (I was glad because Hiroshi entered college.) The original
versions are examples of written style and are seldom used in
conversational Japanese, but the rewritten versions can be used in
both spoken and written Japanese. 2. No matter what person (first,
second, third) the subject of this con-

354 0 4 / oi struction is, the main emotive verb is normally in the

stative te ;ru / inai form and / or in the past tense. In a generic
statement, however, the verb can be in the non-stative, nonpast form
as in (2): (2) t.: tL t m Q) , l., Co Dare demo oya no shi 0 kanashimu.
(Everybody is saddened by their parents' death.) 3. If the emotive
verb consists of adj(i)stem +suffix mu as in kanashi-mu C sadden',
natsukashi-mu C nostalgically recollect', oshi-mu C regret', ta- nosh;-
mu C enjoy', it can take the suffix -garu C show signs of -' as in
kanashi-garu, natsukashl-garu, oshi-garu and tanoshi-garu. Thus,
along with KS(A) we have a sentence type (3). (t:) gaTu) (3) 'i Q) ,
l.,f.)( -:) t=.o Jiro wa chichi no shi 0 kanashigatta. (Jiro showed signs
of being sad about his father's death.) (3) is a more objective
expression than KS(A), because the verb -garu C show signs of -'
has an outwardly-oriented meaning. = = 0 = ! Ii oi L' adj. (i) L or
number) i many; a lot of; much [REL. ozei; takusan] (ANT. sukunai) .
Key Sentence Topic (location) Subject a* 0:.) 'i * tJ). \ / $- \1:To Nihon
(ni) wa daigaku ga 6i / oidesu. . (Lit. In Japan universities are many.
(= There are a lot of universities in Japan.»

oi 355

Exa m ,Ies

(a) Jj(tBO;:) 'i:td

T 0 Kyoto (ni) wa o-tera ga oidesu. (There are many temples in

Kyoto.) (b) tJ A

lvQ)f'fJtO:.) 'irp'i!l

\tJ

$
\

To Rosu-san no sakubun (ni) wa machigai ga 6idesu. (There are

many mistakes in Mr. Ross's compositions.) (c) - J) 0;:) 'i

tJ

\o Ichigatsu (ni) wa yuki ga oi. (There is a lot of snow in January.)

em 1. Unlike the English' many', the Japanese oi cannot be used

before a noun, except in a relative clause where oi is the predicate of
the clause, not the modifier of the head noun. (1) *Jj(tB':":t

L':to

tJ

tb!J

To *Kyoto ni wa oi o-tera ga arimasu. (There are many temples in

Kyoto.) (2) :to

tJ

L '1UT':tJj(tB

To Q-tera ga oi machi wa Kyoto desu. (The town in which there are

many temples is Kyoto.) 2. Oi cannot be used in front of a noun, but
oku no can be used that way in written Japanese. Thus, (3)

< O)

!:E tJ;
¥7

7 tJ

a *Q) *

,:. * 0 0 Oku no gakusei ga maitoshi Ajia kara Nihon no daigaku ni

kuru. (Every year many students come to Japanese universities from
Asia.) 3. Sukunai, an antonym of oi, is very similar to oi in its use.
Neither sukunai nor oi can be used before nouns, except in relative
clauses. Sukunai differs from oi in that there is no counterpart of oku
C the majority' and of oku no C many'. (t:) sukunai) (4) a.

Q)IUT'i.tJ

L'

To Kono machi wa kuruma ga sukunaidesu. (There aren't many cars

in this town.) b. a *mQ)

flfltJ

!:E,:t

L '0 Nihongo no shinbun ga yomeru gakusei wa sukunai. (Few

students can read Japanese newspapers.)
_ 0 - - - .... = - - - - - - = = - -

356 oi

(Related Expressions] I. Oi and oku no can be replaced by ozei iru

and ozei no, respectively, if oi and oku no refer to human beings.
Ozei is used only for people. [1]

Q)$mo

) 'i

!:EtJ

L' / *

L'Qo Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi I ozei iTU. (There are a lot of
students in this room.) [2]

Q)$m o

) 'i

< (]) / *

(])

!:EtJ
,

Kono heya (ni) wa oku no lozei no gakusei ga iru. (There are a lot of
students in this room.) Qzei can be used by itself as an adverb, but
the adverbial form of oi cannot be used as an adverb in colloquial
speech.

[3]

!:EtJ

/*

< *t.: o Gakusei ga ozei / *oku kita. (Many students came.) I I. 0; and
oku no can be replaced by takusan aru I iru and takusan no, re-
spectively. Takusan can also be used by itself as an adverb.

=0=eI

[4]

Q)$m o

) 'imtJ
L' I t=. <

Iv N> Q 0 K ono heya (ni) wa tsukue ga oi / takusan aTU. (There are

a lot of tables in this room.) [5]

Q)$mo:.) 'i

!:EtJ

L' / t=. <

IvL'Qo Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi / takusan iTU. (There are a

lot of students in this room.) [6]

¥'it=.<

Iv/*

< 1**

tJ

-:Jt.:o Kotoshi wa takusan / *oku / *ozei yuki ga futta. (It snowed a lot
this year.) I I I. Oku can be used as a noun but ozei and takusan
cannot.

[7]

!:EQ)

< I **
I *t=. <

Iv'i

t.:. o Gakusei no oku I *ozei / *takusan wa otoko da. (The majority of

the students are male.)

oku 357 oku < aux. v. (Gr. 1) ! do .t. in advance for future con l
vemence ! .."".... ...... . Key Sentence do s.t. in advance; go ahead
and do s. t.; let s.o./s. t. remain as he/it is [REL. aTu 2 ] Vte tb t::.. /
-7.-( - To q) 1::" - Iv A"':)-C :td \ t::.. / :to L t::.. 0 Ashita pati 0 suru
node biru 0 katte oita I okimashita. (Since we are having a party
tomorrow, I bought some beer for it.) Formatien Vte :td < oku 15 '- -c
:td < (talk in advance) hanashite oku itA: -c :td < (eat s.t. in advance)
tabete oku Examples (a) a 'i ,;: tJ *oq) !Ji !f.B ,;:it -C:td \t::..o Kyo wa
hiru ni kyaku ga kuru node hirugohan 0 hayame ni tabete oita. (Since
I'm having a guest at noon today, I had my lunch earlier.) = 0 = i (b)
*¥a* n < tJ p L a*m %t L -C:td To Rainen Nihon e iku kara sukoshi
nihongo 0 benkyoshite okimasu. (Since I'm going to Japan next year,
I will study a little Japanese ahead of time.) em 1. Oku as a main
verb means 'put' or C place'. However, when it is used with V te, it is
an auxiliary verb meaning C do something in advance and leave the
resultant state as it is for future convenience'. 2. With a causative
verb, Vte oku can express the idea that someone lets someone or
something remain in his / its present state. Examples:

358 oku / 0 - ni naru (1) a. mT':t tL -c \ 0 tJ '? L ,:! '? < -tt-c t3 ? 0
Nobuko wa tsukarete iru kara shibaraku nesasete oko. (Since
Nobuko is tired, let's let her sleep for a while.) b. h- t::.. \ ? q) let. '?
M- let. t!. .t -tt-c t3 let. \o Nomitai to iu no nara sukina dake nomasete
okinasai. (If he says he wants to drink, let him drink as much as he
likes. ) However, if the context is not clear, causative Vte oku can be
ambigu- ous. For example, the following sentence can be interpreted
two ways. (2) fL':t 7':' 1:: -Iv iX* it-C 13 L't=.o Watashi wa Bobu ni
biru 0 nomssete oits. «A) I let (or make) Bob drink beer (for future
convenience). (B) I let Bob drink beer.) 3. V te oku may be
contracted into toku or doku in informal conversation. (3) a. J!-C t3< -
+J! c!:< (see - in advance) mite oku mi toku b. -C:- t3< -+ Iv < (read -
in advance) yonde oku yon doku !F'= o = 5 ! 5 = =- o -ni naru to - I Q
phr. . /'../ a phrase which expresses the speak- I ( er's respect for
someone when de- ) ! scribing that person's action or state ; ",, """" '-
""' ""./"../"'./""o """' [REL. 0 -SUTU; rareru l ] . Key Sentence Topic
(subject) ; V masu EE jt!:E ,;t b? t3 J ,=. I.t. -:J t::.. / I.t. !J L t:: 0
Tanaka-sensei wa mo o- kseri ni natta I narimashita. (Prof. Tanaka
already went home.)

o - ni naru 359

Formation

:to V masu ,:. tet, 0 0- ni naru

:to

'- ,;: tet, 0 (s.o. (will) talk) o-hanashi ni naru

:to

;t ,;: tet, 0 (s.o. (will) teach) o-oshie ni naru

Examples

(a)
Q)*

t ? :to

h-,;:tet,

* '-t::..tJ

o Kono hon 0 mo o-yomi ni narimashita ka. (Have you read this book
yet?) (b)

. '/

-;"

jt!:E'ifLQ)

:to

tL ,;: tet, -:J t::.. o Guddoman-sensei wa watashi no namae 0 o-

wasure ni natta. (Prof. Goodman has forgotten my name.)

em

1. In ordinary circumstances, 0- V masu ni naru is used when the

speaker describes someone's action or state with respect. However,
if a social norm requires the speaker to talk in honorific speech, the
honorific form is used, even if the speaker does not respect the
person he talks about. (For more detail, see Characteristics of
Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality.) Politeness is
expressed in this form by two elements: first by the polite prefix 0-,
and second by the verb naru, which describes someone's action or
state indirectly. This indirectness is a common strategy in polite
expressions. (t:) nSTu) 2. There are some verbs whose honorific
forms are expressed by special honorific verbs. (See Characteristics
of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality.) 3. When a verb
has the form cc N suru" like kekkonsuru 'marry' and denwasuru 'call'
its honorific form is "go- / o-N nasaru". Nasaru is the honorific form of
suru C do' and a Gr. 1 verb. (Note that Vmasu is nasai (masu), not
nasari (masu).) Except for a handful of exceptions which require 0-
(i.e., denwasuru C call', benkyosuru C study', ryorisuru C cook',
sentakusuru C wash', sojisuru C clean', sanposuru ' take a walk '),
go- precedes N. (t:) 0-, REL.) Examples:

o=;-

360 0 -ni naru / 0 -suru (1) IJ,Jlj;t!:E'i(lgJ) ,;: t L '*T 0 Koyama-sensei

wa shigatsu ni go-kekkon nasaimasu. (Prof. Koyama will get married
in April.) (2) * ':'13mUt L'* l.,t=tJ o Morimoto-san ni o-denwa
nasaimashita ka. (Did you call Mr. Morimoto?) (Related Expression]
Rareru l can also be used to describe respectfully someone's action
or state, as seen In [1], although the degree of politeness IS not as
high. (t:) TaTeTu l , Note 9) [1] a. EE ;t!:E'it?ffn'?tL '-t::..tJ o Tanaka-
sensei wa mo kaeraremashita ka. (Did Prof. Tanaka go home
already?) b. Q) * t ? tL t::.. tJ o Kono hon 0 mo yomaremashita ka.
(Have you read this book yet?) = 0 = I Ii o -suru to - 9Q phr. ! a
phrase which humbly expresses :::: > when describing the speaker's
action t ;: e that involves or affects that [REL. 0 - ni naru] . Key
Sentence Topic (subject) V masu fL 'i ;t!:E Q) A- 7-A jO t> t::.. / '- t::..
o Watashi wa sensei no sutsukesu 0 o-:p,ochi shita / shimashita. (I
carried my teacher's suitcase.)

o -suru 361

Fermation
:to Vmasu To o suru

:to

i5 '- To (s.o. (will) talk) o-hanashi suru :to

;t To (s.o. (will) teach) o-oshie suru

Examples

(a) .:t Q)

'ifLtJ

:td

J: ? 0 Sono koto wa watashi ga o-hanashi shimasho. (I will tell you

about that matter.) (b) JlJft8':tjt!:E';:*

;tofti!J L t::.. o Yamamura-kun wa sensei ni hon 0 o-kari shita. (Mr.

Yamamura borrowed a book from his teacher.)

.. 1. 0- V masu suru is used when the speaker wants to be polite

when talk- ing about something he or his in-group member did or will
do. (For more detail, see Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6.
Politeness and Formality.) For example, when a sales manager is
talking to a customer, the manager uses this pattern to describe what
his salesmen will do for the customer, as in (1). (1)

7' Iv 'i ijij a ? -t? Q) -e - Iv A -;"

tJ

:to 1fb It

To Sanpuru wa myonichi uchi no serusuman ga o-todoke shimasu.

«One of) Our salesmen will bring the sample to you tomorrow.) 2. 0-
V masu suru is used only when the speaker's (or his in-group mem-
ber's) action involves or affects the person the speaker wants to be
polite to. Thus, (2) is unacceptable under ordinary circumstances. (2)
*fLtJ

:toW.

To *Watashi ga o-aruki shimasu. (I will walk.) 3. There are some

verbs whose humble forms are expressed by special verbs. (See
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and for- mality.)
The rule in Note 2 does not apply to these verbs. That is, these
special verbs are also used as simple polite expressions and can be
used even if the speaker's (or his in-group member's) action does
not involve or affect the person the speaker wants to be polite to.

=0=I_
362 0 -suru / -owaru 4. When a verb has the form" N suru ", like
shokaisuru 'introduce' and denwasuru ' call', its humble form is " go- /
o-N suru" or, more politely, " go- / o-N itasu". (ltasu is the humble
form of the verb suru, do'.) Except for a handful of exceptions which
require 0- (i.e., denwasuru , call', benkyosuru ' study', ryorisuru
'cook', sentakusuru ' wash', soji- suru ' clean', sanposuru ' take a
walk '), go- precedes N. (t:) 0-, REL.) Examples: (3) l:ft Iv mft l, '*T /
L't.: l, '*T 0 Uemura-san 0 go-shokai shimasu / itashimasu. (Let me
(lit. I will) int'roduce Mr. Uemura.) (4) &; L t::..13. l, '*T / L't.: l, '*T 0
Ashita o-denwa shimasu / itashimasu. (I will call you tomorrow).
[Related Expression] 0- V masu ni naru is also used to express
politeness. However, 0- V masu ni naru and 0- V masu suru are
different in that the former is used when the speaker talks about
someone's action or state with respect, while the latter IS used when
the speaker talkJ about his own action or state. (t:) Characteristics of
Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality) o == = -- -owaru -
bQ aux. v. (Gr. 1) - i finish doing - 1 '''''''''''''. ../''''.,., finish; end [REL.
shimau] (ANT. -hajimeru) . Key Sentence V masu I{ m -:Jc!: 31- b -:J
/ b!) Lt::.. o Genjimonogatari 0 yatto yoml owatta / owarimashita. (I
finally finished reading The Tale of Genji.)

-owaru 363

Fermation

Vmasu I.

owaru

15 '-I.
b

(finish talking) hanashiowaru

1t

(finish eating) tabeowaru

Examples

(a) -\

-:J C!:

)(

tf

I.

b -:J t.: o Yatto ronbun 0 kakiowatta. (I finally finished writing a

paper.)

fi
1t

nb-:J

c!:

0 Chado gohan 0 tabeowatta tokoro desu. (I've just finished eating

my meal.)

em

1. -owaru is an auxiliary verb derived from the intransitive verb owaru

meaning 'end; comes to a close'. 2. - owaru can be replaced by -
oeru in written Japanese. - oeru, how- ever, conjugates as a Gr. 2
verb.

=0=mI

364 -rareru l rareru 1 bfLQ aux. v. (Gr. 2) . ! 'A state or an action

cannot be con- trolled by s.o. or s.t. I ( ....................... """""''' be -ed;
get -ed [REL. 0 ,."ni naTU; rareru 2 ) . Key Sentences (A) Topic
(subject) Agent Transitive Verb (passive) - tt :{ET ,.: ff.'f:. tL t::.. / f=
'f:. tL L t::.. 0 Ichiro wa Hanako ni damasareta / damasaremashita.
(Ichiro was deceived by Hanako.) (B) Topic (subject) Agent
Intransitive Verb (passive) .y;J:- tt 7 v t: ,.: jO.:t< 7 - r ,.: * '? tL t::.. /
Jen wa Fureddo . ni yoru osoku apato ni korare ta / *'?tL Lt::.. o
koraremashi ta. (Fred came to Jane's apartment late at night (and
Jane was unhappy).) (C) = 8 = i Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object
Transitive Verb (passive) fL tt m ,=. ?"- 14: '" '? tL t::.. / 14: '" '? tL L
t::.. 0 Watashi - wa ototo ni keki 0 taberareta / taberaremashita. . (Lit.
I got my cake eaten by my younger brother. ( = My younger brother
ate my cake (and I was unhappy).» (D) Topic (subject) Verb
(passive) aI 96!:E Ii a* J'o" ;tLt::.. / ;tL Lt::.. o Tanaka -sensei wa
Nihon e kaeTareta / kaeTaremashita. (Prof. Tanaka went back to
Japan. (Honorific»

rareru 1 365

Formation

( i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg tL

reru

J&

tL

hanasareru

(be told)

(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem '?tL

rareru
1t"''?tL

taberareru

(be eaten)

(iii) Irr. Verbs: *

-+ *'?tL

kuru korareru

-+

tL

(s.o. (X) comes to s.o. (Y) and Y IS unhappy) (be done)

suru sareru

Exa m pies

(a)
q)

"/ldi=

wH='

-C '?tLt::.. o Kono biru wa ninen mae ni taterareta. (This building was

built two years ago.) (b)

q) *f'i 1965

,=. 7' ;) !1 :IJ"t* ttl

tL t::.. o Kono hon wa 1965 nen ni Amerika de shuppansareta. (This

book was published in America in 1965.) (c) fL'i=

'=.

t.ttLt::..o Watashi wa ninen mae tsuma ni shinareta. (My wife died

two years ago (and gave me sorrow).) (d) }Jj{ aI

Iv fi

Iv ,=. fWj \t \ ::J - "

J\ b tL t::.. o Harada -san wa okusan ni takai k6to 0 kawareta. (Mr.

Harada's wife bought an expensive coat (and he is unhappy).) (e) ;f:-
*%!:E'i a *q)*

q) t c!:

al5
tLt::.. o Hayashi-sensei wa Nihon no daigaku no koto 0 hanasareta.
(Prof. Hayashi talked about Japanese universities. (Honorific»

=8=

em 1. There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One

can be called U direct passive" and the other, U indirect passive".
The direct passive is similar to the English passive. (KS(A), Exs. (a)
and (b» That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding
active sen- tence. For example, the active version of KS(A) is (1).

366 rareru l

(1) :{E-=f'i-

* '- t::..o Hanako wa Ichiro 0 damashita. (Hanako deceived Ichiro.)

As seen in KS(A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in
active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active
sen- tences is presented as the agent and marked by ni. (t:) nj3)
Note that verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive. 2.
When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a
state- ment from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The
agent is frequently omitted when he / it is not important and / or
unknown, as in Exs. (a) and (b).
3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in
direct passive sentences. Examples: (2) a. Active sentence .y 3

'i%!:E ,:.

rl=J

'- t::.. o Jon wa sensei ni shitsumon 0 shua. (J ohn asked his teacher
a question.) b. Direct passive sentence %!:E'i.y 3

,=.

rl=J

tL t::.. o Sensei wa Jon ni shitsumon 0 sareta. (The teacher was

asked a question by John.) 4. The agent in direct passive sentences
can also be marked by other particles, such as ni yotte and kara.

=8=

(3) Ni yotte a.

Q)

'i 'c0j} '.l f=J:

T.tJ

tJ
tLt::..o Kono e wa Pikaso ni yatte kakareta. (This picture was painted
by Picasso.) b. .

'iA:lvf= J:? T.

fYj

tLt::.. o Denwa wa Beru ni yatte hatsumeisareta. (The telephone was

invented by Bell.) Ni yotte, meaning 'depending on; owing to; by
means of', is usually used in written form or formal speech when X in
X ni yotte is a sort of medium through which or whom something is
done. When ni yotte is used, X ni yotte is usually under strong focus.
Therefore, the fol- lowing sentences are unacceptable under normal
circumstances.

rareru l 367

(4) a. *fLlj:

TI:: J:?"'C

t.=tLt.=o *Watashi wa Hanako ni yatte butareta. (I was hit by

Hanako.) b. * )11*

Iv Ii \1\':) ttt.,:: J: ? "'C

btL -C \1\

0 *Kawamoto-san wa itsumo shigoto ni yatte owarete iru. (Mr.

Kawamoto's work always keeps him busy.) Kara 'from' can be used
in place of ni when the agent is a sort of source, that is, when there
is something coming from the agent.
(5) Kara a. fL'i

!:EfJ\; a *Q)*

Q)

c!:

flfltJ

tLt::..o Watashi wa gakusei kSTS Nihon no daigaku no koto 0 kika-

reta. (I was asked by the students about Japanese universities.) b.
*EB

Iv Ii 1-J.1v t,t. fJ\;.fit

tL ""( \1\

0 Kida-san wa minna kSTS sonkeisarete iru. (Mr. Kida is respected

by eyerybody.) The following sentences are unacceptable because
the agents cannot be considered sources.

(6) a. *

Q)

t'i

;S f£? fJ\ ;

tL
'- t::.. o *Sono tokei wa dorobo kSTS nusumaremashita. (That watch
was stolen by a thief.) b. *

Q)

.'j:fLQ)

fJ\; c!: '? tLt.= t Q)"t*T 0 *Kono shashin wa watashi no chichi kSTS
torareta mono desu. (This picture is the one taken by my father.) 5.
The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in
English. The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and
the English passive in the following ways: (A) The verb can be
intransitive. (KS(B), Ex. (c» (B) The direct object can remain as the
direct object. (KS(C), Ex. (d» The indirect passive describes an
event (X) involving an action by someone or something (Y) which
affects another person (Z). As in direct passive sentences, the
subject (Z) has no control over the event. (t:) Characteristics of
Japanese Grammar,S. Passive) Consider the fol- lowing pair of
sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply that Taro
drank Jiro's beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, how- ever,
expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro's drinking beer.

=8=

R=i

368 rareru 1
It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro's action,
perhaps because the beer Taro drank belonged to J iro. (7) a. :t:

'i(X

Q)

.-Iv

lvt.:o Taro wa Jiro no b;ru 0 nonda. (Taro drank Jiro's beer.) b. (X

'i :t:

,:.

. - Iv

i: tL t::.. o Jiro wa Taro ni biru 0 nomareta. (Jiro was annoyed by

Taro's drinking beer.) 6. In the indirect passive construction, Z is
usually presented as the topic, marked by wa, and Y as the agent,
marked by ni, as seen In KS(B) and KS(C).

7. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction

IS also referred to as " adversity passive" or " suffering passive ".
(KS(B), KS(C), Exs. (c) and (d» However, whether X affects Z
negatively or positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a
"victim ", as seen in (8) where Z is affected positively. (8) fWi

Iv 'i

.AJ;:f1H;:.m '? tL -r .:=. :1 .:=. :1 '- -r \1\

0 Takayama-san wa bijin ni yoko ni suwararete nikoniko shite iru.

(Lit. Mr. Takayama, having a pretty woman sit beside him, is smiling
happily. (=A pretty woman sat beside Mr. Takayama and he is
happy.» 8. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked
by ni. If a passive sentence contains an NP ni, as well as an agent
marked by ni, the agent must precede the NP ni. Example: (9) a. fL'i"
A f=;) 7 !1 - f=.

tLt::.. o Watashi wa Tomu ni Mear; ni denwasareta. (Tom called Mary

(and I was unhappy).) b. *fL'i j 7 !1 - f= " A f=.

tLt::.. o *Watashi wa Mear; ni Tomu ni denwasareta. (Tom called

Mary (and I was unhappy).) 9. Passive verbs are also used as
honorific expressions, as in KS(D) and Ex. (e), though the degree of
politeness is lower than that of the" 0- V masu ni naru" form and
special honorific verbs. (t:) 0 ,." ni nSTU; Characteristics of Japanese
Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality) Polite- ness, in this case, is
conveyed through the indirectness of the passive construction.

rareru 1 369
10. Passive verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as
follows: (10)

tL-l> (nonpast-inf-affirmative) hanasareTu

15

tLtlL\ (nonpast-inf-negative) hanasarenai

-8

tL -c (te-form) hanasarete

15

tL t=. (past - i nf - affirmati ve) hanasareta

[Related Expression] The potential form of Gr. 2 verbs is the same

form as the passive form. (t:) TaTeTu 2 ) Potential, passive or
honorific structures are identified through syntax and context.
Examples: [1] 96!:E'ijfiIJ

fJ(1t

'?tL

o (Potential) Sensei wa sashimi ga taberareru. (My teacher can eat

sashimi.) [2] %!:Efj:jfiIJ
1t

'?tLt

o «A) Honorific, (B) Potential or (C) Indirect passive) Sensei wa

sashimi 0 taberareta «A) My teacher ate sashimi. (B) My teacher
could eat sashimi. (C) Someone ate sashimi and my teacher was
unhappy.) [3] %!:Efi

!£f=jfilJ

1t

'? tL t::.. o (Indirect passive) Sensei wa gakusei ni sashimi 0

taberareta. (The teacher had (his) sashimi eaten by his students.) As
seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by ga, taberareru can only
be interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by ni,
however, taberareru expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If
there is no agent marked by ni and the direct object is marked by 0,
taberareru is ambiguous; it can be either honorific, potential or
indirect passive, as seen in [2].

=8=

--

370 rareru 2

rareru 2 b tL Q
aux. v. (Gr. 2)

I ' an auxiliary verb which indicates po- j tential

be able to do s.t.; can do s.t.; be -able; - can be done [REL. kikoeTu;

koto ga dekiTu; mieTu]

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (experiencer) Object of Action Verb (potential) fL Ii a*m tJ

cY>

cY>

To Watashi wa nihongo ga yomeru / yomemasu. (I can read

Japanese.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Verb (potential) =.,q) 7k Ii AX cY> t,t. \t \ / AX cY>

it Iv 0 Kono mizu wa nomenai / nomemasen. . (This water is not
drinkable.)

Formation

=8=

( i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vcond z> ru

it

(can talk) hanaseru

(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem

tL

rareru

1t"''?tL

taberareru

(can eat)
(iii) Irr. Verbs:

-. *

tL

kuru korareru

(can come)

To -. ili*o suru dekiru Ikareru is often used as the potential form of iku
' go' (Gr. 1).

(can do)

rareru 2 371

Examples

(a) "7=} rj

Iv fijfiIJ
tJ;1t

'? tL

0 Buraun-san wa sashimi ga taberareru. (Mr. Brown can eat sashimi

(=sliced raw fish).) (b)

aI

Iv fi 7"':=' A tJ

ttl*

0 Terada-san wa tenisu ga dekiru. (Mr. Terada can play tennis.) (c)

':'Q)*fiMf

t.t\t\o Kono ji wa yomenai. (This letter is not readable.)

em

1. In potential expressions, if there is an experiencer, that noun

phrase is usually marked by wa and the object of the action by either
ga or o. (t:) I'W wa I'W ga) Compare (1a) and (1b). (1) a. Non-
potential fL'i

'-

To Watashi wa eigo 0 hanashimasu. (I speak English.) b. Potential

fLfi

mfJ( /
lSit

To Watashi wa eigo ga / 0 hanasemasu. (I can speak English.) 2. In

general, the choice between ga and 0 seems to depend on the
degree of volition expressed in the action the experiencer takes.
That is, if his volition is high, 0 is preferable. Thus, in the following
sentences, ga is unnatural.

=8=

--

(2) a. fL'i

J:: ? c!: I

;t '£\t\"':)"t* t

Q)tt.

/ *fJ(

'? tL

0 Watashi wa yamey6 to omoeba itsu demo ima no shigoto o / *ga

yamerareru. (I can quit my current job whenever I want to quit (lit.
whenever I think I will quit it).) b.

'i
-:J c!: Q)

\t\"t*

7t

/ *fJ(jO

;t '? tLt::.. o Boku wa yatto no omoi de jibun 0 / *ga osaerareta. (I

could barely control my emotions (lit. hold myself).) 3. Dekiru' can
do', however, always requires the object of an action to be marked
by ga, as in Ex. (b). Another example follows:

=8=

372 rareru 2

(3) fL'i 1-.:r. A fJ( / *

m*

0 Watashi wa chesu ga / *0 dekiru. (I can play chess.) 4. The spatial

0 (i.e., 0 2 ) and the detachment 0 (i.e., 03) do not change into ga in
potential expressions. (4) Space a. fL'icbq)

fm

/ *fJ(

-A
'tf

'o Watashi wa ana koen 0 / *ga yoru hitori de arukenai. (I can't walk
through that park by myself at night.) b.

q)m

/ *IJ« ":)

'itJ

T'='

't"£TtJ

o Kono michi 0 / *ga kutsu 0 hakazu ni arukemasu ka. (Can you walk
along this road without shoes on?) (5) Detachment

f3 'i ? 't?

/ *1J<m G tL"£ it No Kyo wa uchi 0 / *ga deraremasen. (I can't leave

home today.) 5. If the experiencer is clear from the context and / or
the situation, or if the experiencer is a person in general, he is
usually omitted and the object of the action is presented as a topic
marked by wa, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c). 6. Non-volitional verbs like
wakaru 'understand, be understandable'; jru 'need, be necessary';
aru 'exist'; aku 'open (v.i.)' and kusaru 'rot (v.i.)' do not have potential
forms. 7. The potential forms of miru 'see' (mirareru) and kiku 'hear'
(kikeru) are similar to the verbs mieru 'be visible' and kikoeru 'be
audible', respectively, but their uses are different. (t:) kikoeTu; mieTu)
8. The idea of potentiality can also be expressed by Vinf. nonpast
koto ga dekiru. (t:) koto ga dekiTu) 9. Potential verbs are all Gr. 2
verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows: (6)

it
(can talk) hanaseTU

ittl" \ (cannot talk) hanasenai

it-C (can talk and, (te-form» hanasete

rareru 2 / rashii 373 l5itt= (could talk) hanasets 10. There is another
potential form for Group 2 verbs. (7) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem '1 reru :tt --.
:tt tL taberu tabereru This form, however, is used only in informal
conversation. rashii b l., t \ aux. adj. (i) ) \ an auxiliary adjective which
indicates 5 that the preceding sentence is the S ) speaker's
conjecture based on what he has heard, read or seen ? seem; look
like; apparently; I heard [REL. yods (daro; soda 2 )] . Key Sentence
Sentence (informal)t t fB Iv 'i 7;; Y j] -... ft( G L ' / G L ' To Matsuda-
san wa Amerika e iku rashii / rashiidesu. (It seems that Mr. Matsuda
is going to America.) = 8 = m ; tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.
Formation ( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf t".:> L ' rashii { I5T / 15 Lt.:} G L ' (It
seems that s.o. (will) talk / talked.) {hanasu / hanashita} rashii { , /
f@jtJ\ -:J t.:} G L ' (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.) {takai /
takakatta} rashii

374 rashii

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / NJ {0 / t!. -:J t::..} {o / datta} { fit !p / /{[t IJ \ t!. -:J
t::..} G l, "', {shizuka / shizukadatta} rashii {%1: / %1: t!. -:J t::..} t J l,
"', {sensei / sensei datta} rashii

G l, "', rashii

(It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)

(It seems that s.o. is / was a teacher.)

Examples

(a) f

Iv ,;t t ? fr'ff -:J t::.. c:> l, "" "t: To Sugimoto-san wa mo kaetta rashii
desu. (Mr. Sugimoto seems to have gone home already.)

(b) &bq)

q)A

Q'i

l,"" G L

'o Ano gakko no nyugakushiken wa muzukashii rashii. (That school's

entrance exam seems difficult.)

(c)

q)
t::.. !J 'i

"( t r; tJ

G l, "', "t: To Kono atari wa totemo shizuka rashiidesu. (This

neighborhood seems very quiet.)

(d) .:t q)

I5'i*

G l, ""0 Sono hanashi wa honto rashii. (That story seems true (lit. the
truth).) (e)

'i¥

G L ""0 Koko wa gakko rashii. (This place seems to be a school.)

=8==

=====

em 1. Rashii is generally used when the speaker makes a conjecture

based on some information which he has heard, read or seen. What
he has heard is especially important. Unlike soda 2 , which
expresses a simple guess based on what the speaker sees, rashii is
used when the conjecture is based on more reliable information. (t:)
soda 2 ) (For a comprehensive comparison of conjecture
expressions, see yoda, Related Expressions.) 2. If there has been
relatively little conjecture in the speaker's mind, rashii is almost the
same as the hearsay expression soda l . (t:) soda l ) 3. Negative
conjecture is expressed by a negative predicate and ra sh ii, as in
(1).

rashii 375

( 1) a . fB t=1

Iv 'i r

- T ..( - '=-17 fJ\ fl L' G l..,

'o Taguchi-san wa pat; ni iksnsi rashii. (It seems that Mr. Taguchi
won't go to the party.) b. ;; 7 Y - 'i

... JvtJ;tf

L;

fl L' G l..,

'o Mear; wa Biru ga sukijansi rashii. (It seems that Mary doesn't like
Bill.) 4. Another use of rashii is as follows:

(2) **

Iv 'i:9J G L.

'o Oki-san wa otoko rashii. (Mr. Oki is manly.)

Here, rashii means likeness. is like the ideal model of Y. that Oki is a
man.") 5. Since rashii is an i-type adjective, it can also precede
nouns, as in (3).

That is, "X wa Y rashii" means that X (Of course, (2) can also mean "
It seems

(3) fL'i m; L L '.A tJ;tlf

t.: 0 Watashi wa otoko Tsshii hito ga sukida. (I like a manly man.)

The negative version of (2) is (4). (4) **

lv'i:9J; L < flL'o Oki-san wa otoko Tsshikunai. (Mr. Oki is not manly.) If
Oki-san wa otoko (da) is negated, the meaning changes. (5) **

Ivfi:9J L;

flL' G l..,

'o Oki-san wa otoko jsnsi rashii. (It seems that Oki is not a man.)

=8=

!!

376 Relative Clause Relative Clause . Key Sentences (A) Topic

(subject) Predicate Relative Clause Noun fBrp 1v tJ it t::.. AT- 'i frij tJ
-:J t::.. / tJ -:J t::.. To Tanaka-san ga tabeta su teki wa takakatta /
takakattadesu. (The steak that Mr. Tanaka ate was expensive.) (B)
Direct Object Transitive Verb Relative Clause Noun AT- tJ; :Jo 'L '
VA"7 G f ' / t) "£ it Iv tJ o Suteki ga oishii resutoran 0 shiranai /
shirimasen ka. (Do you know a restaurant which has good steak (lit.
in which steak is good)?) Formation RI ( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf+N {giST /
giS Lt.:} A (a person who (will) talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita}
hito {frij ' / tJ -:J t:} * (a book which is / was expensive) {taka; /
takakatta} hon ( ii) Adj (na) stem {f / t.: -:J t::..} N {na / datta} {r;tJ f /
r;tJ t':-:Jt::..} * (a house which is / was quiet) {shizukana /
shizukadatta} ie (iii) N (q) / t.: -:J t::.. / / -:J t::..} N {no / datta / de aru /
de atta} 961: {q) / } fB rp Iv (Mr. Tanaka (,) who is a teacher) sensei
{no / de aru} Tanaka-san 961: {t.: -:J t::.. / -:J t::..} sensei {datta / de
atta} fBrp 1v Tanaka-san (Mr. Tanaka (,) who was a teacher)

Relative Clause 377

Examplrs

(a) f3 *m

;t "( "', Q 96!£ 'i IJ...* 96!:E

To Nihongo 0 oshiete iru sensei wa Kobayashi-sensei desu. (The

teacher who is teaching Japanese is Prof. Kobayashi.) (b) T'::' A
tJ;l:=Ff

;t "( < t!.

""0 Tenisu ga jozuna hito 0 oshiete kudasai. (Please tell me of a

person who is good at tennis.) (c) jO
Iv tJ;

1tq)

!£'i=:A "', "£ To O-to-san ga isha no gakusei wa sannin imasu. (There

are three students whose fathers are doctors.)

(d) fLtJ; "', t::..PfT 'i

tJ;f

tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi ga ita machi wa byoin ga nakatta. (There was no

hospital in the town where I lived.) (e) JiTtJ;ff <

'i*Jj('

cb !J "£ To Michiko ga iku gakko wa Tokyo ni arimasu. (The school

where Michiko is going is in Tokyo.) (f) AT .{ - '7 tJ; cb f

t::.. q)'Jf.1(

-:J t::.. j] ;; 7 'i .:: tL

T tJ

o Sutibu ga anata no shashin 0 totta kamera wa kore desu ka. (Is

this the camera with which Steve took pictures of you?)
em 1. The procedure for making relative clauses consists of several
steps. The following steps show how to relativize suteki ' steak' in
(la) in order to obtain the' clause modifying suteki in (lb). (1) a. .y 3

'i A T - '*

it

"£ L t::.. 0 Jon wa sufiki 0 tabemashita. (J ohn ate a steak.) b. .:t.- q)

A T - '* 'i jO "', l.., tJ

-:J t::..

To Sono sufiki wa oishikattadesu. (The steak was delicious.) Step 1:

Delete the common noun phrase in the relative clause. ([ ] indicates
the relative clause boundary.) (2) [.y 3

'i "

it

"£ L t::..] AT - '* 'ijO "" L tJ

-:J t::..

T 0 [Jon wa 0 0 tabemashita] sufiki wa oishikattadesu. Step 2: Delete

the particle which remains.

=8'ii=

378 Relative Clause

81
(3) [

,;t " it

"£ L t::..] AT -

'i:Jo

' l.., tJ

-:J t::.. -c,;T 0 [Jon wa 0 tabemashita] suteki wa oishikattadesu. Step

3: Change the predicate into an appropriate form. (See Formation.)
(4) [.y 3

'i*

t::] AT-

'i:Jo

' LtJ

-:Jt::..-c,;To [Jon wa tabeta] suteki wa oishikattadesu. Step": If the

topic marker wa appears in the clause, replace it with the appropriate
particle. (If wa follows another particle, delete wa.) In this example,
Jon is the subject; therefore, the particle which replaces wa is the
subject marker ga. (t:) ga; wa (l

) (5) [.y 3

fJ(1t

t::..] AT -

'i:Jo
' l.., tJ

-:J t::.. -c,; To [Jon ga tabeta] suteki wa oishikattadesu. (The steak

that John ate was delicious.) The clause in brackets in (5) is the final
form of the relative clause when suteki is relativized in (la). 2. As
seen in the procedure for relativization in Note 1, the relative clause
construction in Japanese has several characteristics: (A) Relative
clauses precede their corresponding relativized nouns. (B) There are
no relative pronouns like which, that and who In English. (c) Particles
which were affixed to relativized nouns are deleted. (D) The topic
marker wa does not appear in relative clauses. 3. No can also be
used to mark the subject in relative clauses, as in (6). (6) .y 3

fJ( / (J)1t

t::.. A T -

Jon ga / no tabeta suteki (the steak that John ate) No cannot be

used in place of ga, however, if the subject of the sentence is
followed by a noun, as in (7a). If no is used in this construction, the
meaning of the sentence changes, as seen in (7b).

(7) a. " A fJ( 7 '/ ,,

- }vq)mff

cYJ 'ft::..j.(q)T T omu ga futtoboru no kippu 0 ageta onna no ko (the

girl to whom Tom gave a football ticket) b. }- A (J) 7 '/ ,,

- }vq);Uff

cb 'ft.:j.(q)T T omu no futtoboru no kippu 0 ageta onna no ko (the girl

to whom (someone) gave Tom's football ticket)

Relative Clause 379

4. Besides the relative clause construction explained above,
Japanese has a construction which looks similar to the one above.
As seen in Note 1, in a genuine relative clause construction, the
relativized noun (the head noun) is part of the original sentence from
which the relative clause was derived. In this construction, however,
the "head noun" is not part of the original sentence. For example, in
(8), nioi 'smell' is not part of the sentence Sakana ga kogeru. 'Fish is
burning.'

(8) f! tJ

.::

:to

'o sakana ga kogeru nioi (the smell of burning fish (lit. the smell
which fish burns»

The relationship between the U relative clause" and the" head noun
", as seen in (8), is as follows: Suppose that X is the "head noun".
Then, X is something which was brought about by the event
expressed in the U relative clause ", but is not something which was
explicitly stated. For example, in (8) the U head noun" nioi 'smell' is
some- thing brought about when fish burns, but is not an explicit part
of the original sentence. Here are some more examples of this type
of con- struction:
(9) t!.

'LtJ

tJ

0? tJ

if dareka ga roka 0 hashiru oto (the sound of someone's running in

the hall)

(10) kit:

L t::..

t if

kami 0 moyashita kemuri (the smoke which came out when

someone burned papers (lit. the smoke which someone burned
papers»

= 8 = =- =

(11) UH
-:J t::..1li tL yama ni nobotta tsukare (fatigue which was caused from
climbing a mountain (lit. fatigue that (someone) climbed a mountain»
5. The following examples are usually considered to be appositive
clause constructions rather than relative clause constructions,
because in these examples what is expressed by the preceding
clause is the following noun itself.

a*

n<Hfi/

/. Nihon e iku keikaku / kangae / yotei / yume (the plan / idea /

schedule / dream that (I am) going to Japan)

380 Relative Clause

(13) E *---fT -:J t::...

/ tIQ /

15 /

,
'l:fi Nihon e itta jijitsu / keiken / hanashi / omoide (the fact /
experience / story / memory that (I) went to Japan) 6. In relative
clauses in Japanese, the restrictive use and the non-restrictive use
cannot be distinguished from the structure. It is usually determined
from the context and / or the situation. The following examples are
ambiguous.

=8=

(14) fLtJ

E*

ft

;;t -C &:> 'it::.. 7

7?

Iv 'i J: <

%iT Q 0 Watashi ga nihongo 0 oshiete ageta Buraun-san wa yoku

ben- kyosuru. «A) Mr. Brown, to whom I taught Japanese, studies
well. (B) (Among those Browns we know the) Mr. Brown to whom I
taught Japanese studies well.) (15) J: < 1

< E *A 'i

G b tL -3 0 Yoku hataraku nihonjin wa kirawareru. «A) Japanese

people, who work hard, are hated. (B) Japanese people who work
hard are hated.) 7. The ease of relativization of a noun phrase differs
depending on the particle marking the phrase. (16) shows the
particle hierarchy. Here, noun phrases marked by the particles in the
upper position are easy to relativize and noun phrases marked by
the particles in the lower position are hard to relativize. (16)
ga>01>ni 2 >ni 6 >02>e>de l >de 2 (means»kara l (source»no l >
karal (starting point» t0 2 >de 2 (cause / reason» yori l Concerning
the relativization of noun phrases in simple sentences, noun phrases
marked by de 2 (cause / reason) and yori l cannot be relativized, but
those marked by the rest of the particles in (16) can.

-sa 381 -sa suf. , > a suffix that makes a noun out of an I adjective by
attaching it to the stem 5 of an Adj (i) or much less frequently to the
stem of an Adj (na) 5 -ness; -ty [REL. -mi] . Key Sentence Adj (i)
stem ::"q) 5't? q) 'i 't?J:?E "',"', / """" To Kono uchi no hiTo a wa chodo
ii / iidesu. (The size of this house is just right.) Fermation Adj (i / na)
stem sa (height) takasa ffttJ (quietness) shizukasa Examples (a)
1l;:f:UJq) 'i Eq) (' G "" TtJ o Fujisan no takasa wa dona gurai desu
ka. (What is the approximate height of Mt. Fuji?) (b) f3 *mq) L tJ J: <
7ttJ "£ L t::.. o Nihongo no muzukashisa ga yoku wakarimashita. (I'm
now well aware of the difficulty of Japanese.) ( c) 7;; j] q) J: 'i .{ ;;t.::.
7 · A (::0 ':I " L J: 5 0 Amerika no yo sa wa paionia supiritto desho.
(One of America's good qualities is perhaps its pioneering spirit.) = 5
= = em 1. The suffix -sa is a very productive suffix that makes a noun
out of an adjective. Some typical examples are given below:

382 -sa

fIT '-

(newness / freshness) atarashisa

*
 okisa

(s i ze )

)ffi:

(speed) hayasa :N:

(length) nagasa 13

(whiteness) shirosa

%t

(strength) tsuyosa

J:

(goodness / merit) yosa

(blackness) kurosa

2. Adj (na) stem+sa is not commonly used. It is suggested that the

learner avoid using it. Some of the most commonly used Adjs (na)
stem+sa are the following:
fIflJ

(convenience) benrisa

lEit

(accuracy) seikakusa

(loyality) chDjitsusa (/) E tJ

(calmness) nodokasa

(perfection) kanpekisa

,:.

tJ

nigiyakasa
(liveliness)

3. When an adjective can be paired with another adjectival antonym

as in okii 'big' vs. chisai 'small', the positive counterpart, (i.e., okii)
tends to acquire a meaning of absolute degree when -sa is attached,
as in okisa 'size'. Examples follow:

. 5 - .. = i

Positive Negative JJ

(breadth) "ff.

(thinness) atsusa ususa m

(weight) f1

(lightness) omosa karusa .'-

(difficulty) -\

'-

(easiness) muzukashisa yasashisa ?tL'-

(joy)

'-
(sadness) ureshisa kanashisa

(depth) lt

(shallowness) fukasa asasa

-sa 383

Positive Negative

(height)

(lowness) takasa hikusa .

(heat)

(coldness) atsusa samusa iI

(density) "ff.

(thinness) kosa ususa *

(size) Ij"
(smallness) 6kisa chisasa

(size of space)

(smallness of space) hirosa semasa %t

(strength)

(weakness) tsuyosa yowasa

(Related Expression] -sa describes, in an analytical manner, the

degree of the state represented by an adjective, but -mi, another
noun-forming suffix, is a more emotive and concrete characterization
of some state (based primarily on direct perception). Only a limited
number of Adj (i) can be used with -mi. Examples:

.:;JFh (reddishness) akami

'-h (sorrow) kanashimi

Jf.h (thickness) atsumi

h (depth) fukami
h (weakness) yowami

-s

----

-===- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

PitJ

h (warmness) atatakami

ith amami

(s weetness)

(bitterness)

1; '-h (painfulness) kurushimi

1;h nigami 5!Uh (strength) tsuyomi

Consider the following sentences in which -sa is unacceptable.

[1] &; q),A'ijO t L..-sh / *jO t L..-s

tJ

tl

\t10 Ano hito wa omoshiromi / *omoshirosa ga nai nee (He just lacks
something that attracts people.)

384 -sa / -sama [2] '-h/* '- ':''-""( \*To Tanoshimi / *tanoshisa ni shite
imasu. (I'm looking forward to it.) In both [1] and [2] the -sa version is
unacceptable because both sentences express something concrete
that can be expressed only by -mi. The fact that nouns with the suffix
-mi indicate something concrete seems to be related to a general
tendency of nasal sounds. (t:) Characteristics of Japanese Grammar,
8. Sound Symbolisms) -sama tJ suf. "V- a suffix (originally meaning
'appear- ance') that indicates the speaker's / writer's politeness
towards s.O. N Mr.; Miss; Ms.; Mrs. [REL. -chan; -kun; -san]
Examples (a) X: q) 1+ 'i ;S i q) 1+ t.: 0 Q-sama no mimi wa roba no
mimi da. (The King's ears are donkey's ears.) - - - == 5 - - - - - = - - - -
(b) flt3 rn- 1.: * T tJ o Kami-sama 0 shinjimasu ka. (Do you believe in
God?) (c) Ttj Iv, 'itojJ t to t tL \t1;to Hanako-chan, kon'ya wa o-tsuki-
sama mo o-hoshi-sama mo kirei nee (Hanako, aren't the moon and
the stars beautiful tonight!) (d) to-a} , E ,:. \ -:J '- :5 q) ? O-ka-sama,
doko ni irassharu no? (Mother, where are you going?) (e) to$ tJ J!;t
t::.. J: 0 O-kyaku-sama ga mieta yo. (Our guests have come.)

-sama 385
em 1. The reason why -sama ' appearance' is used to show one's
respect is that -sama allows one to refer indirectly to one's superior.
For instance, Yamada -sama is a more indirect way to refer to a
person called Yamada than to call him simply Yamada, because
Yamada -sama literary means 'appearance of Yamada'. Note,
however, that a personal name+sama is not used in conversational
Japanese, except in highly polite speech used to clientele by clerks /
attendants of hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, department stores,
etc. 2. -sama attached to a personified object shows more
endearment than respect, as in Ex. (c). 3. -sama can also be
attached to some action or state related to the hearer, as in (1)
through (5) below: (1)

Itf!

'- t::..)o Go-chiso-sama (deshita). (It was such a treat.)

(2) to-tltm5

'co tl !J * '- t::.. o Q-sewa-sama ni narimashita. (Thank you for all that
you've done for me.) (3) to

q).

'- t::..)o Q-ki no doku-sama (deshita). (Lit. It was a pitiful matter.

(That's too bad.» (4) to1BltL

'- t::..)o Q-tsukare-sama (deshita). (You must be very tired.) (5) totJ
.j

7G

To Q -kage-sama de genkidesu. (Lit. Thanks to you I'm fine. (I'm fine,

thank you.» 4. In written Japanese, esp. after the addressee's name
in a letter, etc., -sama is used as in:

_5-----

== - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(6) 11HE-

Yamada Ichiro-sama (Mr. Ichiro Yamada)

(Related Expressions] I. Two related forms, -san and -chan are

derived from -sama through

386 -sama

phonetic modifications. -san is the informal version of -sama and

there- fore less honorific and more intimate than -sama. Except for
Exs. (a) and (b), in which the highest superiors appear, -sama can
be replaced by -san. -san can also be attached to names of
occupations and titles as In:

[1] Name of occupation+san

Iv (fishmonger) sakana-ya-san

to¥Tm

Iv (confectioner) o-kashi-ya-san mim

Iv (wine dealer) saka-ya-san

[2] Title+san t3C-B:

Iv (principal) kocho-san

m -B:

Iv (mayor) shicho-san aI-B:

Iv (section chief) kacho-san -chan is used with children's names or in

child-like language. Normally this suffix is attached only to kinship
terms or first names as in:

s-
[3] Kinship terms +chan to-a}1:>

1v (mom) o-ka-chan to

1:>

1v (pop) o-to-chan to t:.

\ 1:>

Iv (grandpa) o-ji-chan to

i it; 1:>

Iv (grandma) o-ba-chan tot:.1:>

1v (uncle) oji-chan to

i 1:>

Iv (auntie) oba-chan

-sama / saseru 387 [4] First name + chan T Iv (Hanako) Hanako-

chan :t: Iv Taro-chan II. -kun is a similar Sino-Japanese suffix which
can be attached to a male equal or male inferior's first name and / or
last name. It is sometimes used to refer to a female or a male in an
institution such as a school or a company. Etymologically -kun has
nothing to do with -sama and its variants. (t:) -kun) (Taro) saseru it Q
aux. v. (Gr. 2) ....,, cause s.o. / s.t. to do s.t. or cause s.t. to change
its state ""'--"- ........ "- make s.o. / s.t. do s.t.; cause s.o. / s.t. to do
s.t.; let s.o. / s.t. do s.t.; allow s.o. / s.t. to do s.t.; have s.o. / s.t. do
s.t.; get s.o. / s.t. to do s.t. . Key Sentences (A) Topic (causer)
Causee Intransitive Verb (causative) * Iv 'i trT / ,:. * '" 17 f.)\ -tt t::.. /
17 f.)\ -tt * L t::.. 0 Suzuki-san wa musume 0/ ni daigaku e ikaseta /
ikasemashita. (Mr. Suzuki made / let his daughter go to college.) _ 5
- - - - - == (B) Topic (causer) Causee Direct Object Transitive Verb
(causative) 'i ,:. t07 J t>-ttt::.. / t>-tt* Lt::..o Chichi wa imoto nl piano 0
naTawaseta / naTawasemashita. . (My father made (or let) my
younger sister learn to play the piano.)

388 saseru

Fermatien

( i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg -tt Q seru

-tt Q (cause to talk) hanasaseru

(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem

-tt Q saseru

1tA:

-ttQ tabesaseru

(cause to eat)
(iii) Irr. Verbs:

*Q -+ *

-ttQ kuru kosaseru

(cause to come)

TQ -+

-ttQ suru saseru

(cause to do)

Examples

_5-=-

(a) {}

-r'ifL

-ttt::..o Hisako wa watashi 0 komaraseta. (Lit. Hisako made me have

trouble. (= Hisako caused me trouble.» (b)
q) -7 - A 'i.y A ':.M1t::.. -tt J: ? c!: l

, ? 0 Kono gemu wa Jimu ni kataseyo to omou. (I think I'll let Jim win
this game.) (c)

Ji'ifL':'1- ':I 7°

fbb-ttt::..o Tomodachi wa watashi ni chippu 0 harawaseta. (My friend

made me leave (lit. pay) a tip.) (d) 7

I/

- '.l

lv'i-r{jtJi':.

t.:,t 7.{ A

!J - A

it

-ttt::.. o Andason-san wa kodomotachi ni sukina dake aisukur;mu 0

tabesaseta. (Mr. Anderson let his children eat as much ice cream as
they liked.) (e) fL'i

T-t:\:

Iv
to t

-tt t.: o Watashi wa reizoko de miruku 0 koraseta. (Lit. I made milk

freeze (= I froze milk) in the refrigerator.) (f)

tL'ifL':.

-tt""C < t.:

""0 Sore wa watashi ni sasete kudasai. (As for that, let me do it.)

em

1. The idea that someone / something (= the causer) causes or

allows some-

saseru 389

one / something (= the causee) to do something is expressed by the

caus- ative construction. In the causative construction, the causer is
usually marked by wa in main clauses and by ga in subordinate
clauses. When the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is
marked by either 0 or ni. The choice between the two particles
depends on the following general rule. When ni is used, the causee
has taken an action intention- ally. For example, ni is ungrammatical
in (1) because the causee didn't intend to go to the party in this
situation. (1)

'ifLt- / *I=fi!J
!J /

-7

fTtJ

-ttt::..o Chichi wa watashi 0 / *ni muriyari pati e ikaseta. (My father

forced (lit. forcefully made) me to go to the party.) Also, ni is
ungrammatical in (2) because the causee is a non-volitional entity
and, therefore, has no intent (cannot take a volitional action). (2)
fL'i.l'

11 1- t- / * 1= L

-tt t::.. o Watashi wa hankachi 0 / *ni shimeraseta. (Lit. I made my

handkerchief get damp. (= I dampened my hand- kerchief.» 0, on the
other hand, can be used regardless of the causee's volition, as seen
in (3) and (4). Whether a sentence expresses" permissive" causa-
tive or "coercive" causative depends on the context and / or the
situa- tion.

(3) a. fL'i

tJ

Q fiT

t- / * 1= fi
i7ktJ

-tt t.: o Watashi wa iyagaru musuko 0 / *ni muriyari oyogaseta. (Lit. I

forced my son, who resisted swimming, to swim.) b. fL'i fiT

t- / I=

t.= ,ti7ktJ

-ttt.:o Watashi wa musuko 0 / ni sukina dake oyogaseta. (I let my son

swim as much as he wanted.) (4) 3. tk-r'i

%Hi t ? L t.: < t

\(, C:

-:J t::..tJ

fLtttBift:t- / *I=*

':' fTtJ

-tt Q

C: ,:. '- t.: o Akiko wa benkyo wa mo shitakunai to itta ga watashi wa

ka- nojo 0 / *ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita. (Akiko said she didn't
want to study any more, but I've de- cided to send her to college. (lit.
make her go to college.» b. tk-=f'i t -:J c:

%t '-t::"

'C:

-:Jt::..q)\:, fL'itBift:t- / I=*

':.fT tJ

-tt Q

C: ,:. '- t::.. o Akiko wa motto benkyoshitai to itta node, watashi wa

kanojo o / ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita.

_5-----

== - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

.. S - -

390 saseru

(Akiko said she wanted to study more, so I've decided to let her go to
college.) 2. If the main verb is a transitive verb, the causee can be
marked only by ni, as in (5), because 0 cannot appear more than
once in a clause and, in this case, there is already a direct object
marked by 0 in the clause. (t:) 0 1 ) (5) -

'i

-r':: / * t- e" - Iv

AX* -tt t::.. o Ichiro wa Yukiko ni / *0 biru 0 noma seta . (Ichiro made
(or let) Yukiko drink beer.) Thus, when the verb is transitive, ni is
acceptable even if the causee is not willing to take the action. (6) -
'i

-r':: tf !J

!J e

- Iv

AX* -ttt::.. o Ichiro wa Yukiko ni muriyari biru 0 nomaseta. (Ichiro

forced Yukiko to drink beer.) When the main verb is transitive, it is
often difficult to tell from the sentence alone whether or not the
causee takes the action willingly. This must be determined by the
context and / or the situation in which the sentence is uttered. 3.
Whether or not the causee is willing to do something is clear if one of
the set of giving and receiving verbs is used. (t:) ageTu 2 ; kUTeTu 2
; mOTau 2 ) Examples: (7) fL'i

-r

.I

- -r .... - ':.fftJ

-tt""C

t=:o Watashi wa Haruko 0 pati ni ikasete yatta. (I let Haruko go to the

party.) (8)

'ifL':.mi

AX* it""C < nt=:o Chichi wa watashi ni sake 0 nomasete kUTeta. (My
father let me drink sake.) The causee's unwillingness to do
something, on the other hand, can be more explicitly expressed by
the causative-passive construction explained in Note 7. 4. In
causative sentences, the causer must be equal to or higher than the
causee in terms of status. Thus, the following is unacceptable: (9)
*fL'i96!:EI:' /

.I

- -r .... - ,:.*

it Q

t !J t.:. o *Watashi wa sensei ni / 0 pati ni kosaseru tsumori da. (I'm

going to let (or make) my teacher come to the party.) 5. Causative
verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:

saseru 391

(10) m5

-tt

(nonpast-inf-affirmative) hanasaseTu m5

-ttt

L\ (nonpast-inf-negative) hanasasenai

15

-tt-C (te-form) nanasasete

15
-ttt:. (past-inf-affirmative) hanasaseta 6. There is another set of
formation rules for causative verbs. (Causative verbs of this version
are all Gr. 1 verbs.) (11) a. Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg T su

T (cause to talk) hanasasu

b. Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem

T sasu

jt

T (cause to eat) tabesasu

c. Irr. Verbs:

*G --+ *

T kuru kosasu

(cause to come)
TG --+

T suru sasu

(cause to do)

In general, this set of conjugations seems to express more direct

causa- tion. For example, in (12a) tabesasu means 'feed (with a
spoon or something)' rather than 'make / let eat', while in (12b)
tabesaseru is more general and means ' make / let eat (either by
saying something like " Eat your meal" or " You may eat your meal"
or actually by feeding with a spoon or something)'.

_ 5 """

;::::;

(12) a. fL'i.y A'=. < t:. t (/)

f(

T':> t

tf.. 0 Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono 0 tabesasu tsumori da. (I intend

to feed Jim fruit.) b. fL'i.y A':. < t:. b q)

f(
it

b !J t:. o Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono 0 tabesaseTu tsumor; da. (I

intend to make / let Jim eat fruit.)

392 saseru / sekkaku 7. Causative-passive verbs, which are used in

causative-passive sentences, are constructed by affixing the passive
verb ending rareru to causative verb stems. (t:) TBTeTu l ) Examples:
(13) t5 it ;h-l> (be made to talk) hanasaseTBreTU 1t it ;h-l> (be made
to eat) tabeSBseTBTeTU Causative-passive sentences express the
idea U be made to do some- thing". Note that they do. not express
the idea U be allowed to do something". (14) and (15) show
causative sentences and their corre- sponding causative-passive
sentences. (14) a . 'i fL , -r t:> -tt t::.. 0 Chichi wa watashi 0 aruite
kaeraseta. (My father had me walk home.) b. fL'i ,:. , -r t:> -tt t:> tL
t::.. o Watashi wa chichi ni aruite kaeraserareta. (Lit. I was made to
walk home by my father. (= My father made me walk home.» (15) a.
fQ7c'i!i T':' * -ttt::.. o Kazuo wa Natsuko ni sake 0 nomaseta. (Kazuo
made / let Natsuko drink sake.) b. !i T 'i fQ;k ,:. * -tt t:> tL t::.. 0
Natsuko wa Kazuo ni sake 0 nomaserareta. (Natsuko was made to
drink sake by Kazuo.) s - = - sekkaku it? fJ\ < adv. , ...............,.....""
Some situation which seldom occurs has now occurred and one can
either make use of it or, to one's regret) cannot make use of it. I ( .. '-
with effort; at great pain; take the trouble to do - [REL. wazawaza]

sekkaku 393

. Key Sentences (A)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause -tt -:J tJ

<

, ,:. fi -:J t::.. Q) ,:.

Ji 'i

,t.t, tJ

-:J t::.. /

,* -tt Iv

'- t::.. o Sekkaku al ni itta noni tomodachi wa inakatta /

imasendeshita. (I took the trouble to go to see my friend, but he
wasn't at home.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause -tt -:J tJ

<

,*

,:. A -:J t:.. Q) t!. tJ

tJ J:< !fll

TQ ":>b!J Sekkaku II daigaku ni haitta no da kara yoku benkyosuru

tsumori t!. /
To da / desu. (I entered a good college with great effort, so I intend to
study hard.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause Noun -tt -:J tJ

< Q) 81118 t.t, Q) ,:. 1t1J

, 1= / fiJJ

* '- t.:: o Sekkaku no nichiyobi na noni hataraita / hatarakimashita.

(Although Sunday is precious (to me), I worked (all day long).)

Examples

(a) -tt -:J tJ

< 7 j !J j] *

fi -:J t::.. Q) ,:. ==- .:J. - 3 -

':.fift t.t, < -r 1J

t!. -:J t::.. o Sekkaku Amerika made itta noni NytJyoku ni ikenakute
zannendatta. (I went as far as America at great expense, but, to my
regret, I couldn't make it to New York.) (b) -tt -:J tJ

< f3 *alf

=:
rt:l' t!fll

'- t::.. Q) t!. tJ

C':>,

*-lt f3 *"fi -:J -r Jj- t::..

,CI

'

'* To Sekkaku nihongo 0 sannenkan mo benkyoshita no da kara,

zehi ichido Nihon e itte mitai to omoimasu. (Because I studied
Japanese for (as many as) three years, I would love to go to Japan
once.)

_ 5 "'"

== =======

394 sekkaku

(c) -tt -:J tJ

< Q)1*fi

m1(t

t.:
,:. t

!J * L t::.. o Sekkaku no ryoko ga byoki de dame ni narimashita. (My

long awaited trip had to be canceled because of my illness.) (d) -tt -:J
tJ

<

TtJ

4- f3 ,'tit L < -rfift * -tt Iv o Sekkaku desu ga kyo wa isogashikute

ikemasen. (I appreciate your most kind offer, but I'm too busy to go
there today.) (e) -tt-:J tJ

< Q)7- -y

A t!.1J

T- r Lt.::

C?

o Sekkaku no chansu da kara detoshitara do desu ka. (It's a good

chance, so why don't you date her?) (f) -tt -:J tJ

<

JiLlt
<

,t::.. t.:

* To Sekkaku desu kara, enryo naku itadakimasu. (Since you took

the trouble to bring it to me, I'll take it without hesi- tation.)

&D

Sekkaku tends to co-occur with noni ' although' or no da kara

'because (it is that) - " as in KSs(A) and (B), respectively. Sekkaku
no+N, however, can be used as a noun phrase, free from any co-
occurrence restrictions, as shown in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (e).
Sekkaku desu ga (in Ex. (d» is used to politely decline s.o.'s kind
offer, and sekkaku desu kara (in Ex. (f» is used to accept s.o.'s offer.

(Related Expression] Sekkaku is related to wazawaza, an adverb

whose basic meaning is 'inten- tionally take the trouble to do s.t.,
although it is not necessary to do so'.

: S ;; ! s::i

[1] a. 1t

fJ' < / **,

*'

i!i < *
*t::..Q) t!.

!J * L t.:: o Sekkaku / *Wazawaza chikaku made kita no da kara

yorimashita. (Because I came all the way to your neighborhood, I
dropped by.) b. *'

*'

/ *1t

fJ' < fiT L

'.

J\ -:J t::.. o Wazawaza / *Sekkaku atarashii kuruma 0 katta. (He went

to the trouble of buying a new car.) c. *'

*'

/ * 1t

fJ' <

-:J -r * -r < tL -r OJ !J

C ? 0 Wazawaza / *Sekkaku motte kite kurete arigato. (Thanks for

your trouble in bringing it to me.)

shi 395 shi conj. f ;'-' njunction to indicate 'and' in an emphatic way
and what's more; not only - but also -; so [REL. SOTe kSTS] . Key
Sentences (A) Verb a 'j: 7" ==- A t Lt::.. l." 00i t J!t::.. / J! * L t::.. o Kyo
wa tenisu mo shita shi. eiga mo mita / mimashita. (I not only played
tennis but also saw a movie today.) (B) Adj (I) .,.. .,.. ,j: )[ 'j: =I- , L, ,j:
* , / * , t"o '- '- Koko wa natsu wa atsui shi. fuyu wa samui /
samuidesu. (Here it's hot in the summer, and what's more, it's cold in
the winter.) (C) Adj (na) ::'JI) 7.1 - r 'j: tL , t.: l." 1C ' / 1C ' t" 0 Kono
apato wa kireida shi. yasui / yasuidesu. (This apartment is clean, and
what's more, it's inexpensive.) (D) ::== 5 - ;;:; = '"'" Noun Copula
JHL1 t::.. ' Iv t" / t.: tJ t; L t::.. ,j: t.: L iQt,.:t.t , / Asobitai n desu / da ga
ashita wa shi ken da shi asobenai/ iH,.: * -tt Iv o asobemasen. (I
would like to play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can't fool
around.)

396 shi

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} L shi

5T /

5 L t::..} L (s.o. talks / talked and what's more) {hanasu / hanashita}

shi {ft"Q / ft"t::..} L (s.o. eats / ate and what's more) {taberu / tabeta}
shi {

, / JRj;!p -:J t::..} L (s.t. is / was expensive and what's more) {takai /
takakatta} shi (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {t.: / t.: -:J t::..} L Ida / datta} shi
{r;tJ

t.: / (lttJ\ t.: -:J t::..) L (s.t. is / was quiet and what's more) {shizukada /
shizukadatta} shi {;t!:E t.: / %!:E t.: -:J t::..} L (s.o. is / was a teacher
and what's more) {sensei da / sensei da tta} shi
Examples

'5-:-

(a) ft* b OJ -:J t::.. L,

t m*t::.. L, c -r t ?

'L L

'

T 0 Shigoto mo atta shi. kekkon mo dekita shi. totemo ureshiidesu.

(Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm
very happy.) (b)

a'j:

1(tt

'

'L, c

tJ

"fi

* LJ: ?tJ
o Kyo wa tenki mo ii shi. doko ka e ikimasho ka. (It's a nice day, so
shall we go out somewhere?) (c) OJ (I) A ,j:

A t.: L, 1l

'

'o Ano hito wa bijin da shi. atama mo ii. (She's beautiful and what's
more she's bright.) (d) WJ

,j:J\ -:J -r OJ Q L,

FJ

J:fi

* L J: ? 0 Kippu wa katte aru shi. zehi mi ni ikimasho. (I've bought a

ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.)

CD

1. As in Ex. (a), shi can be repeated more than once in a clause, just
like V te '- and' can be repeated. 2. There are times when a sentence
ends with shi in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the
cause / reason:

shi / -shi- 397 (1) A: OJ Lt OOHc.fi *-1tlvtJ o Ashita eiga ni ikimasen

ka. (Wouldn't you like to go see a movie tomorrow?) B : ;l-:J, &; Lt::"
T o &; L,t 'j: OJQ L, ... E, ashita desu ka. Ashita wa shiken ga aru
shi,. . . (Tomorrow? I have an exam tomorrow, and. . .) 3. When the
speaker wishes to be very polite, the clause before shi can be in the
formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in (2). (2) f3 'j:
1(t t , , '"C!"t L, c::' tJ "fi * L J: ? tJ o Kyo wa tenki mo iidesu shi, doko
ka e ikimasho ka. (It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?)
(Cf. Ex. (b») .sh i. l., infix ..r../ .../"'../"' '- I an infix attached to the stem
of an Adj (i) to indicate s.t. that one cannot objectively measure on
any scale (e.g. ? human emotion) '- Examples I., , (sad) < I., '
(regrettable) 0 I., ' (scary) kanashii kuyashii osoroshii I., , (enjoyable)
a I., ' (strict) .1., , (difficult) tanoshii kibishii muzukashii t:> I., , (seem)
? t:> * I., ' (envious) I., , ( dear) rashii ura yamashii koishii :J3 , I., ,
(delicious) a I., ' (lonely) ? tL I., ' (happy) oish ii sabishii ureshii I., ,
(painful) nr I., , (regrettable) tJll., , (i nti mate) kurushii oshii shitashii t
I., ' (dependable) bt.: *- I., ' (enviable) Vi{ I., , (cool) tanomoshii
natamashii suzushii = 5 .... ===

398 -shi- / shika CD Adjs (i) that do not contain -shi- are, for the most
part, descriptive adjectives that are dependent on the speaker's
objective judgment. In other words, they are adjectives which
indicate something that one can objectively measure on some scale.
Typical descriptive adjectives are: jffi ' (red) {!t , (low) W ' (blue) ,
(hard) akai hikui aoi katai * , (big) , (shallow) t1 , (light) a ' (white) okii
asai karui shiroi /J' , (small) , (black) iG'i ' (high) i!i ' (near) chisai
kuroi takai chikai m ' (short) ff. ' (thin) , (deep) * , (long) mijikai usui
fukai nagai 1C ' (cheap) * C':> tJ , (soft) ti , (young) iI ' (thick) yasui
yawarakai wakai koi shika L fJ\ prt. . 5 - . =:z ./""../" """"" """''-'' ../''
'''''''''''I a particle which marks an element ! X when nothing but X
makes the ; expressed proposition true ../" r- "' ....... ? nothing /
nobody / no - but; only [REL. bakari; dake] . Key Sentences (A)
Subject Predicate (negative) p m A, LtJ\ t:. 'i .:. bt ' / 'i:-ttlvo Toda-san
shika tabako 0 suwanai / suimasen. (No one but Mr. Toda smokes.)

shika 399

(B)
Direct Object Predicate (negative) fL 'i 8*m LtJ\

t:> t

,/

t) * -tt Iv o Watashi wa nihongo shika shiranai I shirimasen. (I know

nothing but Japanese.)

(C)

Noun Prt Predicate (negative) :ttL 'i U:C

A, 1= L tJ\ t5 L -r

,t

,/

,* -tt Iv o Sore wa Eguchi-ssn ni shi k a hanashite inai / imasen. (I

haven't told it to anybody but Mr. Eguchi.)

(D)

Quantifier Predicate (negative) fL 'i :-:!1i

-,:

\ L tJ\ itA: t

tJ\ -:J t::.. / it" * -tt Iv

L t::.. o Watashi wa gohan 0 ippsi shika tabenakatta /

tabemasendeshita. (I had only one bowl of rice.)

Formation

( i) N L tJ\ shika ;t!:E tJ

(Subject) --+;t!:E L tJ\ (no one but the teacher) sensei ga sensei
shika

;t!:E

(Direct Object) --+ 96!:E L tJ

sensei 0 sensei shi ka

(no one but the teacher)

( i i) N + (Prt) L tJ \ shika _Jj\ .-.. / ,.: (Direction) --+ _Jj\ ( -.. / ,

) L tJ\ (to nowhere but Tokyo e / ni Tokyo (e / ni) shika Tokyo) 96!:E
,.: (Indirect Object, Agent) --+ 96!:E (,:.)t L tJ\ (no one but senseI nl
sensei (ni) shika the teacher) (tNi cannot drop if X shika can be
interpreted as the subject.) alii a ,:. (Time) --+ alii a 0:.) L tJ\ (only on
Sunday) nichiyobi ni nichiyobi (ni) shika

s - - - - - !!!!! -- - - - - - - - - - - ========-

400 shika *n: ,

(Location) --+ *n: O

) '- tJ

(only in Tokyo) Tokyo ni Tokyo (ni) shika (iii) N + Prt '- tJ

shika *n:

(Location) --+ *n:

L tJ

(only in Tokyo) Tokyo de Tokyo de shika .

(Means) --+ .

L tJ

(only by car) kuruma de kuruma de shika

fB

Iv c (Reciprocal) --+

fB

Iv c L tJ

(only with Mr. Yamada-san to Yamada-san to shika Yamada) *n: tJ

G (Starting point / source) --+ *n: tJ\ '? '- tJ

(only from Tokyo kara Tokyo kara shika 1'okyo) 3L

(Ending point) --+ 3L

*-

'- tJ

(only till five o'clock) goji made goji made shika (i v) Quanti fier '- tJ

shika y,- '- tJ

(only a little) sukoshi shika

Examples.

s-=-

(a)

!!.. - =r -{ - ,:. 'j:

!:E '- tJ

*t

tJ

-:J t::.. o Pat; ni wa gakusei shika konakatta. (Only students came to

the party.) (b) fBft
Iv ,j:

. '- tJ

1t" t

tJ

-:J t:. o Tamura-san wa sarada shika tabenakatta. (Mr. Tamura ate

only salad.) (c) fL'j: a III a 0:.) L tJ

* t:> tL * -tt Iv o Watashi wa nichiyobi (ni) shika koraremasen. (I can

come only on Sunday.) (d)

Q)*'j:

Q)

.tif 0:.) '- tJ

OJ

* -tt Iv o Kono hon wa kono toshokan (ni) shika arimasen. (Only this
library has this book.) (e) .:t

'j:.

'- tJ

fift t

'o Soko wa kuruma de shika ikenai. (Lit. You can go there only by
car. (= The only way you can go there is by car.»
shika 401

(f) fL'i

l.HB

Iv C '- tJ

t5

'- t

'o Watashi wa Yamada-san to shika hanashi 0 shinai. (I talk only with

Mr. Yamada.) (g)

Q)

'i

!:EtJ

BA LtJ

't

'o Kono gakko wa gakusei ga hyakunin shika inai. (This school has
only a hundred students.)
CD

Shika always occurs with negative predicates.

(Related Expressions] I. Dake expresses a similar idea. (t:) dake)

However, dake and shika differ in the following ways: (A) X shika
emphasizes the negative proposition of U non-X ", while X dake
merely describes the situation in neutral fashion. (B) Shika occurs
only with negative predicates; dake, however, can occur with
affirmative predicates. Compare the following sentences:

[1] a. iJ{ 7.f:: It *t:: 0 Bobu dake kita. (Only Bob came.) b.

7.l.,fJ'*t

fJ'

t:: o Bobu shika konakatta. (Nobody but Bob came.) [2] a.

7"t=lt*t

fJ'

t::o Bob dake konakatta. (Only Bob didn't come.) b. *

7'-tJ

*t:: / *t

<t

fJ'
t:: o *Bobu shika kita / konakunakatta. (Everybody but Bob came.)
(c) The verb kakaru ' it takes (time)' can be used with shika, but not
with dake, as in [3]. [3] a. fLQ)*tJ

t:>

'i.

3L7t I.,fJ,tJ

tJ

t:> t

'o Watashi no ie kara gakko made wa kuruma de gofun shika

kakaranai. (From my house to school it takes only five minutes by
car.)

=5-------

-=s - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

402 shika

_5-Ii
b. *fLQ)*;O

t3t!

fi.

1L7tf:ltfJ'fJ'

o *Watashi no ie kara gakk6 made wa kuruma de gofun dake

kakaTu. (From my house to school it takes only five minutes by car.)
II. Bakari is also used to mean' only' in some situations. (t:) bakaTi)
Unlike X shika or X dake, however, X bakari emphasizes the positive
proposi- tion of X, often with the implication that s.o. / s.t. does s.t. to
X / with X / . . . a lot or more than one expects. For example, [4a]
emphasizes the fact that Jim drank beer, whereas [4b] emphasizes
the fact that Jim didn't drink anything but beer. [4c] is a neutral
statement. [4] a. .y A 'i l:

- IvrtfJ' &.J

N t.: o Jimu wa biru bakaTi nonda. (Jim drank only beer (and a lot).)
b. .y A 'i l:

- Iv l.,fJ'

'! let tJ

-:J t::.. o Jimu wa biru shika nomanakatta. (Jim drank nothing but
beer.) c. .y A 'i l:

- Iv f: It

N t.: 0 Jimu wa biru dake nonda. (Jim drank only beer.) Note that X
bakari cannot be used if X is a single entity. Thus, [Sa] is
grammatical, but [5b] is not. [5] a. fl:Q)=ff1.tJ
!J *t::.. o Onna no ko bakari kita. (Only girls came (and it was more
than I expected).) b. *:) '7 !1 - f1.tJ

!J *t::.. o *Meari bakari kita. (Only Mary came.) Note also that bakaTi
cannot be used with negative predicates, as in [6]. [6] =f{jtjif:lt / *rtfJ'
&.J *t

fJ'? f:o Kodomotachi dake / *bakaTi konakatta. (Only the children

didn't come.)

shimau 403 shimau £ ? aux. v. (Gr. 1) f '-''V"' '- ( an auxiliary verb

which indicates i the completion of an action 1 -.....r-.._ have done
s.t.; finish doing s.t. ; finish s.t. up [REL. -owaru] . Key Sentences (A)
Topic (subject) Vte iIDJH 8 'i =:a 1: .:t:(f) * i1C1v"t: L- *- -:J t::.. / L- *-
,*- L- t::.. 0 Ikeda-kun wa mikka de sono hon 0 yonde shimatta /
shimaimashita. (Mr. Ikeda finished reading the book in three days.)
(B) Topic Vte (subject) fL 'i Iv - A :) - " (f) Iv txlv"t: L- *- -:J t.: / '- *- ,*-
L- t::.. 0 Watashi wa rumumeto no miru ku 0 nonde shimatta /
shimaimashita. (I (mistakenly) drank my roommate's milk.) Fermation
Vte L-*-? shimau i5 L- -C L- *- ? (have talked) hanashite shimau -C
L- *- ? (have eaten) tabete shimau - s - - - - =:a = =:a - - - - - - - - - -
Examplrs (a) t? m m L- "'( L- *- ,*- L- t::.. tJ 0 Mo shukudai 0 shite
shimaimashita ka. (Have you done your homework yet?) (b) fL'i a
q:q:..:c (f) v - " . '"'( '- *- jO ; J , -:J"'( ' Q 0 Watashi wa kyoju ni sono
repoto 0 kaite shimao to omotte iru. (I think that I will finish (writing)
the report today.)

404 shimau

(c) 1f. <

!&

1t
"'( '- *-

,tet

'o Hayaku gohan 0 tabete shimainasai. (Finish (eating) your meal

quickly.) (d)

7-.:z. -

!J T

"'( '- *-

, *- '- t::.. o ShichtJ 0 tsukuri sugite shimaimashita. (I made too much

stew (to my regret).)

""' 5 - I I

em 1. Shimau is used as an auxiliary verb with V te and expresses

the idea of completion in terms of an action. Vte shimau often
appears with such adverbs as sukkari ' completely', zenbu ' all' and
kanzenni 'com- pletely'. Examples: (1) a. -;"

'iT? fJ'!J a *ilf

;gtL"'( '- *- -:J t::.. o Maiku wa sukksTi nihongo 0 wasurete shimatta.

(Mike has completely forgotten Japanese.) b. fL'i

-:J"'(
' t::.. -Ij]-¥

Ji':' (b 'f"'( L- *- -:J t::.. o Watashi wa motte ita kitte 0 zenbu

tomodachi ni agete shimatta. (I gave all the stamps I had kept to my
friends.) 2. V te shimatta also expresses the idea that someone did
something which he shouldn't have done or something happened
which shouldn't have happened. (KS(B) and Ex. (d» Thus, it often
implies the agent's re- gret about what he has done or the speaker's
regret or criticism about someone's action or about something that
has happened. Examples: (2) a. .y.:J:!J - 'i

:¥ - (7)?" -

1t

"'( L- *- -:J t::.. o Jer; wa Peg; no keki 0 tabete shimatta. (Jerry

(mistakenly) ate Peggy's cake.) b. fL'i tj tJ\ ; /{ A ,:.* -:J"'( '- *- -:J t::.. o
Watashi wa chigau basu ni notte shimatta. (I got on the wrong bus.)
c. m tJ

-:J"'( L- *- -:J t::.. (7) 1:

.::. ':I

,:. ff ,t tet tJ

-:J t::.. 0 Ame ga futte shimatta node piknikku ni ikenakatta. (It

rained, so we couldn't go on a picnic.) 3. Whether a sentence with V
te shimatta is interpreted as simple completion or regret (or criticism)
depends on the context and / or the situation. For example, (3) can
be interpreted in two ways.
shimau 405

(3)

'i:td

N-C: L-"£ -:J t::.. o Boku wa o-sake 0 nonde shimatta. «A) I finished
drinking sake. (B) I drank sake (which I shouldn't have done).) 4. Te
shimau and de shimau are contracted as chau and jau, respectively,
in informal speech, as in (4), and can be used by male and by
female speakers.

(4) a.

5 L- -C L- "£? -+

'- -S

? hanashite shimau hanashi chau

(have talked)

b.

Iv-C: L-"£? -+
N L:.

? nonde shimau non jau Chimau and jimau, another set of

contracted forms of te shimau, are used only by male speakers.

(have drunk)

[Related Expressions] I. Vpast can also express the completion of an

action. However, it is dif- ferent from Vte shimau in that Vpast
expresses the completion of an action in the past, while V te shimau
expresses completion regardless of the time of completion. Thus, [1
a] is grammatical, but [1 b] is not. [1] a.

':.:tdv'-C:td<

.yAtJ

11t

-CL;

?J:o Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabete shimau yo. (If you leave it
here, Jim will eat it (up).) b. *

,:.:td v'"'(:td <

.y A tJ;11t

t= J: 0 *Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabeta yo., (If you leave it here,
Jim will eat it up.) I I. V masu owaru also means 'finish doing -'. The
difference between V masu owaru and V te shimau is that V masu
owaru indicates the action of finishing something, while V te shimau
indicates the completed state of the action. 1'hus, these two
expressions correspond to the English expressions finish doing and
have done in that V masu owaru can occur with a specific time
phrase, but V te shimau cannot. [2] a.

(7); .:c(7)*

i1C31'

fJ?t= / *i1elv-C: L;

?t=o Kino sono hon 0 yomiowatta / *yonde shimatta. (I finished

reading / *have read the book yesterday.) b. It

hJJ

':'

-:J

fJ? t= / .."'-C L;

? t=o Kesa kUJi ni yatto repoto 0 kakiowatta / *kaite shimatta.

=5--==

406 shimau / shiru (I finally finished writing / *have finally written the
report at nine o'clock this morning.) It is also noted that shimau can
be used with noncontrollable verbs like wasureru ' forget', while
owaru cannot, as in [3]. [3] a. 'i-j- -(7)ttm t-r L- '* -:J t::.. o Boku wa
Nanshi no jtJsho 0 wasurete shimatta. (I've forgotten Nancy's
address.) b. *m'i-j- -(7)ttm tL b -:J t::.. o *Boku wa Nanshi no jtJsho 0
wasureowatta. (*1 finished forgetting Nancy's address.) shiru Q v.
(Gr. 1) f S.o. gets information from s; e/,; -"-1 side source. get to
know [REL. wakaTu] "",, '-/'J - . Key Sentences . 5 - i . = A: Direct
Object a* (7) '.J-c "",*i- tpo Nihon no koto 0 shitte imasu ka. . (Do you
know about Japan?) B: 'i "", -:J"'( ""'1To / """"it. !J'1-ttNo Hai, shitte
imasu. / ie, shirimasen. (Yes, I do. / No, I don't.)

shiru / soda l 407 Examples (a) *-r /v -:J "'( , '! T tJ)o Kinoshita-san 0
shitte imasu ka. (Do you know Mr. Kinoshita?) (b) JlJ Q /v (1). $%
-:J"'( ' '! TtJ o Yamaguchi-san no denwabango 0 shitte imasu ka. (Do
you know Mr. Yamaguchi's telephone number?) (c) A: q:r mm -:J "'( ,
'! T tJ o ChtJgokugo 0 shitte imasu ka. (Do you know Chinese?) B : ,
,;t, 1-I1!J *- it /VO ie, shirimasen. (N 0, I don't.) (d) fL'il JH /v 7 ) !J 7J
-..fi -:J t:. a: t? t tJ-' -J t:. o Watashi wa Veda-san ga Amerika e itta
koto 0 shiranakatta. (I didn't know that Mr. Ueda had gone to
America.) em 1. Shiru, a nonstative verb, takes the Vte iru form
when it means the stative 'know'. (t:) iTU 2 ) 2. When answering in
the negative to the question X 0 shitte imasu ka 'Do you know X?',
the negative nonstative form shiranai / shirimasen IS used instead of
shitte inai / shitte imasen, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c). _ 5 - iiii soda l ?
f=. aux. an auxiliary which indicates that the information expressed
by the preced- ing sentence is what the speaker he ard I hear that -;
I heard that -; People say that - [REL. s6da 2 ; yods (daro; rashii)]

408 sOda I
. Key Sentence

Sentence (informal) UJJII

Iv 'i 7 =j

Am

t!!

l.,-C L'

-t:" ; t.:. / -t:" ;

T 0 Yamakawa-san wa furansugo o benkyoshite iTU soda / sodesu.

(I heard that Mr. Yamakawa is studying French.)

Formation

( i) {V I Adj (i)} inf

? t!. soda

T/
'- t.:} -t:" oj t!. (I heard that s.o. (will) talk / talked.) {hanasu /
hanashita} soda {fWj

' / fWjtJ'-:J t.:} -t:"? to!. (I heard that s.t. is / was expensive.) {takai /
takakatta} soda

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {t!. / t.:. -:J t::..}

? t!. {da / datta} soda (fitt)' t!. / f(;tJ\ t.:. -:J t::..} -t? t.:. (I heard that s.t.
is / was quiet.) {shizukada / shizukadatta} soda {%!:E t.:. / %!:E t.:.
-:J t::..} -t:"? t!. (I heard that s.o. is / was a teacher.) {sensei da /
sensei datta} soda

Examples

'5=

!!!!

(a) iff*

1v';t:t3

*tct

?
To Shimizu-san wa o-sake 0 nomanai sodesu. (I heard Mr. Shimizu
doesn't drink any alcohol.)

(b) a *(1)

'i

"'( t 16

'

; t.:. o Nihon no niku wa totemo takai soda. (I hear that meat in

Japan is very expensive.)

(c) ftJ T

Iv (i

m tJ

-r t 1: -¥ t.:.

oj -c: T 0 Toshiko-san wa eigo ga totemo j6zuda sodesu. (I heard

that Toshiko speaks very good English.) (d) q:.

Iv 'i

m(1)96!:E t.:. -t:" ; t.:. o Kingu-san wa eigo no sensei da soda. (I

heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English.)
sOda L 409

em 1. Sinf soda expresses hearsay. That is, this pattern is used

when the speaker conveys information obtained from some
information source with- out altering it. (t:) Tashii) 2. Information
sources are expressed by N ni yoru to ' according to N'.

(1) ffifla r= J:

7 p !J

l ,:.

tJ

-:J t::...:t ; t.:. 0 Shinbun ni YOTU to Furorida ni yuki ga futta soda.

(According to the newspaper, it snowed in Florida.)

[Related Expression] The hearsay soda (i.e., soda l ) and the

conjecture soda (i.e., soda 2 ) are two different expressions.
Compare their different connection patterns in [1]. (t:) soda 2 )

[1]
V before soda

Adj (i) be fore soda

Adj (na) be fore soda

N before soda

soda before N

soda I (hearsay) Vinf soda (Ex.

T/

L- t::. .:t? t.:. hanasu / hanashita soda) Adj (i) inf soda (Ex. rflj

, / tfJ tJ

-:J t::.. .:c? t.:. takai / takakatta soda) Adj (na) stem Ida / datta} soda
(E x. tfft tJ

t.:. / 1fft tJ

t.:. -:J t::.. .:c? t.:. shizukada / shizukadatta soda) N {da / datta} soda
(Ex. 96!:E t.:. / 96!:E t.:. -:J t::.. .:t? t.:. sensei da / sensei datta soda)
soda 2 (conjecture) V masu soda (Ex.

'- .:c? t!. hanashi soda) Adj (i) stem soda (Ex.

.:c? t.:. taka soda) Adj (na) stem soda (Ex. 1fft tJ

.:c? t.:. shizuka soda)

= 5 '" - =

(V masu / Adj (i) stem / Adj (na) stem} sona N (Ex. iNi.:c? tct * taka
sona hon)

410 -sooa 2

-soda 2 -

? t:.

aux. adj. (na)

i
 S an auxiliary adjective which indi-

cates that what is expressed by the 5 preceding sentence is the

speaker's

conjecture concerning an event in the S future or the present state of

some- f $ one or something, based on what the

speaker sees or feels

look; look like; appear; seem; feel like [REL. soda l ; yoda (daro;
rashii)]

. Key Sentences (A)

Subject V masu m tJ

&.J .7c ; t!. / -t:" ; 1: T 0 Ame ga fUTi soda / sodesu. . (It looks like it
will rain.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (i / na) stem 'UJ(!) 1tI u: "'1!r' -t:" ; t!. / -t:" ; 1: T 0
I'6J Ana kuruma wa taka soda / sodesu. . (That car looks
expensive.)
Formation

.5-=-

( i) V masu -t:"? t!. soda J5'- .7c oj t!. (It looks like s.o. will talk.)
hanashi soda :tt

.7c? t!. (It looks like s.o. will eat.) tabe soda

(ii) Adj (i / na) stem -t:"? t!. soda

1j -t:" ; t!. taka soda

(S.t. looks expensive.)

-soda 2 411

fit n ' .7c ; t!. shizuka soda

(S.t. looks quiet.)

Examples

(a)

(7)* 'i

' J!tt.J

I!k

' t.: t J t::.. i3 tL.:t ; t!.o Kono ie wa tsuyoi kaze ga fuitara taore soda.
(It looks like this house will fall down when there's a strong wind (lit.
a strong wind blows).) (b) tb (7) A T -

'i:So

' L-.:t ; t!. -:J t::. o Ano suteki wa oishisodatta. (That steak looked
delicious.) (c)

(7) tb t::.. !J 'i fit tJ

.7c ; t.:. o Kono atari wa shizuka soda. (This neighborhood looks

quiet.)

CD 1. {Vmasu / Adj (i / na) stem} soda expresses the speaker's

conjecture based on visual information. Thus, this expression can be
used only when the speaker directly observes something. The
speaker's conjecture concerns an event which might take place in
the future or the present state of someone or something. In other
words, soda 2 cannot be used to express the speaker's conjecture
concerning a past event or state. (t:) Tashii; yoda) 2. The adjective ii
'good' and the negative nai 'not exist / not' change to yosa and nasa,
respectively, before soda 2 . Examples:

( 1)

(7) 7 r

- " 'i J:

.:t ; t.:. 0 Kono apato wa yosa soda. (This apartment looks good.) (2)
n."lUi t

.:t ? t.:. o Mondai wa nasa soda. (It looks like there is no problem.)
(3) it UJ

Iv (7) * 'i tb '* !J ffi L- < t

.:t ; t!. 0 Murayama-san no ie wa amari atarashikunasa soda. (Mr.

Murayama's house doesn't look so new.) 3. N or N + Copula cannot
precede soda 2, as seen in (4a) and (4b), but N + Copula
neg.nonpast can, as seen in (4c).

- S !!

;; = - =======

412 -soda 2
(4) a. *1JQRi

Iv 'i

!:E 0 -=c? t:. 0 *Kato-san wa gakusei 0 soda. (Mr. Kato looks like a
student.) b. *1JQRi

/v'i¥!:Et::-=c ? t:. o *Kato-san wa gakusei da soda. (Mr. Kato looks

like a student.)

c. 1JuRi

Iv ,;;t

!:E L:

-=c ? t:. o Kato-san wa gakusei janasa soda. (Mr. Kato doesn't look
like a student.) To express the intended meaning in (4a) and (4b)
rashii is used. (

Tashii) (4b) is grammatical if soda means hearsay. (

soda l ) 4. In this construction, the negative forms of verbs usually

don't precede soda 2. Instead, V masu so ni / mo nai is used.
Examples:

(5) 7

A'i.

7C
i:-? r:. /:t t

",o Kurisu wa kuruma 0 uri so ni / mo nai. (Chris doesn't seem to sell

his car.)

(6) :. Q) rR"lHj:

!:E

:' 'i t:f1* i:- ? r:. /:t t

"'0 Kono mondai wa gakusei ni wa deki so ni / mo nai. (It doesn't

seem that the students can solve this problem.) 5. Soda is also used
to express the speaker's conjecture concerning his own non-
volitional future actions based on what he feels.

(1)

'i:' Q) 7" -

?i L- i:-? t:: o Boku wa kono keki 0 nokoshi soda. (I'm afraid I can't
eat all this cake.)

'S

(8) fL';;t c -r t1A:.tt -r

'-r t.::t3.tti:-? t:: o Watashi wa totemo tsukarete ite taore soda. (I'm so
tired that I feel weak (lit. like I'm falling down).) 6. Soda is a na-type
adjective; the prenominal form is sona. Examples:

(9)

i:-? t

1tL taka sona kuruma (a car which looks expensive (= an expensive-

looking car»

O) ffi n

i:- ? t

?}: ame ga furi sona sora (lit. the sky which looks like it will bring
rain)

sore de 413 sore de tL -c' conj. ,",- """"""J"""""""'''''''''''''' 7 a conjunction

to indicate that what ) is stated in the preceding sentence ? is the
reason or cause for what is I ) stated in the following sentence I and;
because of that; that IS why; therefore; so [REL. da kara; node]
./"'..../ "'''-- . Key Sentence Sentencel Sentence2 Q)? 'i tJ -tf a: {} L- t::
0 ;en f3C a: f*lvt.: Iv T 0 Kino wa kaze o hikimashita. S ore de gakko
0 yasunda n desu. (I had a cold yesterday. That's why I took a day
off from school.) Examples (a) t J J: -:J c* i .m*tJ OJ L-t::.. o ;en Q)?
",tcltJ -:Jt::Iv To Chotto Osaka de yo}i ga arimashita. Sore de kino
inakatta n desu. (I had some business in Osaka. That's why I wasn't
here yesterday.) (b) A: Q) ? 'i t? J: -:J c *Mt .m*tJ OJ L- t::.. o Kino wa
chotto Osaka de yo}i ga arimashita. (Yesterday I had to run an
errand in Osaka.) B : OJ OJ, ;e n It' G....J L G t tJ -:J t::..1v TtJ.o ,4,
sore de irassharanakatta n desu nee (Oh, that's why you weren't
here.) (c) A: Q) ? IJ'\)lltt c to Q) -ft a: L- t::..1v f.: o Kino Ogawa-kun to
pinpon no shiai 0 shita n da. (Yesterday 1 played pingpong with Mr.
Ogawa.) B : -=c tL , %i!Mffi L-'" :7 'l" '/ " A --:J t::.. Iv T J.o Sore de,
senshu atarashii raketto 0 katta n desu ne. (That's why he bought a
new paddle last week.) = s ==- - - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Related Expressions] I. U SI. Sore de S2" can be rephrased using
node if sore de means cause or reason. Note, however, that the
node construction is a single sentence. ( node) Example:

_ 5 - = - 414 sore de / sore de wa [1] t? J: -:J *Mt .m*t.J;cb-:Jt.:(1)1:

Q)? ",t t.J -:Jt::..Iv -ro Chotto Osaka de yo}i ga atta node kino
inakatta n desu. (Because I had an errand to run in Osaka, I wasn't
here yesterday.) The difference is that sore de combines two
sentences much more loosely than node. II. U SI. Sore de S2" can
be rephrased using da / desu kara, if SI indicates a reason or a
cause for S2. [2] t? J: -:J *Mt .m$t.J cb L.t.: o t:.fJ' Q)? ",t t.J -:Jt.:Iv-
r:-ro Chotto Osaka de yo}i ga arimashita.. Da kaTa kino inakatta n
desu. (I had an errand to run in Osaka. So, I wasn't here yesterday.)
The difference between sore de and da kara is similar to the
difference between node and kara. ( kaTa3; node) Observe the
following sen- tence. [3] f3 'i'lt L. "'-r:-r 0 t:.fJ' / *i:-n 1: cb L. t.:*-r < t!.
"'0 Kyo wa isogashii desu. Da kaTa / *SoTe de ashita kite kudasai.
(I'm busy today. So, please come tomorrow.) sore de wa tL -c'f;t conj.
If that is the case, l if so; then; well then [REL. SOTe naTa] . Key
Sentences A: :::'Q) ;t v .y 'i it < tel It' -r: i- 0 Kono orenji wa amakunai
desu. (This orange is not sweet.) B: -th 'j: tL 'j: }!? ( T t.J )0 Sore de
wa kore wa do (desu ka). (How about this one, then?)

sore de wa 415

Exa m pies

(a) A:

'i
t

""

To Boku wa sakana mo niku mo kiraidesu. (I hate both fish and

meat.) B : -=c n -r 'i fPJ a: 1t

Iv -r T tJ

o Sore de wa nani 0 taberu n desu ka. (Then, what do you eat?) (b)
A:

f3 q)lf

7':=' A

'- * -tt Iv t,Po Kyo no gogo tenisu 0 shimasen ka. (Wouldn't you like
to play tennis this afternoon?) B :

f3 Q)lf

'i 'tj J: -:J

Wi;t.J

""Iv-rTtJ

o Kyo no gogo wa chotto tsugo ga warui n desu ga. (This afternoon

is not convenient for me, but. . . )

A : -=c n
'i cb '- t::.. q)lf

'i }! ? -r T t.J

0 S ore de wa ashita no gogo wa do desu ka. (Then, how about

tomorrow afternoon?)

(c) -=c n

'i=+

<

tJ ""1*.7j. * '- J: ? 0 Sore de wa ni1'uppun gurai yasumimasho. (Well

then, let's take a break for about twenty minutes.) (d) -=c n

'i * t::..*J1M q)

PI f3 I:. * * To Sore de wa mata raishu no kin'yobi ni kimasu. (Well

then, I'll come again next Friday.)

em

1. Sore de wa is contracted into sore 1'a or sore 1'a in informal

speech. 2. Sore de wa is often shortened to de wa, which is further
contracted to 1'a or 1'a. 3. Sore de wa is used in sentence-initial
position, and sore' that' refers to that which is stated in the preceding
sentence, as in Exs. (a) and (b), or to the preceding context, as in
Exs. (c) and (d). In Exs. (c) and (d) the speaker uses sore de wa
based on some nonverbal shared knowledge. The shared
knowledge for (c) a
d (d) could be C the fact of having worked long enough' and ' the fact
of having fi nished today's discussion and an agreement for meeting
every Friday', respectively.

=5--===

416 sore kara sore kara tLfJ\ b conj. a conjunction that indicates (l)-;;
l porall y contiguous actions or states, ! or (2) a cumulative listing of
objects, actions or states ...... . after that; and then; in addition to that
[REL. kara 2 ; shi; soshite] .Key Sentences (A) Vte q)? 'i = rf!' < , Ji
iX 1: -=e 'L tJ t J ? t? :. -:J t::.. / Kino wa nijikan gurai tomodachi to
nonde sore kara uchi ni kaetta / * L- t::.. o kaerimashita. (Yesterday I
drank with my friend for about two hours and then went home.) (B)
Sentence I Sentence2 q)? 'i = rf!' < , Ji fA Iv t!. 0 -t n tJ *m I:. 1ti -:J -
C Kino wa nijikan gurai tomodach; to nonda. Sore kara hon- ya n;
yotte ? t? :. -:J t::.. o uch; ni kaetta. (Yesterday I drank with my friend
for about two hours. Then I dropped by a bookstore and went home.)
= 5 = = - Formatien (i) {Vte/Vmasu} -=en tJ r sore kara {Zas L- -C /
gas L-}, -=e 11, tJ G {hanashite / hanashi}, sore kara {it"...: -C / it"'}, -t
n tJ (s.o. eats, and then -) {tabete / tabe}, sore kara (ii) Adj (i) stem <
(-C), -t n tJ ku(te), sore kara (s.o. talks, and then -)

sore kara 417

< (""(), -=e n tJ

(s.t. is not only expensive but -) takaku(te), sore kara (iii) Adj (na)
stem 1:, .:t n tJ

de, sore kara tffttJ

1:, -=en tJ

(s.t. is not only quiet but -) shizukade. sore kara (iv) N I (

)N2(

) -=en tJ

N 3 (to) (to) sore kara

m(

) 13 *m (

), -=e n tJ

q:. oom eigo (to) nihongo (to), sore kara chtJgokugo

(English, Japanese and Chinese)

Exa m pies

(a) +

'1 1:mma: L- * L- t::.. o -=e ntJ

um

:.ft

* L- t::.. o JtJji made shukudai 0 shimashita. Sore kara eiga ni

ikimashita. (I did my home work until 10 o'clock. And then, I went to
the movie.) (b)

(/)? 'j:

.J.

H:.ft-:J""(, .:tntJ

um

M.I:.ft-:Jt::..o Kino wa asa Ginza ni itte, sore kara eiga 0 mi ni itta.

(Yesterday morning I went to Ginza and then went to see a movie.)
(c) v A " 7

1: ,j: A 7" -

7¥

-=e n tJ

7- - ;( -7 -

a: 1t

* L t::.. o Resutoran de wa suteki to sarada to sore kara chizukeki 0

tabemashita. (At the restaurant I ate steak, salad, and cheesecake.)
(d) #iIJ(/)
Aj:m

'j:. <, -=e ntJ

:. tet

* Lt.:o .Mizuumi no iro wa hajime wa aoku, sore kara midori ni

narimashita. (The color of the lake was blue in the beginning and
then turned green. ) (e) ,ij PI, 1<JfI, .:t tLtJ

*PI t

""( tit L ""1:T 0 Getsuyo, kayo, sore kara mokuyo mo totemo

isogashiidesu. (I am very busy on Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday,
too.)

=5-----

==== - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

mID 1. Sore kara can be used to indicate something which the

speaker almost forgot to mention, as in (1) below: ( 1 ) .y:l;"'-

, cb cb.:t ? tf., .:t tL tJ

G
7* tJ

* t.: J: 0 Jon to Meri to, a so da, sore kara Bobu ga kita yo. (J ohn
and Mary and, oh yeah, Bob came too.) 2. Sore kara 'and then' is
often used by the hearer to elicit more infor- mation from the
speaker. Example:

418 sore kara

(2) A:

f3 'i

ft

* '-t=.tJ

o Kyo wa doko e ikimashita ka. (Where did you go today?) B : *

fJt!JR?' ry -

:.J:

* L t::.. o Mazu Tokyo tawa ni noborimashita. (First we went up Tokyo

Tower.) A: i:-nfJ';? SOTe kaTal (And then?) B :

*t«I:.ft

* L t=.o Bijutsukan ni ikimashita. (I went to the art museum.) A : i:-

nfJ';? SOTe kaTal (And then?) B : 7
- " I:.ft -:J""(, 1t1i!:1:

.::!& a: 1t

* L t::.. o Depato ni itte. shokudo de hirugohan 0 tabemashita. (I went

to a department store and ate my lunch at the cafeteria.) 3. Vte,
Vmasu, Adj (i) stem ku (te) and Adj (na) stem de do not have their
own tense. The tense is identical with that of the main verb.

(Related Expressions] I. V te kara and V te, sore kara are similar but
not identical in meaning. V te kara expresses chronological
sequence; V te, sore kara expresses chronological sequence and /
or enumeration. For example, [la] expresses purel y chronological
order and [1 b], chronological order and enumeration. (t:) kaTa 2 )

.. 5 = =- !!!!

[1] a.

lJfP

'i

rf!':f Iv7 a: '- -CfJ' ;-

rf!'i*""t.:o Yamanaka -san wa sanjikan gorufu 0 shite kaTa ichijikan

oyoida. (Mr. Yamanaka swam for one hour after having played golf
for three hours.) b. U-J
';t

rf!':f Iv 7 a: '- -c, i:-nfJ'; -

rf!'iJJ< "" t.: o Yamanaka-san wa sanjikan gorufu 0 shite. SOTe kaTa

ichi- jikan oyoida. (Mr. Yamanaka played golf for three hours, and, on
top of that, he swam for an hour.)

sore kara / sore nara 419 I I. "V te / V masu, sore kara n, "Adj (i)
stem ku te, sore kara U and "Adj (na) stem de, sore kara n are very
similar to shi when they express enumeration. [2] a. 4' f3 'i 7"'::' A a:
L- -C, i:-nfJ' 001 t J!t::.. o Kyo wa tenisu 0 shite. SOTe kaTa eiga mo
mita. (Today I played tennis, and I saw a movie, too.) b . f3 'i 7" .::. A
t '- t::.. L, 001 t J! t::.. 0 Kyo wa tenisu mo shita shi. eiga mo mita.
(Today I played tennis, and whaes more, saw a movie.) II I. 50 shite /
soshite and sore kara are interchangeable when two events do not
occurs simultaneously. Compare the following: [3] a. i} a: fla """"C,
i:-? L -C %lT Q) tJ Jf t! 0 Ongaku 0 kiite. so shite benkyosuru no ga
sukida. (I like to listen to music while studying. / I like to listen to
music first and then study.) b. i} a: fla """"C, i:-nfJ' %tT Q) t.J Jf t.: o
Ongaku 0 kiite. SOTe kaTa benkyosuru no ga sukida. (I like to listen
to music first and then study.) sore nara tL 1;;. b conj. ; If ;i "ili " " v.
/"v then; in that case [REL. sore de wa] . Key Sentence A: B: J1 tJ
1Jri '" , Iv "'t: T 0 L tel j T <' t.t ""0 Atama ga itai n desu. 5 ore nara
sugu nenasai. (I have a headache.) (In that case, go to sleep right
away.) _ 5 - - - - - ====- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Examples (a) A:
OO1a:J!':.ft *-ttIvt.J o Eiga 0 mi ni ikimasen ka. (Wouldn't you like to
go see a movie?)

420 sore nara

B: ib L-t::..

t.J

cb

Iv 1: To Ashita shiken ga aru n desu. (I have an exam tomorrow.) A: -

=c

'L tet

, cb

-:J ""( 'i }! ? 1: T t.J

0 Sore nara. asatte wa do desu ka. (Then, how about the day after
tomorrow?) (b) A: f3 *

:. 'i

Q) <"

"" "" * '- t::.. tJ

o Nihon ni wa dono gurai imashita ka. (How long did you stay in
Japan?) B : .::..

1:T 0 Sannen desu. (Three years.) A: -=c tL tet ,?, f3 *Q)':'

'i J: < 1J]-:J""( "', Q 1: L- J: ? .fJ o Sore nara. Nihon no koto wa yoku
shitte iru desho nee (Then, you must know a lot about Japan.)

em 1. Sore' that' refers to a previously-spoken sentence. In KS, for

example, sore refers to A's entire sentence. B's sentence can be
rephrased as (1): (1)
J{t.J;1Jri""lvtl

T <"

tet

""0 Atama ga itai n naTa sugu nenasai. (If you have a headache, go
to sleep right away.) Nara in (1) expresses the speaker's supposition
concerning the truth of A's statement. (

naTa) 2. Sore nara has a more formal form, sore naraba, and a more
informal one, sonnara.

s---

3. For restrictions imposed on the sentence that follows sore nara,

see the notes in nara.

(Related Expression] Although sore nara and sore de wa are very

similar, they differ in that the former is dependent on verbal context
while the latter is not. Thus, towards the end of one's visit with his
superior or on an occasion when something is offered, sore de wa is
used, as in [la, b]. [1] a. i:-n 1! r

/ * i:-n tl

*L '- * To SOTe de wa / *SOTe naTa shitsureishimasu. (Lit. Then I

must be going now.)
sore nara / soretomo 421 b. i:-n1:'r / *i:-ntl lItcl < ""t::..t,: '1To SOTe de
wa / *SOTe naTa enryo naku itadakimasu. (Lit. Then, I'll take it
(without hesitation).) soretomo tL c!: t> con}. , .../"".../"". - a
coordinate conjunction which con- > ( nects two alternatives
expressed by sentences - """ - or; either "'- or "'- [REL. kal] . Key
Sentences (A) Sentencel (informal) ::"q) * tJ * t? tJ -:J ""( "" tJ.. ( -=c t
t) Kono hon ga machigatte /ru ka (soretomo) Sentence2 (informal) fL
tJ * t? tJ -:J""( "" tJ.. t? tp t!. / "'t: To watashi ga machigatte iru ka
dochiraka da / desu. (It's either that this book is wrong or that I am
wrong.) (B) Questionl Question2 JfiIJ !t 1t '1T tJ..o -=c t T , L'1T tJ\o
Sashimi 0 tabemasu ka. Soretomo sukiyaki ni shimasu ka. (Will you
have sashimi, or will you have sukiyaki?) = 5 - - - - - -- = - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - Examples (a) -m * tJ\ (-=c n t )f1# Iv ;* \ t? tJ\"'t:T 0 Boku ga
kuru ka (soretomo) Murai-san ga kuru ka dochiraka desu. (Either I
will come or Mr. Murai will come.)

422 soretomo / soshite (b) UJq)A'i96!:E TtJ o .:ttL t =f TtJ o Ano hito
wa sensei desu ka. Soretomo isha desu ka. (Is he a teacher or a
doctor?) CD 1. Soretomo combines statements (KS(A» or questions
(KS(B». In KS(A), soretomo can be omitted. 2. In KS(B), if the
context is clear, abbreviated questions may occur In informal
speech. For example, (1) may be used for KS(B). (1) JPIJ!f? -fen c!:
=L, T ? Sashimi? SOTetomo. sukiyaki? (Sashimi or sukiyaki?)
soshite l., -r conj. . I a coordinate conjunction that con- ! nects two
sentences \ \ ........... ../' -""."... " and; and then [REL. SOTe kSTS] . 5
- - . Key Sentence Sentence I 4-a 'i JRJj( ,:. ff ':J t::.. / ff '* L t::.. 0 Kyo
wa Tokyo ni itta / ikimashita. (I went to Tokyo today. Sentence2
.:tL"'C i;(Ji ,:. -:J t::.. / \t\ '* '- t::.. o S oshite tomodachi ni atta /
aimashita. And I met my friend there.)

soshite / sugiru 423 Exa m pIes (a) (J) ? 'i4iJJ =f Iv 7 L. '* L. t::.. o .:t
L. "'( lf 'i 7";::' A L. '* L. t::.. o Kino wa asa gorufu 0 shimashita.
Soshite gogo wa tenisu 0 shimashita. (Yesterday I played golf in the
morning. And I played tennis in the afternoon.) (b) :: (J) OOHi"'::> '* t
\t'o .:t L.",( *-r Q 0 Kono eiga wa tsumaranai. Soshite nagasugiru.
(This movie is uninteresting. And it's too long.) (c) :: (J):m'i tL \t' -r 0
.:t '- ",(*\t' -r 0 Kono hana wa kireidesu. Soshite yasuidesu. (This
flower is pretty. And it is inexpensive.) em 1. Soshite and so shite are
normally interchangeable, but if so shite is used in the original sense
of 'by doing so', it cannot be replaced by soshite. (1) -f"? l., 1:' / *-f" l.,
1:'itl-r 1v -rtJ o So shite / *Soshite naosu n desu ka. (Lit. Do you fix it
by doing so? (= Oh, that's how you fix it?» 2. The two sentences in
this construction can be combined using the te- form of verbs or
adjectives, as in (2). This version is encountered less frequently than
the above version and sounds a little redundant, because the te-form
alone can mean '- and'. (2) 4- a 'i JfiJj( ,:. fT -:J 1:', -f"? l., 1:' / -f" l., 1:'
Ji ,:. \t' '* L. t::.. 0 Kyo wa Tokyo ni itte, so shite / soshite tomodachi ni
aimashita. (I went to Tokyo today, and I met my friend there.) _ 5 . ;:
sugiru .,. aux. v. (Gr. 2) ../"'o.../"'../" 1 ) S d . I . > I .0. / s.t. oes s.t.
excessive y or IS > . . I ? S In a state excessive y. > "V"V' too; do s.t.
too much / often; over-

424 sugiru . Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Vmasu ry .{ Iv

Iv 'i

:1k

T€

/ T€*To Uiruson-san wa niku 0 tabe sugiru / sugimasu. . (Mr. Wilson

eats too much meat.)

(B)
Topic (subject) Noun Adj (i / na) stem =- (J) 7.1

- J.. 'i fLJi ,:. U:

T€ Q / T

*To fSJ Kono apato wa watashitachi ni wa taka sugiru / sugimasu.

(This apartment is too expensive for us.)

Fermation

(i) Vmasu T€Q sugiru

r5 '- T €

(talk too much) hanashi sugiru

tt-: T

Q (eat too much) tabe sugiru

.5-;

==

(ii) Adj (i / na) stem T € Q sugiru

T€Q taka sugiru

(too expensive)

rfttJ' T€

shizuka sugiru

(too quiet)

Examples

(a) fL'i

4iJJ

"'(

t5c,:.:td < tLt::.. o Watashi wa kesa ne sugite gakko ni okureta. (I

overslept this morning and was late for school.)

sugiru 425

(b)
q) fJUi fL q) ImM ,:. 'i:*

Go Kono tsukue wa watashi no heya ni wa oki sugiru. (This desk is

too big for my room.) (c) EB r:p96!:Eq)

'i:*

G q) "'t:'

'jJ '* L t::.. o Tanaka-sensei no jugyo wa taihen sugiru node

yamemashita. (I dropped Prof. Tanaka's class because it was too
demanding.)

(d)

Iv 'i:;t: !J T

"'( \t\ G 0 Mori-san wa futori sugite iru. (Mr. Mori is too fat.)

em

1. Sugiru, which as a main verb means' pass; go beyond some limit',

is used as an auxiliary verb with V masu or Adj (i / na) stem and
means , do s.t. excessively' or 'be - excessively'. 2. The stem of ii '
good' changes to yo before sugiru, as in (1). (1)
q) 7 .I

- J.. 'i J.. A ,:. 'i

G 0 Kono apato wa Tomu ni wa yo sugiru. (This apartment is too

good for Tom.) 3. The negative nai ' not exist / not' changes to nasa
before sugiru.

(2) '"

'ijJtJ

fJ:

Go Ben wa chikara ga nasa sugiru. (Lit. Ben has too little power. (=
Ben is too weak.») (3)

-r'iJf

fJ:

Go Tomoko wa yasai 0 tabenasa sugiru. (Tomoko eats too few

vegetables.) 4. For in "be too - for someone / something" is
expressed by ni wa, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b). 5. Sugiru is a Gr. 2
verb; the negative form is suginai, the polite form is sugimasu and
the te-form is sugite.
=5-

426 sukida sukida .,. t::. adj. (na) ....",.... ./" S.t. or 5.0. is what 5.0.
likes. 1 ...".... '- like; be fond of (ANT. kiraida) . Key Sentence Topic
(experiencer) Liked Object fL 'i A7"-:f tJ f t! / Jf To Watashi wa su teki
ga sukida / sukidesu. (I like steak.) Examples (a) 'i!f tJ Jf t!o Boku wa
yakytJ ga sukida. (I like baseball.) (b) .y 3 '.J /V'i.y tJ *Jf T 0 Jonson-
san wa jazu ga dai-sukidesu. (Mr. Johnson loves jazz.) em 1. Sukida
is a na-type adjective which requires the" wa - ga construction ".
That is, the experiencer (i.e., the person who likes someone or
some- thing) is marked by wa and the liked object by ga. (t:)"., wa ".,
ga) Note that the liked object is marked by ga not by o. 2. In
subordinate clauses, the experiencer is also marked by ga, as in (1)
and (2). ; S (1) fLfJ( A 7" - :f tJ Jf t,t =- 'i;1j./v t,t -:J "'( \t\ 0 Watashi g8
suteki ga skina koto wa minna shitte iru. (Everybody knows that I like
steak.) (2) .y 3 fJ( f t,t A - 'i!f T 0 Jon ga sukina supotsu wa yakytJ
desu. (Lit. The sport John likes is baseball. (=John's favorite sport is
baseball.» 3. "Like a lot" is expressed by dai-sukida, as in Ex. (b).

sukunai 427 sukunai !P fJ: L , adj. (i) small in number or qu , '''''..j''....''

few; a small number of; little; a small quantity of - [REL. wazuka]
(ANT. oi) . Key Sentence Topic (location) Subject (J) IItf 'i \-"\-" VAJ..7
tJ 1,> t .t\-" / 1,>t.t\-" To Kono machi wa ii resutoran ga sukunai /
sukunaidesu. . (Lit. In this town good restaurants are few. (= There
aren't many good restaurants in this town.» Examples (a) (J)* 'i T
!:EtJ 1,>t.t \-" T 0 Kono daigaku wa joshigakusei ga sukunaidesu.
(The number of female students at this college is small.) (b) a * 'i [! tJ
1,> tt. \-" 0 f\'ihon wa hanzai ga sukunai. (There are few crimes in
Japan.) (c) a *mtJ .'t Q OOA'i* 1,>t.t \-"0 Nihongo ga kakeru
gaikokujin wa taihen sukunai. (Lit. Foreigners who can write
Japanese are very few. (= Very few foreigners can write Japanese.»
em 1. Sukunai cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative
clause where sukunai is the predicate of the subject of the relative
clause. (1) * (J)* 'i1;fl L \ T !:E \-" * To *Kono daigaku wa sukunai
joshigakusei ga imasu. (Cp. Ex. (a» (2) * 1;flL\IItf,:.{j:;1j.t::.. < UJ!J *-
ttlv o Ki ga sukunai machi ni sumitaku arimasen. (I don't want to live
in a town where there are few trees.) 2. The distinction between
English ' few' vs. ' a few' can be expressed by sukunai and sukoshi
wa as in (3) below. ::== 5 - Ii I

428 sukunai / suru l (3) a. a* ltn 7tn Q7;J.!J nALt!pflL\o Nihongo ga

wakaru Amerikajin wa sukunai. (Lit. Americans who can understand
Japanese are few. (= Few Americans can understand Japanese.» b.
a* ltn 7ttJ Q7;J.!J nAU:!pl.,' \t\Qo Nihongo ga wakaru Amerikajin wa
sukoshi wa iru. (There are a few Americans who can understand
Japanese.) [Related Expression] Sukunai differs from a similar word
wazuka(da) in both meaning and use. The latter means 'insignificant
number or amount of -' and is used be- fore a noun or in a predicate
position or as an adverb. Only in [la] below can wazukada be
replaced by sukunai. [1] a. f.Ln -:J"'( \ Q :td 'j: tJ"f fJ' f=o Watashi ga
motte iru o-kane wa wazukada. (The money I possess is very little.)
b. tJ"ffJ' fl:t3 "'t*W L-",( \ Q 0 Wazukana o-kane de kurashite iru. (He
is living with a paltry sum of money.) c. lb q) A 'i tJ"f fJ' q) "'t* T <-. :td
Q 0 Ano hito wa wazuka no koto de sugu okoru. (He gets angry
easily over a trifling matter.) d. q) 'itJ"ffJ' 0=) -A"'J"'t* L- t::.. o Sono
toki boku wa wazuka(ni) muttsu deshita. (At that time I was merel y
six years old.) . 5 - = - suru l .,. v. (I TT.) ./ J'-' '-' /.../""",,", ) ) S.o. / s.t.
causes a state or action to take place. /"'.J1I"""'v-"'J"". ../"'."-/'"'v do;
make; play; play the role of -; wear [REL. naru; yaru]

suru l 429

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Direct Object rp

1v . ,t T==-A
TG / L*To Nakayama-san wa tenisu 0 suru / shimasu. . (Mr.
Nakayama plays tennis.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object

-A

1v ';1

nt (J) 9G!:E

L-C \-',.r, / \-"*To Rizu-san wa eigo no sensei 0 shite iru / imasu. . (Mr.
Leeds is (lit. doing) an English teacher.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Adj (i) stem 9G!:E ';1 TAl--

L < L t::.. / L * L t::.. o Sensei wa tesu to 0 yasashi ku shita /

shimashita. (The teacher made his test easy.)

(0)
Topic (subject) Direct Object Noun *1=1 'i ,

.T

=f I:. L t::.. / L * L t::.. o Kiguchi wa musuko 0 ish a ni shita /

shimashita. . (Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.)

_ 5 """ - =

(E)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Sino-J apanese Compound fL 'i r:p 00

ft

i1l%i L-C \-'\

/ \-'\ * To Watashi wa chtJgokugo 0 benkyo shite iru / imasu. . (I am

studying Chinese.)

430 suru l

(F)
Topic (subject) Direct Object Jj(-r 'i

tLv't

Aj}-7

l.,"'( V'Q / v':tTo Kyoko wa kireina sukafu 0 shi te iru / imasu. . (Kyoko
is wearing a beautiful scarf.)

Examples

(a) f3*A'it.:v'"'(v':f:IJlf3 tft*

TQo Nihonjin wa taitei doyobi mo shigoto 0 suru. (The Japanese

usually work on Saturdays, too.) (b) 1::"/v U: /' A v

J..

TQ

t !J t

0 Biru wa Hamuretto 0 suru tsumori da. (Bill is going to play Hamlet.)

(c)

-r'imtm

tLv":' Lt::.. o Y oko wa heya 0 kireini shita. (Lit. Y oko made her room
clean. (= Y oko cleaned her room.»

. 5 - :ii
 ==

(d)

'i J: < 1I!

JI

l., '* To Boku wa yoku kuruma 0 untenshimasu. (I often drive a car.)

(e) -

'i7;J.!J j}A

':'l.,t::..o Kazuo wa amerikajin 0 tsuma ni shita. (Lit. Kazuo made a

wife of an American. (= Kazuo took an American wife.» (f) v' v' *

.{

l., "'( v' Q Po Ii nekutai 0 shite iru nee (You're wearing a nice tie,
aren't you?)

em 1. Suru l means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds

to English , do' or ' make'.

2. KS(A) and Ex. (a) are cases in which the subject is doing / playing
s.t. KS(B) as well as Ex. (b) are cases where the subject is playing a
social or dramatic role. KSs(C) and (D) and Ex. (c) have causative
meanings. 3. KS(C) and Ex. (c) require that either Adj (i) stem+ku or
Adj (na) stem+ ni (i.e., adverbial form of Adj (i / na» be used before
suru. KS(D) and

suru l 431

Ex. (e) use a Noun+ni in front of suru. 4. The Direct Objects of KS(F)
and Ex. (f) are items that cover a small part of the human body such
as nekutai C (nec

)tie " tebukuro C gloves' and udedokei ' wristwatch'. When used with
such direct objects, suru means 'wear'.

5. The construction in KS(D) (i.e., N + ni suru) also has an idiomatic

use, meaning' decide on -' (t:) ni SUTU)

6. Sino-Japanese compounds + suru such as benkyosuru 'study' and

unten- suru 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(E) and
Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can also be used as the
direct object of suru. For example, compare KS(E) and Ex. (d) with
(1) and (2), respecti vely.

(1) fL'i r:poomq)i1l%i

L",( "" Go Watashi wa chugokugo no benkyo 0 shite iru. (Lit. I am

doing the study of Chinese. ( = I am studying Chinese.»

(2)
'i J: < 1J[q)JI

L '* To Boku wa yoku kuruma no unten 0 shimasu. (Lit. I often do the

driving of a car. (= I often drive a car.» Note in Sentences (1) and (2)
that the direct object in KS(E) and Ex. (d) is connected to the Sino-
Japanese compound by the particle no, creating a noun phrase
which is the direct object of suru.

7. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use suru with

loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. Some
typical ex- amples follow:

1::':IJ..TG (make a hit) J'/

TG (knock on the door) hitto-suru nokku-suru

7.{7TG (drive a car) :fATG (kiss) doraibu-suru kisu-suru

.{ 7T G (type) .I

A T G (pass an exam)

_ 5 """

:=

taipu-suru pasu-suru It is also common to use suru with sound

symbolisms, especially pheno- mimes and psychomimes. (t:)
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)
=- 5 = =-

432 suru l V<V<To (be in fear) tJ

-:J c!: To (flare up) bikubiku-suru katto-suru '!Iv

!J To (be absent-minded) 'i -:J c!: T 0 (be taken aback) bonyari -suru
hatto-suru /C-:Jc!:To (shi ver) v\

v\

To (become irritated) zotto-suru iraira -suru

8. Suru basically means some causative change that is under human

control, whereas naru 'become' basically means spontaneous
change that is al- most beyond human control. Since injury normally
occurs due to human carelessness, suru is acceptable, but naru is
unacceptable, as shown in (3) below. In contrast to injury, illness is
assumed to occur regardless of human carefulness or carelessness,
so it should not take suru. But in actuality it does. Illness can take
suru when it is talked about as if it were something under human
control, for example, cases of past illness (as in (4a»), apologies
implying that one has caused illness due to carelessness on one's
part (as in (4b)), and statements of one's medical history (as in (4c)).
Otherwise, illness cannot take suru, as shown in ( 4d). (3) a. m

/ ,t tJ

T .Q 0 Byoki / kega 0 SUTU. (One becomes ill / sustains injury.) b. m

/ *,t
I=t

.Qo Byoki / *kega ni naTU. (One becomes ill.) (4) a.

v\fJHi J: < m

l.,t=: / ?I=t

-:> t=:o Wakai koro wa yoku byoki 0 shita / ? ni natta. (When I was
young, I often became ill.) b. v\"':) t m

l., 1:" / ?I= t

-:> 1:"T;1j. :t it Ivo Itsumo byoki 0 shite / ?ni natte sumimasen. (I'm
sorry that I always become ill.) c. -

'

1iiJ@J<

v\m

l.,

TtJ

/ ?1=t

LJ
TtJ

o Ichinen ni nankai gurai byoki 0 shimasu ka /? ni naTimasu ka.

(About how many times do you become ill per year?) d.

Q) ? ;

'

LJ * l., t=: / *

l.,

l., t=:o Kino kyOni byoki ni naTimashita / *0 shimashita. (I suddenly

became ill yesterday.)

suru 1 433

9. Suru can be used in the construction 0+ Vmasu+suru, a humble,

polite form of verb. The subject of this humble verb must be the
speaker or his in-group member.

(5) fLtJ

13Mtc7j. / =Ii

/
l.,

To Watashi ga 0 yomi / kaki / mochi shimasu. (I will read / write /

carry it (for you).) A further degree of humbleness can be expressed
by rcplacing suru with its humble version itasu / itashimasu. (t:) 0

SUTU)

[Related Expressions] I. Naru' become' forms an intransitive-

transitive pair with suru, although they are not phonetically related.
(t:) Appendix 3) Semantically, naru seems more passive, while suru
seems more causative. Compare the fol- lowing pairs of sentences:

[1] a. JlJ fIHi W

'Co t

-:> t= 0 Yamada wa teigaku ni natta. (Li t. Yamada became

suspension from school. ( = Yamada got suspended from school.) b.

fjc 'i JlJ fB

'Co l., t= 0 Gakko wa Yamada 0 teigaku ni shita. (Lit. The school

made Yamada suspended from school. (= The school suspended
Yamada.» [2] a. JlJ fB 'i*

=Ii < =- c!: 'Co t

-:> t=o Yamada wa hon 0 kaku koto ni natta. (It's been decided that
Yamada will write a book.)
b. JlJ fB li*

=Ii < =- c!: 'Co l., t=o Yamada wa hon 0 kaku koto ni shita. (Yamada
has decided to write a book.) (t:) koto ni naTU; koto ni SUTU) II.
Suru can be replaced by its informal version yaru (Gr. 1 Verb) when
it means 'do / play s.t.' as in KS(A) or 'play a dramatic / social role' as
in KS(B). Also, if suru takes a Sino-Japanese compound as its direct
object (as in benkyo 0 suru ' Lit. do a study of '), it can be replaced
by yaru.

= 5 -=- - - - - - - -- = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

434 suru 2

suru 2 "9 Q

v. (Irr.)

, ! 5.0. or s:t. has some (semi- )perma- ! ? nent attnbute. <

have [REL. - wa - ga]

. Key Sentence
Topic (subject, Adjecti ve N (bodily possessor) part) 1$:r '1

'" jE

L-C "'0 / "''1To Yoko wa nagai ashi 0 shite iru / imasu. . (Y oko has
long legs.)

Examples

(a) -.9J 'i:t:k t.t 1*

L -C '" '1 To Kazuo wa jobuna karada 0 shite imasu. (Kazuo has a

strong body.) (b) ;:, Q)mJijL "'W

L -C '" 0 0 Kono tsukue wa marui katachi 0 shite iru. (This table has
a round shape.)

CD

=- 5 - == !!!!

1. The sentence pattern is: Topic (subject) + Adj(i / na)+ {Noun of

Bodily Part / Noun of At- tribute} +shite iru / imasu. A bodily part or
an attribute must be inalienably possessed by the sub- ject. In other
words, it must be such an essential part of the possessor (=subject)
that he / it cannot exist without the part or the attribute. 2. In the main
clause the verb suru always takes the te iru form, but in a relative
clause te iru may be replaced by ta as in:

(1)

"'jE

l., 1:"" \.Q / l., t::1$:r Nagai ashi 0 shite iTU / shita Y oko (Yoko, who
has long legs)

[Related Expression] Sentences of this construction can be restated

using the wa -ga construction as follows:

suru 2 / suru 3 435

N I wa Adj N 2 0 shite iru -+ N I wa N 2 ga Adj. Thus, the KS

example can be rephrased as: [1] i$-rI

jE1J(

v' /

v'"'t:T 0 Yoko wa ash; ga naga; / nagaidesu. (Y oko has long legs.)

The only perceptible difference between KS and [1] is that the latter
sentence is more analytical than the former. In other words, in KS
nagai ash; 'long legs' is one unit, but in [1] ashi 'legs' is first
presented as a single unit and is then further characterized as nagai'
long'.
suru 3 "9 Q

v. (Irr.)

""""""'.JI""

."""" '> S.t. is perceived by s.o.'s non-visual

senses. ?

feel; smell; hear

. Key Sentence

Subject -r

}i (j) -1-.:- tJ

l.., t::.. / l..,"1 l.., t.: 0 F Kodomotachi no koe ga shita / shimashita. (I

heard children's voices.)

Examples

=5-------
====:i = = - - - - - - - - - -

(a) -:. ")j,

fJi

tJ

l..,;t T

J.o Kono sakana wa henna aji ga shimasu nee (This fish tastes
funny, doesn't it?) (b) -:. (/)

L'j:

"

"; l..,"'( v' Qo Kono k;re wa zarazara shite iru. (This cloth feels rough.)
(c) -:. (j)

'j: v' v"

v' tJ

T 0 0 Kono hana wa ii nioi ga suru. (This flower smells good.)

436 suru 3 I suru.

(d) fL'j:*

tJ

1..,

To Watashi wa samuke ga shimasu. (I feel a chill.)

8D

If s.t. is perceived visually, either the - 0 shite iru structure or the - wa

- ga structure is used. (t:) SUTU 2 ;

wa

ga)

(1)

(j)!J 1v

'j:

tL,,\tt

-C"\.Qo Kono ringo wa kireina iro 0 shite iTU. (This apple has a
pretty color.) (2)
(j)

:,..- ::f'I

1.1<

tL" \ f.: 0 Kono ringo wa iro ga kireida. (This apple has a pretty color.)

suru 4 "9 Q

v. (Irr.)

a verb that indicates how m

costs or a duration of time

cost; lapse

. Key Sentences (A)

=- 5 - =-
Topic (subject) Quanti ty

(j) lJ!j

t ,j: +J1P1 To / L:tTo Kono tokei wa juman' en suru / shimasu. . (This

watch costs 100,000 yen.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause (be!: -

Lt::..

lf10 / lf1:tTo Ato ichinen shitara daigaku 0 deru / demasu. . (In

another year I'll graduate from college.)

suru. / suru to 437

Examples

(a) A:

tL'i );! (j) <

v\ L '1 L t::.. tJ

o Sore wa dono gurai shimashita ka. (About how much did it cost?)
B : =+1LJ1P1 <

v\ L * L t::.. o NijtJgoman'en gurai shimashita. (It cost about 250,000

yen.) (b) t? P L TtL'i::l:A tJ

-:J -C '1 v\ !J '1 To Mo sukoshi sureba shujin ga kaette mairimasu. (In

a short time my husband will be here.)

CD

When suru. is used to mean' lapse of time', it can only be used in a

sub- ordinate clause, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b). Therefore, the
following sentence in which suru. is used in the main clause is
ungrammatical.

(1) *=:

L '1 Lt::.. o *Sannen shimashita. Cpo =:

t.:

l.., t.: 0 Sannen tachimashita. (Three years passed.)

suru to "9 Q C conj. w

icl:

l nects two sentences (The second

sentence either describes an event

which takes place right after the event described in the first
sentence or it expresses a logical guess related to the event in the
first sentence.) ( .

,........."...

..

- s =- -- =

thereu p on -. then -. and - , , [REL. sore de wa; so suru to]

_ 5 = - 438 suru to . Key Sentences (A) Sentence. Sentence2 .y 3 -:¥

7* t3 ;t. L t.: o T =:1Ji tJ jO"'L< t,t. !J '1 L t::.. o Jogingu o
hajimemashita. S uru to gohan ga oishiku narimashita. (I began
jogging. Then, I began to have a good appetite.) (B) A: 4a 'i J1lJ1a -
C:T .to Kyo wa getsuyobi desu yo. (Today is Monday, you know.) B:
T db(/) T'/ - " 'i c7j. -C:T no Suru to ano depato wa yasumi desu nee
(Then, that department store is closed, isn't it?) Examples (a) fL'j: 1t!
A"''1 Lt::.. o To t LtJ !J '1 Lt::.. o Watashi wa jitensha 0 kaimashita.
Suru to ototo mo hoshigarimashita. (I bought a bike. Then, my
younger brother wanted one, too.) (b) ]iJi tJ nti tJ -:J t::.. (/) -c: 7 A to
!Xc7j. '1 L t.: 0 T Q c!: nti c7j. tJ T <. J1: '1 !J '1 L t::.. o A tama ga
itakatta node asupirin 0 nomimashita. Suru to itami ga sugu
tomarimashita. (I took an aspirin because I had a headache. Then,
the headache dis- appeared right away.) (c) A: , ,-r'i il1ifjc=: -C:T 0
Musuko wa ima koko sannen desu. (My son is now a junior at high
school.) B : To , * 'j:* \:Tno Suru to, rainen wa daigakujuken desu nee
(Then, he is going to take a college entrance examination next year,
isn't he?)

suru to 439

8D

To of suru to is the conjunction t0 4 . (t:) to 4 ) Therefore, in KS(A),

Sen- tence2 normally expresses an event that is beyond the control
of the speaker; that is why Sentence2 cannot be a command, a
request, or a suggestion.

[Related Expressions] I. Suru to is the shortened form of s6 suru to.

These two constructions have identical meanings and can be used
interchangeably. They are related to another expression sore de wa
'then', but unlike sore de wa, the second sentence in the (so) suru to
construction cannot be a command, request, suggestion, or
something which can be controlled by the subject of the sentence.
(t:) SOTe de wa) Thus, [1] A:

f3li'lt L v'"'t:T 0 Kyo wa isogashiidesu. (I'm busy today.) B : i" h -c: I

/ * ( i" ? ) T .Q c (b L t::.. ff
:t L .t ? 0 SaTe de wa / *(50) SUTU to ashita ikimasho. (Then, let's
go there tomorrow.) [2] A: (=same as [1] A) B : i"h -c: I

/ * (i"?) T.Q c (b L t::..*-C < t!.

v'o SaTe de wa / *(50) SUTU to ashita kite kudasai. (Then, please

come tomorrow.) [3] A: (b t,t t.:. tJ

*t,t v' c!: m 0 Iv"'t: To Anata ga konai to komaru n desu. (It will be
difficult if you don't come.) B : i" h -c: I

/ * ( i" ? ) T .Q c ff

:t T 0 SaTe de wa / *(50) SUTU to ikimasu. (Lit. Then, I'll go.) I I.

Sore de wa ' then' can replace the suru to in KS(B) but not the suru
to in KS(A), because sore de wa requires that the speakers of
Sentence. and Sentence2 be different.

-s

440 -tachi .tachi it suf. ./",,"""" .""""""''''''' a plural marker attached to

personal ! pronouns or to human (proper) nouns . \ [REL. -domo; -
gata; -ra] Formation ( i) Personal Pronoun + tachi fLit (we)
watashitachi db t,t. t::..it (you [pl.]) anatatachi *fBi (they [male]) *
karetachi Cpo fBi karera Cpo fBi (they [female]) kanojora (they
[male]) fBikit (they [female]) kanojotachi (ii) Human Proper Noun+it
tachi lHB /vit (Mr. Yamada and others) Yamada-san- tachi (iii) Human
Noun+it tach i -r it (children) kodom ota chi JJJii (men) otokotachi CD
= T = Kanojo 'she' can take -tachi, but kare ' he' cannot. [Related
Expressions] In addition to -tachi there are three other pluralizing
suffixes: -domo, -gata and -ra. -domo is attached primarily to formal
first person pronouns, yield- ing a humble 'we', as in: [1] fL 'i fiiJ t ff t
:t it /VO Watashidomo wa nani mo zonjimasen. (We don't know
anything about it.)
-tachi / tai 441 -domo can also be attached to a very limited number
of human nouns such as otoko ' man' and onna ' woman', yielding
the rather downgrading plurals otokodomo ' men' and onnadomo '
women', respectively. Although kodomo 'child' is ko+domo, it is no
longer used as a plural. Instead -tachi is at- tached to it to generate
the plural form, as in Formation (iii). -gata is an honorific plural
marker attached to the second person pronoun anata 'you' and a
very limited number of nouns such as o-ka-san ' mother', o-to-san '
father' and sensei' teacher '. [2] a. (b t,t t.:.1jli v'"':) v' -:J L v' '1 T tJ o
Anatagata wa itsu irasshaimasu ka. (When are you going there?) b.
96!:Enli v' -:J '- t,t v' ? \:T 0 Senseigata wa irassharanai sodesu. (I
was told that the teachers aren't coming.) The honorific plural form
for hito 'person' is katagata (as in kono katagata 'these people')
which is the plural form of kata. -ra is the least formal plural marker
and is normally attached to personal pronouns and names. (1st
Person) bt::..L bL *bt::.. < L bokura watashira washira *watakushira
(2nd Person) M (blvt::.. * (b t,t t::.. kimira omaera an tara *anatara
(3rd Person) fBi (male) fBik (female) tL (inanimate) karera kanojora
sorera fB Jf1 (Tanaka and his company) Tanaka -ra T = II I = -
======== tai t:.L \ aux. adj. (i) ! ' an auxiliary adjective which ex- !
presses a desire to do s.t. ) ....-. want (to do s.t.); would like (to do
s.t.) [REL. hoshii l ; hoshii 2 ]

442 tai

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) V masu fL tt f3* '" fl

t::..1t' / t::..1t'

T 0 Watashi wa Nihon e iki tai / taidesu. . (I want to go to Japan.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object V masu

. ,:1 If t:0-f

/ tJ

.'" t::..1t' / t::..1t'

T 0 Boku wa ima piza 0/ ga tabe tai / taidesu. . . (I want to eat pizza

now.)

(C)

Topic (subject) V masu

Iv ,:1 7)!J::b '" fl

t::.. tJ

-:J "'( 1t'o/1t'

To Suzuki-san wa Amerika e iki ta gatte iru / imasu. . (Lit. Mr. Suzuki

IS showing signs of wanting to go to America. (= Mr. Suzuki wants to
go to America.»

Formation'
V masu t::..1t' tai

= T == i == i 5

iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

'- t:.1t' hanashi tai

(want to talk)

1t

t::..1t' tabe tai

(want to eat)

. Examples

(a) m':1
t::..1t' 1::"-IV

/ tJ

tJ:.1-}.t::..1t'o Boku wa tsumetai biru 0 / ga nomitai. (I want to drink

cold beer.)

tai 443

(b) If f3 ,:tfiiJ

/ tJ

1t

t::..

'

TtJ

o Kyo wa nani 0 / ga tabetaidesu ka. (What do you want to eat

today?) (c)

Iv ,:t.

Ji

' t::.. tJ

-:J"'(
' 0 0 Miki-san wa kuruma 0 kaita gatte iru. (Mr. Miki wants to buy a
car.)

em 1. Tai is an i-type auxiliary adjective which expresses a person's

desire to do something. Since V masu tai expresses a very personal
feeling, it is usually used only for the first person in declarative
sentences and for the second person in interrogative sentences. For
the third person, V masu ta gatte ;ru 'lit. is showing signs of wanting
to do s.t.' is usually used, as in KS(C) and Ex. (c). (

gSTU) V masu tai with the third person subject is acceptable,

however, in the following situations: (1) In the past tense fl1

,:t c!: "'( t fi'

t::.. fJ' ? t=. 0 Kazuo wa totemo ikitakstts. (Kazuo wanted to go very

badly.) (2) In indirect / semi-direct speech a. -

t fi'

t::..

, c!: 1t ? -C L' Q 0 Ichiro mo ikitai to itte iTU. (Ichiro says he wants to

go, too.) b. fIJ.:r'i f3 *--

t::..

? t=.o Toshiko wa Nihon e kaeritai sods. (I heard that Toshiko wants

to go back to Japan.) (3) In explanatory situations !ftf

Iv 'i
let. t::.. c!:

L t::..

'N-C: T J: 0 Nomura-san wa anata to hanashi tai n desu yo. «The

explanation is that) Miss Nomura wants to talk with you.) (

no ds)

T = I i =--=

(4) In conjecture expressions a. tfllJ

lv'iQ)

.:rc!:im

t::..

'; (.,L'o Murayama-san wa Noriko to odoritai Tsshii. (It seems that Mr.
Murayama wants to dance with Noriko.) b. 1f!fE

Iv ,:t1f! < *

,:.

, t::..

.:; t=.o Hayata-san wa hayaku kazoku ni aita sods. (It looks like Mr.
Hayata wants to see his family soon.)
444 tai

2. In some situations, if the verb in V masu tal IS a transitive verb,

the direct object can be marked either by ga or by 0, as seen in
KS(B), Ex. (a) and Ex. (b). In general, the choice between ga and 0
seems to depend on the degree of desire. That is, when the desire to
do some- thing is high, ga is preferred; when it is low, 0 is used.
Compare (4) and (5): (4) rSituation: The speaker has just run five
miles.] fL':t7kfJ( / ?

Jj.t::..

'o Watashi wa mizu ga / ? 0 nomitai. (I want to drink some water.) (5)

[Situation: The speaker has been told by a doctor to drink as much
water as possible. That is, he feels he has to drink water.] fL':t7k

/ ?fJ(

t::..

' tJ

. . . Watashi wa mizu 0 / ? ga nomitai ga . . . (I want to drink water

but (my stomach doesn't accept it any- more). . .) Under the
following conditions, ga cannot be used even if the degree of desire
is high. (A) When a long element intervenes between the direct
object and the verb:

'T= -==---
(6) fL'i7k

/ *fJ(tfj 1.)\

t -3 tJiT

=.

Jj. t::..

'o Watashi wa mizu 0 / *ga dekakeru mae ni nomitai. (I want to drink

water before I leave home.) (B) When the main verb is in the passive
form: (7) fL':t96!:E':'

Q)

/ *fJql

tLt::..

'o Watashi wa sensei ni kono e 0 / *ga homeraretai. (Lit. 1 want to

have this picture praised by my teacher.) (c) When the preceding
noun is not the direct object: (8) a. fL'i1f! <

Q)1I1I!

/ *fJ

t::..
'o Watashi wa hayaku kono densha 0 / *ga oritai. (I want to get off
this train soon.) b. fL':t

1I

/ *fJ

t::..

'o Watashi wa koen 0 / *ga arukitai. (I want to walk through the park.)

0 2 ; 03)

3. In the construction V masu ta gatte iru, ga can never be used to

mark the direct object.

tai / tamaranai 445 (9) * Iv'i. /*fJ(Ji ,t::..tJ -:J-C 'oo Miki-san wa
kuruma 0 / *ga kaita gatte iru. (Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.) 4. V
masu tai cannot be used to express an invitation. The following sen-
tences are inappropriate in invitation situations. (10) a. fL c!: -a':.fj
t::.. ' TtJ o Watashi to isshoni iki tai desu ka. (Do you want to go with
me?) b. Lt::..1t$':.*t::.. ' TtJ o Ashita shokuji ni kitai desu ka. (Would
you like to come to dinner tomorrow?) In these situations negative
questions are used, as seen in (11). ( masho) (11) fL c!: -f,ff ,=- fj * it
Iv fJ' 0 Watashi to isshoni ikimasen ks. (Wouldn't you like to go with
me?) [Related Expressions] The idea of ' want' in English is
expressed by either tai, hoshi;J or hoshii 2 . Tai is used when the
experiencer wants to do something. Hoshi'" is used when the
experiencer wants something. Hoshii 2 is used when the experiencer
wants someone to do something. ( hoshi;t; hoshil"2) == T == - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tamaranai t:. £ t:i: t \ phr. S The speaker or
whomever he em- > pathizes with cannot cope with a situation
expressed by the -te phrase. \ unbearably -; extremely; be dying to
do - [REL. shikata ga nai]

446 tamaranai

. Key Sentences (A)

Adj (i) stem

f3 ,:1 . <-C t;:...1

, / t::.. *- !J *- -tt Iv 0 Kyo wa stsu kute tamaranai / tamarimasen. (It is

unbearably hot today.)

(B)

Adj (na) stem tk

tJ>. tlL' "'C: t::.. *-

t
, / t::.. *- !J *- -tt Iv 0 StJgaku ga kiTSi de tamaranai / tamarimasen. (I
really hate math.)

. Formation'

KS(A) : Adj (i) stem < -c t::.. *- t J t

, kute tamaranai

* < -c t::.. *-

, samukute tamaranai

(s.t. is unbearably cold)

KS(B) : Adj (na) stem

t::.. *-

, de tamaranai
fj!"'C: t::.. *-

, lubende tamaranai

(s.t. is unbearably inconvenient)

Examples

= T = i I =----=

(a) :. UJ*':1jo t L 0 < -C t::.. *- !J *- -tt Ivo Kono hon wa omoshirokute

tamarimasen. (This boo

is extremely interesting.) (b)

tJ).JEN

L < -C t::.. *- !J *- -tt No Chichi ga shinde, kanashikute tamarimasen.

(My father died and I'm awfully sad.) (c) jo

'L

,
tJ>.1t

t::.. < -C t::.. *- !J *- -tt No Oishi; sakana ga tabetakute tamarimasen.

(I'm dying to eat some good fish.)

tamaranai / tame (ni) 447 (d) 'j: Q)TtJ M- t::.. let. 'o Boku wa ano ko
ga sukide tamaranai. (I just love that girl.) (e) JLlj: IE 96!:E Q) tJ; t::..
let. tJ -:J t::.. o Ani wa Tanaka-sensei no jugyo ga iyade
tamaranakatta. (My older brother really hated Mr. Tanaka's class.)
CD 1. - te / de tamaranai is an idiomatic phrase used to express the
fact that some situation is unbearable in the extreme for the speaker
or someone with whom he empathizes. 2. The adjectives used
before te / de refer to human feelings. 3. There is no affirmative
counterpart of this construction, * - te / de tamaru. [Related
Expression] - te tamaranai (lit. - and 1 can't stand it) can be replaced
by te shikata ga nai (lit. - and 1 don't know what to do about it). The
only difference is that the former is more emotive than the latter. But
when shikata ga nai is directly preceded by Vte mo, it cannot be
replaced by tamara nai, as shown in [1]. [1] Iv 1et.*'j: N-C: tf:1JfJ(tl L'
/ * N-C: t= * ; tl L '0 Sonna hon wa yonde mo shiksts gs nsi / *yonde
tsmsTsnsi. (There is no use reading that sort of book.) tame (ni) t:. (r
) n. == T == ; ""' ""' ""- ,... a noun that indicates a benefit, a ! purpose,
a reason or a cause on account of - ; for the benefit of -; for the good
of -; for the sake of -; on behalf of - ; for the purpose of -; in order to -
; because of - ; owing to - [REL. kara 3 ; ni 5 ; node; noni 2 ]

448 tame (ni)

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Noun AV. !:E : ,:1 it 0: (J) t:. 'j; ,=. f!l%lT 0 / f!l%l L
To :::r : Gakusei

wa shiken no tame ni benkyosuru / benkyoshimasu. (Students study

in preparation for exams. / Students study because there are
exams.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Vinf · Main Clause (purpose) nonpas t fL 'i f3*

(J)

c!:

Q t::.. 'j; 0:.) f3* -.. fj< / fj

To Watashi wa Nihon no koto 0 shiTU tame (ni) Nihon e iku /

ikimasu. (I'll go to Japan (in order) to learn about Japan.)

(C)

;ts iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

Subordinate Clause Main Clause (reason / cause) Vinf

,:1:

tJ

; f.,: L' t::.. 'j; 0.: ) A

- tJ

m*t

' / =s Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari fUTsnsi tame (ni) suki ga dekinai / m*

-tt No dekimasen. (Because it hasn't snowed (lit. doesn't snow) very

much this year, we can't ski.)

(D)

Noun Noun Phrase

IE A. (J) t::.. 'j; (J)

. tJo;. t

,/
-tt No Gsikokujin no tame no II jisho ga nai / arimasen. (There aren't
(any) good dictionaries for foreigners.)

tame (ni) 449

Fermation

( i) {V / Adj (i)) inf t::.. 'j; ,=. tame ni {i

T/i

L t::..} t::.. 'j; ,-= (in order to talk / because s.o. talks / {hanasu /
hanashita} tame ni talked) {1t

o / 1t

t::..} t;::.'j;

:, (in order to eat / because s.o. eats / ate) {taberu / tabeta} tame ni {

, / rt:itJ

-:Jt::..} t::..'j; ,:: (because s.t. is / was high) {takai / takakatta} tame ni
( ii) Adj (na) stem {t

/ t!. -:J t::..} t::.. 'j; ,:. {na / datta} tame ni {r;tJ

t
/ ij1tl.pt!. -:J t::..} t::..'j; ,=- (because s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana /
shizukadatta} tame ni (iii) N {(1) / t.: -:J t::..} t::. 'j; ,=- {no / datta} tame
ni {9G!:E (1) / %!:E t!. "? t::.} t::. 'j; ,=- (for the sake of the teacher /
because {sensei no / sensei datta} tame ni of the teacher / because
s.o. is / was a teacher)

(iv) Demonstrative Adj t=.'j; ,=- tame ni

q) /

(7) } t=. t/) ,=. {kono / sono} tame ni

(for the sake of this / that, because of this / that)

Exa m pies

(a) f3 *A tt

tt(1) t::.. 'j; ,:. J: < fl11

To Nihonjin wa kaisha no tame ni yoku hatarakimasu. (The Japanese

work

ard for the sake of their company.) (b)

(1) t::. 'j; 0:.)

tJ

1*Jj. ,:. t

-:J t::.. o Yuki no tame (ni) gakko ga yasumi ni natta. (The school
was closed because of the snow.) (c)

"'r

>'

Iv ttm?E (1) t::.. 'j; 0:.)

,., 'Y ,:.fj -:J t::.. o Jakuson-san wa kenkyu no tame (ni) Doitsu ni itta.
(Mr. Jackson went to Germany for the purpose of research.) (d) fLli

tJ

JE Iv t.: t::.. 'j; 0:.) *

':.fjft t

tJ

'? t::.. o Watashi wa chichi ga shinda tame (ni) daigaku ni ikenakatta.

(I couldn't go to college because my father died.)

== T == ;
450 tame (ni) (e) 1*

%! < Tot::.. 'j; (':.) fij f3 7° - Iv --c:- i*

, --c:

, 0 0 Karada 0 tsuyoku suru tame (ni) mainichi puru de oyoide iru. -

(I'm swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.)
(f) ill tJ;it tJ

-:J t::.. t::.. 'j; 0:.) T

tJ

t.= 'j; ,:. t

-:J t::.. o Oya ga amakatta tame (ni) kodomo ga dameni natta.

(Because the parents were soft, the children got spoiled.) (g) q:tJ

r-=Ft

t::.. 'j; (

)A

:btLt::..o Ji ga hetana tame (ni) hito ni warawareta. (I was laughed at

because my handwriting is so poor.) (h) 7 =}

A '.:fj -:J t::.. Q) lj:

Ji ? t::.. 'j; t:. o Furansu ni itta no wa kosui 0 kau tame da. (Lit. It was
for the purpose of buying perfume that I went to France. ( = I went to
France to buy perfume.»
=T=

em 1. Tame ni expresses cause or reason when it is preceded by an

Adj(i) or an Adj(na), as in Exs. (f) and (g), or when the main clause
describes a noncontrollable situation and / or when the tame ni
clause is in the past tense, as in Ex. (d). In these cases, it never
expresses purpose. Con- sider the additional examples in (1). (1) a.
{t$(1) t:: cY> 1= {PJ t 11 tJ

Q)$tJ

m*t

'o Shigoto no tame ni nani mo hoka no koto ga dekinai. (Because of

the job I can't do anything else.) b.

H:(1) t:: cY> I=WJ tJ:\

--c:1ifJ

' "(

, 0 0 Kaisha no tame ni asa kara ban made hataraite iru. (He's

working from morning till night for the sake of his company.) (la) gets
the reason / cause interpretation, because the main clause de-
scribes a noncontrollable situation, whereas (lb) gets the purpose
inter- pretation, because the main clause describes a controllable
situation. 2. The ni of tame ni can be dropped, as in Exs. (b), (c), (d),
(e), (f) and (g), if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb and
tame ni.
[Related Expressions] I. When tame is used to mean reason or
cause, it can be replaced by kara or node. Thus, KS(C) and Ex. (d)
can be rephrased as [la] and [lb], respectively.

tame (nl) 451 [1] a.

tt

tJ

cb

"'fJ'; / 0)1: A

- tJ

m*t

"'0 Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari furanai kSTS / node suki ga dekinai.

(We cannot ski because it hasn't snowed very much this year.) b. fLtt

tJ

JElvt.:fJ'; / o)1:*

':.fjft t

tJ
-:J t:. o Watashi wa chichi ga shinda kSTS / node daigaku ni ike-
nakatta. (I couldn't go to college because my father died.) The
difference between tame and other markers of reason / cause is that
tame is more formal than the others and is seldom used in informal
conversation. (

kSTS 3 ; node) II. When tame is used to mean purpose, it can be

replaced by either Vinf. nonpast noni or V masu ni V motion.
However, tame ni can be replaced by noni only when one does
something in the process of achieving some goal. Thus, [3a] can be
paraphrased as [3b] but [4a] cannot be para- phrased as [4b]. [3] a.
iJ!*a:W&J

Q t::cY>I=

.{t? 0 Kanji 0 shiraberu tame ni jisho 0 tsukau. (In order to find out
about kanji I use a dictionary.) b.

*a:W&J

Q 0)1=

$.

.{t? 0 Kanji 0 shiraberu noni jisho 0 tsukau. (In order to find out about
kanji I use a dictionary.) [4] a. 1*

%! < T Q t::cY>I=fi f3

- Jv

i*"'

'" Qo Karada 0 tsuyoku suru tsme ni mainichi puru de oyoide iru. (I'm
swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.) b.
??f$:
%i< TQo)l=fif37°-Jv

i*"'

"'Qo ?? Karada 0 tsuyoku suru noni mainichi puru de oyoide iru. (I'm
swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.)
Note also that tame can be replaced by V masu ni Vmotion only
when tame is used with a Vmotion. The difference between tame
and other markers of purpose is that tame is the most formal and
least colloquial of the three.

=T=

452 - tara -tara - t:. b conj. f a subordinate conjunction which in-

dicates that the action / state ex- pressed by the main clause in a
sentence takes place after the ac- tion / state expressed by the
subordi- nate clause if; when; after [REL. ba; nara; to.; toki] . Key
Sentence Subordinate Clause (antecedent) Sentence (informal past)
Main Clause (subsequence) 1lJ133 1v tJ *t= C J fL 'i Q/ !>"1To
Yamada-san ga kits ra watashi wa kaeru / kaerimasu. (When / If Mr.
Yamada comes, I'll go home.) Formation {V / Adj (i / na) / N +
Copula} inf.past ; ra 5 '- t:.. '? (if / when s.o. talks / talked)
hanashitara tiJtJ -:J t:.. '? (if s.t. is / were expensive) takakattara r;tJ
t:. -:J t:. '? (if s.t. is / were quiet) shizukadattara 96!:E t:!. -:J t:.. '?
sensei dattara (if s.o. is / were a teacher) - r = Examples (a) 96!:E'c.
't:.. '?T < 7ttJ -:J t::.. o Sensei ni kiitara sugu wakatta. (When I asked
my teacher, I understood it right away.) (b) fL'i* Iii t::.. '? IJ'\ t3(q)96!:E
'co tt !> "1 To Watashi wa daigaku 0 detara sh6gakk6 no sensei ni
narimasu. (1,'11 be an elementary school teacher after graduating
from college.)

- tara 453
(c) fL'iitL-

'\:TtJ

, idt L-0tJ

-:Jt::..

Mf7J."1TtJ

, idt L-0 < tttJ

-:Jt::..

Me 7J. "111: Iv J:: 0 Watashi wa isogashiidesu kara,

omoshirokattara yomimasu ga, omoshi- rokunakattara yomimasen
yo. (I'm busy, so I'll read it if it's interesting, but I won't if it's not in-
teresting. )

(d)

, t!. -:J t::..

L- -C < t!.

'o Kiraidattara nokoshite kudasai. (If you don't like it, please leave it.)
(e) t/iJl!i t!. -:J t::..

7ttJ
Q

'"1 To Eigo da ttara wakaru to omoimasu. (I think I'll understand it if

it's English.)

CD

1. The meaning of S. tara S2 varies depending on the contents of SI

and S2 and also on the situation in which this construction is used.
How- ever, SI always represents an antecedent and S2 a
subsequence. For example, in KS, Mr. Yamada's coming precedes
the speaker's returning home. Likewise, in Ex. (a), the speaker's
asking his teacher precedes his understanding something. If this
relation does not hold, this con- struction cannot be used. F or
example, (1) cannot be expressed by the tara construction because
the event of S., the speaker's going to Chicago, does not precede
the event of S2, his going there by car. (1) When I go to Chicago, I
usually go by car. *fL'i

j] ::f.r...ff -:J t:. ; t::..

' -C

'.\:ff

"1 To *Watashi wa Shikago e ittaTa taitei kuruma de ikimasu. (In this

situation, toki is used. (t:) toki» For the same reason, tara is
ungrammatical in the situation in (2).
(2) If you go to Chicago, go by bus. *

j] :1".r...ff -:J t:. ; r

A \:ff

tt

'o * Shikago e ittaTa basu de ikinasai. (In this case, nara is used. (t:)
naTa» 2. In SI tara S2, it is often the case that SI represents a
condition and S2 an event which occurs under that condition.
Therefore, the whole sen- tence basically means ' when SI is
satisfied, S2 takes place' or ' SI brings about S2', as in Exs. (c), (d)
and (e).

=r=--

454 -tara

3. As seen in KS, tara may mean' when' in one case and' if' in
another. Tara means 'when' if SI is a certainty; if not, tara means 'if'.
Thus, in (3), tara means 'when'.

(3) +=

,;:: t

-:J t=.; M !J "1 To Juniji ni nattsTs kaerimasu. (When / *If it is twelve

o'clock, I'll go home.)
Moshi before S. tara makes sentences unambiguous; it always
means , if S.'. Example:

(4) t, L IlJ 133

Iv tJ

*t='; fL'i

!J "1 To Moshi Yamada-san ga kitSTS watashi wa kaerimasu. (If /

*When Mr. Yamada comes, I'll go home.)

4. In 8 1 tara 8 2 , 8 2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion,

an invi- tation or a volitional sentence.

(5) fl:*tJ

!f! <

) -:J t= ';

q) ?

,-=- Shigoto ga hayaku owattsTs boku no uchi ni

a. *t
'o kinasai. b. *-c < t!.

'o ki te kudasai. c. *t::"

?\:T tJ

o kitara do desu ka. d. *"111: Iv tJ

kimasen ka. (If you finish your work early, a. come to my place. b.
please come to my place. c. why don't you come to my place? . d.
wouldn't you like to come to my place?)

T===

iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

(6) tt.tJ

!f! <

b -:J t=';;td ?

,;::;td ? tJ
tJ

, L- "1 To Shigoto ga hayaku owattsTs o-uchi ni o-ukagai shimasu. (If

I finish my work early, I'll visit your place.)

5. SI tara S2 can also be used in counterfactual situations, as in (7).

- tara 455

(7) a. j"d

tJ

NJ -:J t.:; :: Iv t

'Co 'i

't

'o Q-kane ga attsTs konna uchi ni wa inai. (If I had money, I wouldn't
be in such a house.) b. NJ q)

:to

tJ

NJ -:J t.: ; a *"'ff -:J -C

' t::.. \: L- J: ? 0 Ano toki o-kane ga attsTs Nihon e itte ita desho. (If I
had had money at that time, I would probably have gone to Japan.)

6. When S2 in "SI tara S2" represents a past action, the action

cannot be one intentionally taken by the agent after the action or
event represented by SI. Thus, the (a) sentences in (8) and (9) are
acceptable, but the (b) sentences are not. (8) a.

t3("'ff -:J t.: ;, <

? -it Iv 1:133

Iv 'Co

-:J t::.. o Gakko e ittSTS. gtJzen Veda-san ni atta. (When I went to

school, I happened to see Mr. Ueda.) b. *

t3("'ff -:J t.: ;, 1:133

Iv

15

'- t::.. o *Gakko e ittSTS. Veda-san to hanashi 0 shita. (When I went

to school, I talked with Mr. Ueda.) (9) a. j"dirj

lvt=';

-C '- "1-:J t

o Q-sake 0 nondsTs nete shimatta. (After I drank sake, I fell asleep.)

b. *j"dirj
lvt=';

t::..o *Q-sake 0 nondSTS neta. (After I drank sake, I went to bed.)

[Related Expressions] Ba, nara and to. have similar functions but
they are different from tara in the following ways: I. In SI tara S2, if
the event in SI precedes the event in S2, those events can be past
events. This is also the case with 8 1 to. 8 2 , but not with SI ba S2
and SI nara S2, as in [1].

=r=

[1] a. 96!:E 'Co

,t.:; /

< l; / *

It r: / *

, t::.. (C1)) f

;T<

7t tJ
-:J t::.. 0

Sensei ni kiitSTs I kiku to I *kikebs / *kiita (no) nSTS sugu wakatta.

(When I asked my teacher, I understood it immediately.)

456 - tara

b. q:.

- (J) 7 .I

- " '=-ff -:J t::

/ ff < l:. / *ff It I: / *ff -:J t:.. (CT)) fl

7 '" -tJ

"'t:..o Kyashi no apato ni ittaTa / iku to / *ikeba / *itta (no) naTa Andi
ga ita. (When I went to Cathy's apartment, Andy was there.) II. As
stated in Note 4, S2 in SI tara S2 can be a command, a request, a
suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. This is also the
case with S2 in SI ba S2 and SI nara S2 but not with S2 in SI to S2.
Example: [2] 'Ji: tJ

-:J t::

/ 'Ji: It tLI: / 'Ji: It' (CT)) fl

/ *'Ji: It' l:. J\ It' t

"'0 YasukattaTa / Yasukereba / Yasui (no) naTa / *Yasui to kainasai.

(Buy it, if it's cheap.) III. Although S2 in SI tara S2, SI ba 8 2 and SI
nara S2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or
a volitional sentence, the mean- ings are not exactly the same. The
following examples show the dif- ferences clearly.

=r=

[3] a.

tJ

*t::

, fL'i

!J "1To Ben ga kitaTa, watashi wa kaerimasu. (When / If Ben comes,

I'll go home.) b.

tJ

< tLI:, fL'i

!J "1 To Ben ga kureba, watashi wa kaerimasu. (If Ben comes, I'll go
home. (If not, I'll stay here.» c.

tJ

*Q (CT)) fl

, fL'i

!J "1 To Ben ga kuru (no) naTa, watashi wa kaerimasu. (If it is true

that Ben is coming, I'll go home.) As seen above, [3a] is ambiguous;
it is not clear that Ben is coming. If Ben's coming is certain, [3a]
indicates the time the speaker will leave. If Ben's coming is
uncertain, [3a] indicates the condition under which the speaker will
leave. In both cases, however, Ben's coming precedes the speaker's
leaving. [3b] is similar to the second case of [3a] (i.e., the case in
which Ben's coming is uncertain). However, [3b] focuses more on
the condition. That is, [3b] implies something like' the condition under
which I go home is Ben's coming here'. In [3b] also, Ben's coming
precedes the speaker's leaving. SI in [3c] also indicates the condition
under which the speaker returns home. In this case, how- ever,
Ben's coming does not necessarily precede the speaker's leaving

- tara / - tara do desu ka 457 because the condition under which the
speaker goes home is that Ben's coming is true, not that Ben comes
(to a certain place). IV. As stated in Note 5, SI tara S2 can be used in
counterfactual situa- tions, and so can SI ba S2 and SI nara S2.
However, SI to S2 cannot be used in such situations except for the
idiomatic expression S to ii / yokatta ' It would be good / It would
have been good if S '. Example: [4] NJ q) :to tJ NJ -:J t::;;, / NJtLI: /
NJ -:J t::.. f.j.;;' / * NJ Q l; a *,;::ff-:J -c '" t::.. t 0 ? 0 Ano toki o-kane ga
attaTa / areba / atta naTa / *aru to Nihon ni itte ita daro. (If I had had
money at that time, I would have gone to Japan.) -tara do desu ka -
t:'b ?T!9fJ' phr. tion (Lit. How would you feel if ! you do s.t.?) Why
don't you do about doing -? [REL. ho ga ii] - . . , What +Key
Sentence Vinf.past 'b-:Jc!: a* q) * Iv t:. ? 1:1- tJ o Motto Nihon no hon
0 yonda ra do desu ka. (Why don't you read more Japanese books?)
=r= - = Fermation Vinf.past ? 1:1- tJ o ra do desu ka. 115 '- t.: ? 1: 1-
tJ o hanashita ra do desu ka. (Why don't you talk -?)

458 - tara do desu ka / - tari - tari suru 1t.. A:. t:.. '? >!? \: T tJ 0
tabeta ra do desu ka. (Why don't you eat -?) Examples (a) 7,y t1t"'t '?
>! ? \:TtJ o Sarada mo tabetara do desu ka. (Why don't you eat
salad, too?) (b) IlJf-J"9a!:E ,;: , t::.. rJ >! ? \: T tJ o Yamamura-sensei
ni kiitara do desu ka. (Why don't you ask Prof. Yamamura?) .. 1.
Vinf.past ra do desu ka is an idiomatic phrase derived from the" Sl
tara S2" construction and expressing a suggestion. (t:) ,.., taTa) 2.
The informal version is Vinf. past ra do? More polite versions are
Vinf.past ra do desho (ka), Vinf.past ra ikaga desu ka and Vinf.past
fa ikaga desho (ka). (t:) daTO) [Related Expression] Ho ga ii also
expresses suggestion, but this phrase is close to a command (es-
pecially when it is preceded by Vinf.past), and, therefore, is stronger
than tara do desu ka. -tari -tari suru - t:. - t:. 9" Q phr. a phrase which
expresses an inex- haustive listing of actions or states do things like
- and - ; some- times - and sometimes - = r = i == i e :: == =------= .
Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Vinf. past Vinf.past fLJi 'i ID: -:) t:.
!J a -:) t:. !J L- t::.. / L-"1 '- t::.. 0 Watashitachi wa utatta ri odotta ri
shita / shimashita. . (We did things like singing and dancing.)

-tari -tar; suru 459

(B)

Topic (subject) {Adj (i / na) / {Adj (i / na) / N + Copula} N + Copula}

inf. past inf. past

(J) v A "7
f/) A7-q:. 'i *

tJ\

t= !J IJ\

tJ\

t= Kono resutoran no suteki wa okikatta ri chisakatta

/ L-"1To " suru / shimasu. (Steaks at this restaurant are sometimes

big and sometimes small.)

(C)

A:

a 7-7 0

v'-C v'"1;- tJ

o Mainichi tepu 0 kiite imasu ka. (Are you listening to tapes every
day?) B: {V / Adj (i / na) / {V / Adj (i / na) / N +Copula} N + Copula}
inf. past inf. past v'v'it, IVH, , t=

IV) tJ\ fl tJ\

t= !J \:To ie. kiita " kikanakatta ri desu. (Lit. No, I listen at one time
and don't listen at another (= only off and on).)
Formatien

{V / Adj (i I na) / N + Copula} inf · past

(T

) ri (suru)

iS L-t.:

(T -'5) hanashitari (suru)

h\-:Jt.:!J (T-'5) (s.t. is sometimes expensive) takaka ttari (suru)

(s.o. (does) things like talking)

=r=--;

r;tp t!. -:J t.: t) (T

) (s.t. is sometimes quiet) shizukadattari (suru) 9a!:E t!. -:J t.: t) (T

) (s.o. is sometimes a teacher) sensei dattari (suru)

460 - tari - tari suru

Examples

(a) fL'i.::..:z. - 3 -

\:

.:z. -.y j] Iv

J!t:::. !J ::1

-"

00 v' t:::.

L- t:::. o Watashi wa Nyuy6ku de myujikaru 0 mitari konsato 0 kiitari

shita. (In New York I did things like seeing musicals and listening to
con- certs.)

(b) " A 'i*t:::. !J *t

tJ

-:J t::.. !J T Q 0 Tomu wa kitari konakattari suru. (Lit. Tom comes at

one time and doesn't at another time. (= Tom doesn't always come.»

( c ) tV.> L- t:. 'i m tJ

-:J t::.. !J
Iv t!. !J T -3 \: L- J: ? 0 Ashita wa ame ga futtari yandari suru desh6.
(It will probably rain off and on tomorrow.)

(d)

Q) 1;5 Q)iHi

L- tJ

-:J t::.. !J titJ

-:J t::.. !J T Q 0 Kono mise no sakana wa atarashikattari furukattari

suru. (This shop's fish is sometimes fresh and sometimes old.)

(e) A *

Q);t!:E'i a *A t!. -:J t:::. !J 7 j !J j] A t!. -:J t::.. !J L-"1 To Nihongo no

sensei wa nihonjin dattari amerikajin dattari shimasu. (Teachers of
Japanese are sometimes Japanese and sometimes Ameri- can.)

(f)

}II

Iv 'i*t:::. !J *t

tJ

-:J t::.. !J \: NJ -C 'Co t

'? t
v'o Ishikawa-san wa kitari konakattari de ate ni naranai. (Mr.
Ishikawa doesn't come regularly and we can't count on him.)

CD

=r=i

-----

1. The "X tari Y tari suru" construction generally expresses an

inexhaustive listing of actions or states. " Inexhaustive" means that in
a given situation there may be additional, unstated actions or states.
(The ex- haustive listing of actions or states is expressed by the te-
form. (t:) -te» (Cp. to l ; va)

2. Suru usually follows "X tari Y tari" regardless of the part of speech
of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the aspect (e.g., progressive,
per- fect) and the formality level of the sentence.

3. This construction usually lists two actions or two states, but it can
list more than two actions or two states, as in (1).

- tari - tari suru / -tatte 461 (1) * Iv t.: !J, 001 J!t::.. !J, 7" _7° fJa ,t::..
!J L -C a *m tll%l L -C , Q 0 Hon 0 yondari, eiga 0 mitari, tepu 0 kiitari
shite nihongo 0 ben- ky6shite iru. (I'm studying Japanese by doing
things like reading books, seeing movies and listening to tapes.)
Sometimes only one action or state is listed in this construction, as In
(2). (2) fJa lvt.:!J L--c:Ci:JitJ *Qq) -:J-C ,t::..o Shinbun 0 yondari shite
tomodachi ga kuru no 0 matte ita. (I was waiting for my friend to
come, doing things like reading a newspaper.) 4. If" X tari Y tari suru"
is not the final segment of a sentence and the predicate is an
adjective, suru may be omitted, as in (3). (3 ) -:J t::.. !J Hm -:J t::.. !J
(L- -C) c!:: -C t L- tJ -:J t 0 Utattari odottari (shite) totemo tan oshika
tta. (We did things like singing and dancing, and it was a lot of fun.) If
the predicate is a verb, however, suru cannot be omitted as in (4). (4)
*fLJi'i7"':::' A Lt.:.!J 1* ,t.: !J L- -C / *0 :;Hlvt.: o *Watashitachi wa
tenisu 0 shitari oyoidari shite / *0 asonda. (Lit. We played doing
things like playing tennis and swimming.) 5. As seen in KS(C) and
Ex. (f), a slightly different pattern, X tari Y tari da, is also used in
some situations. This pattern is used when a speaker describes
someone's or something's inconstant state. =r= · tatte t:.? -c conj. f
;;;.did; ;; i i some state (the desired result would ! 1 not .co e about)
or even if s.o. or s.t. IS In some state ) , even if - [REL. te mo]

462 - ta tte

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (indirect object) Vinf.past '9.>Q) A ,:. ,:t I!l, t::.. -:J-C fttJ

t,t

, / fttJ

!J "£ it Iv o Ana hito ni wa hsnsshita rte wakaranai / wakarimasen.

(Even if I tell him that, he won't understand it.)

(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (i) stem

'j: /cQ) W

"'I!r" : < t::.. -:J -C J\? / J\

'"£-;-o riiJ: Boku wa sono kippu 0 tsks=:ku ta tte kau / kaimasu. . (I

will buy the ticket even if it is expensive.)

Formatien

( i) Vinf. past -:J -C tte

'- t::.. -:J -C (even if s.o. talks / talked) hanashitatte 1t.

t::.. -:J -C (even if s.o. eats / ate) tab eta tte ( ii) Adj (i) stem < t::.. -:J
-C ku ta tte

< t::.. -:J -C takakutatte (iii) {Adj (na) stem / N}

(even if s.t. is / were expensive)

=T=I
 iiiiiiiiiiii

1(ft tJ

t!. -:J (t:.. -:J ) -C shizukadat{tat)te 96!:E t!. -:J (t::.. -:J) -C sensei
dat(tat)te

t.: -:J (t::.. -:J ) -C dat(tat)te (even if s.t. is I were quiet)

(even if s.o. is / were a teacher)

Examples

(a) :td

tJ

'9.> -:J t::.. -:J -C 1f!Uj: J\

' t::.. < t,t

'o Q-kane ga attatte kuruma wa kaitakunai. (Even if I had money, I

wouldn't want to buy a car.)

- ta tte 463
(b) *

J\ -:J t::.. -:J "(, it '- < "(

11'0 Hon 0 kattatte, isogashikute yomenai. (Even if I buy books, I'm

too busy to read them.) (c) :t: t::.. t

< t::.. -:J "( tJ

"£ 11'"£ it Iv o Kitanakutatte kamaimasen. (I don't care even if it is

dirty.) (d) )t < "(

fJ!t.: -:J "( -;".{ · * - A t

G tJ

"£ 11'"£ it Iv o Tokute fubendatte mai homu nara kamaimasen. (Even

if it is far away and inconvenient, it doesn't matter if it is 'my home '.)
(e) )! Iv t

':'11' 1I'96!:E t.: -:J "( JP.jk r

'il1I' "£ To Donna ni ii sensei datte tokidoki machigaimasu. (No matter

how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.)

aD 1. -tatte is used strictly in informal spoken Japanese, and is used

to indi- cate something counter to fact. However, the counterfactual
(or subjunc- tive) nature of this construction is not very strong. See
Ex. (a). 2. -tatte can take donna ni (as in Ex. (e» meaning' no matter
how'. More examples follow. (1) a.

lvfctf::
;tt=?-C7ttJ

Gt

1I'J:o Donna ni kangaetatte wakaranai yo. (No matter how hard you
think, you won't understand it.) b. t:.lvfctf::* < t=? -C*X

-r:To Donna ni samukutatte daijobudesu. (No matter how cold it is,

ies all right.)

[Related Expression] -tatte can be replaced by te mo. The difference

is that te mo can be used in spoken and written language and that it
is less emotive than -tatte. Thus, _ Till if Ex. (a) is replaced by the
following sentence, the counterfactuality of having money is nullified,
and the entire sentence sounds much less emotive. [1] :td

tJ

&; -:J -C t 1f!Uj: J\ 11' t::.. < t

11'0 Q-kane ga atte mo kuruma wa kaitakunai. (Even if I have

money, I don't want to buy a car.)

464 - te -te 1: te-form ,, ...................... """"-""""- "-",....., "-"'-"- ) the te-

form ending of verbs and i- type adjectives (The te-form ending of
na-type adjectives and the te-form of the copula is de.) ) '-/"V and; -
ing . Key Sentences (1) {V / Adj (i I na) / N + Copula} te :)A ,:t f3 * -..
fj?"( %l L t::.. / fll%l '- * '- t::.. o Jimu wa Nihon e itte benkyoshita /
benkyoshimashita. (Jim went to Japan and studied (there).) =. =. Q)
A T - ''i 3("( to 11' '-11' / to 11' '-1I' T 0 Kokono su teki wa yssuku te
oishii / oishiidesu. (Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.) =. Q)
7 /{ - " ''i 1ft fJ\ 11'11' / 1I'1I' To K ono apato wa shizuksde ii / iidesu.
(This apartment is quiet and good.) fL Q) ''i $t!£ if6 -e,; m ;t"( 11'-'5
/1I'*To Watashi no chichi wa sensei de koko de eigo 0 oshiete iru /
imasu. (My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high
school.) (2) (3) (4) Formation T ( i ) Gr. 1 verbs: ! (a) su-verbs: T --+
iS '- "( (s.o. talks and) hanasu hanashite (b) ku-verbs: < --+ 11' "(
(s.o. walks and) aru ku aru i te Exception: ff< --+ ff -:J -C (s.o. goes
and) iku itte (c) gu- verbs: 1* <' --+ 11' (s.o. swims and) oyogu o yo
ide

(d) mu / bu / nu-verbs: iXu -+ iXlv

nomu nonde iH

-+ iHlv

asobu asonde re

-+ }E1v1: shinu shinde (e) tsu / u / ru-verbs:

':) -+

-:J "( matsu matte J\? -+ J\ -:J "( kau katte 1&.'5 -+ 1& -:J "( tOfU
totte

(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem "( te

1t

"( tabete

(s.o. eats s.t. and)

(iii) Irr . Verbs:

*.'5 -+ *"( kuru ki te

(s.o. comes and)

-;-.'5 -+ '- "( suru shite

(s.o. does s. t. and)

(i v) Adj (i):

Adj (i) stem < "( kute iNi < "( (s.t. is expensive and) takakute Adj (na)
stem

de f{ft/p1: (s.t. is quiet and) shizukade (vi) N +Copula: N 1: de

( v) Adj (na):

96!:E 1: sensei de
(s.o. is a teacher and)

- te 465

(s.o. drinks s.t. and)

(s.o. plays and)

(s.o. dies and)

(s.o. waits and)

(s.o. buys s.t. and)

(s.o. takes s.t. and)

== T == - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

466 -te
Examples

(a) fL''i::t - "

11'

.I"

:If- ,=. tJ

It t::.. o Watashi wa koto 0 nuide hanga ni kaketa. (Taking off my

coat, I hung it on a hanger.) (b) T} -{

1j.-;-

-cjlJitJ

1I'0 Wain 0 nomisugite atama ga itai. (rve drunk too much wine and
have a headache.) (c) fLQ)W.

U'i-tt"£ < -cJF(f1l'0 Watashi no heya wa semakute kurai. (My room is

small and dark.) (d) :. Q) A -7"'i tJ

G < -c

tet 11'0 Kono supu wa karakute nomenai. (This soup is salty (or
(spicy) hot) and I can't eat (lit. drink) it.) (e) fL''i T':=' A tJ

*M-
J: <

Ji C -;- Q 0 Watashi wa tenisu ga dai-sukide yoku tomodachi to suru.

(I love tennis and often play with my friends.) (f)

1j.T'j:

.::.

J!j

,'i f3 *Jt

-;- 0 Yumiko wa ima daigaku sannen de senko wa nihonbungaku

desu. (Yumiko is a junior at college now and her major is Japanese
literature.)

(g) Whi96!:E''i

J&1m

, tJ

b!J ':.f;j"a396!:EtJ
;tt::..o Ito-sensei wa konshu byoki de. kawari ni Murata-sensei ga
oshieta. (Prof. Ito was ill this week and Prof. Murata taught for him.)

em 1. The te-form functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the

last element of the predicate of a clause is the te-form, it means that
that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate
or clause follows it. For example, in Ex. (b) the last element of the
predicate IT i of the first clause is sugite, the te-form of sug;ru ' do
s.t. too much', and sugite is followed by another clause atama ga itai
' lit. (my) head aches '. 2. The meaning of the te-form varies
according to context, but generally, it corresponds to and or -ing in
participial constructions. 3. When the te-form links two predicates,
the relationship between the two is often one of the following: (AI: the
action or state expressed by the first predicate; A 2 : the action or
state expressed by the second predicate)

- te 467

(A) AI and A 2 occur sequentially, as in KS(1) and Ex. (a). (B) AI and
A 2 are two states of someone or something, as in KS(2), KS(4),
Exs. (c) and (f). (c) AI is the reason for or the cause of A 2 , as in
KS(3), Exs.(b), (d), (e) and (g). (This usage of the te-form is very
common.) (D) AI is the means by which someone does A 2 or the
manner in which someone does A 2 . Examples:

( 1)

''i
L \ -C 1M- -:J t::.. 0 Boku wa sTuite kaetta. (Lit. I walked and went
home. (= I went home on foot.» (2) -&!=''i

L\1: ::.#eJi

1t

t::..o Ken}i wa isoide gohan 0 tabeta. (Lit. Kenji hurried and ate his
meal. ( = Kenji ate his meal in a hurry.» (E) AI is contrasted with A 2 .
Example: (3) '.H'i

1:{tfJ L \ -C, *''i? -; 1:1b < 0 Otoko wa soto de hstsTsite, onna wa

uchi de hStSTSku. (Lit. Men work outside and women work inside.)
(F) A 2 is unexpected in terms of AI. Example: (4) ".Ld'i1t''':> t

Iv1:L\-CT A "tJ

tH*Qo Tomu wa itsumo ssonde ite tesuto ga dekiru. (Tom plays

around, yet he always does well on tests.) 4. The te-form can be
repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle tol makes
an exhaustive listing of nouns, the te-form can list verbs and
adjectives exhaustively. (Cp. IW tSTi IW tSTi SUTU; ys) Ex- ample:
(5) .:r.

- ''i

'- < "(

Q < "( A ':.tfl WJ t.: 0 Em; wa utsukushikute akarukute hito ni

shinsetsuda. (Amy is pretty, cheerful and kind to people.) 5. T e-form
verbs are also used with such expressions as iru 2 ' be doing -', kara
'after' and wa ikenai 'must not do -'. (t:) Appendix 4, Con- nection
forms of important expressions, F. Vte+_)

== T == II :3
468 te mo te mo 1: t> conj. ___ ' '-"'/ v"- "'''' I :p :s :e:h; a n t :u:h::h n :
! I what is expected from the content of I the dependent (te mo)
clause. even if; although [REL. keredo; noni l ; -tstte] ./'/' . Key
Sentences (A) 1'opic (subject) Vte fL 'i m tJ -:)-C t ff< / ff "£To ' ,
Watashi wa ame ga futte mo iku I ikimasu. (I'll go there even if it
rains.) (B) Topic (subject) Adj (i I na)te fL ,:t *<-C t mtJ Jt Q / mtJ Jt"£
To Wa tashi . ssmukute dekakeru / dekakemasu. wa mo . (I'll go out
even if it is cold.) (C) Noun tJ A -e t [rot :. '- t.: t!. 0? / -e '- J: ? 0 Boku
ga Tomu de mo onaji koto oshita daro / desho. (Even if I were Tom, I
would probably have done the same thing.) iT i ( i) {V I Adj (i I na)} te
t Fermation mo g '- "( t (even if s.o. talks) hanashi te mo ft "( t (even if
s.o. eats) tabete mo < "( t (even if s.t. is expensive) takakute mo

te mo 469

fittJ

t shizukade mo ( ii) N

t de mo 96

t (even if s.o. is a teacher) sensei de mo

(even if s.t. is quiet)

Exa m pies
(a) q:.1.D

Iv ''i*

J\ -:J "( t Mf1j. "£ it Iv o Nakayama-san wa hon 0 katte mo

yomimasen. (Mr. Nakayama doesn't read books even if he buys
them.) (b) f.L''i(lQ

'

1I'''( t1BltLt

tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa yojikan aruite mo tsukarenakatta. (I didn't get

tired although I walked for four hours.) (c) fPJ

ft

"( t i311' '-1I'

T 0 Nani 0 tabete mo oishiidesu. (No matter what I eat, it tastes

good.) (d) t.: tL ,:. 0011' "( t fttJ

Gt

tJ

-:J t::.. o Dare ni kiite mo wakaranakatta. (No matter who I asked, I

couldn't get the answer.) (e) A: t::..

i. =-

T -:J "(
1I'1I'

TtJ

0 Tabako 0 sutte mo iidesu ka. (Lit. Is it all right even if I smoke? (=

May I smoke?» B : ''i 11', 11' 11'

To Hai, iidesu. (Yes, you may.) (f) c Iv t

,=. f3 *alttJ

iire '- < "( t

-:J "( 1j. "£ To Donna ni nihongo ga muzukashikute mo yatte

mimasu. (No matter how difficult Japanese may be, I will try it.) (g) c
Ivt

,:.:t

t 1*'=. tt

":> It t::..jjtJ

11' 11'0 Donna ni jobude mo karada ni wa ki 0 tsuketa ho ga ii. (No

matter how healthy you are, you'd better take good care of your-
self.) (h) #l:

IvtJ

;t

t
,'i''i -:J

!J

t !J t.: o Inoue-san ga senpai de mo boku wa hakkiri iu tsumori da. (I

intend to speak straightforwardly, even if Mr. Inoue is my senior.)

-=== = T = == = !

iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

470 te mo

em 1. The basic meaning of te mo is the same as the English phrase

'even if _ t.

2. - te mo iidesu ka as in Ex. (e) is an idiomatic expression used to

request permission to do s.t. If the answer is in the affirmative, it is U
Hai, iidesu." (Yes, you may.) If it is in the negative, it is " ie,
ikemasen." (No, you may not.) 3. WH-word - te mo means ' no
matter WH_ t , as in Exs. (c), (d), (f), and (g). ' Typical usages are
listed below: f=h ,:.

'- -c =t, (no matter who s.o. talks to) daTe ni hanashite mo iPJ
'- -c =t, (no matter what s.o. talks about) nani 0 hanashite mo

= 1:

'- -c =t, (no matter where s.o. talks) doko de hanashite mo L \?

'- -c =t, (no matter when s.o. talks) itsu hanashite mo

'- -c =t, (no matter how s.o. talks) do hanashite mo

Iv tj. f::

'- -c =t, donna ni hanashite mo

(no matter how much s.o. talks)

[Related Expressions] T e mo is comparable but not identical to

keredo ' although t and noni ' in spite of the fact that'. The semantic
difference is exactly that of English 'even if' vs. ' although t. (t:)
keTedo; nonP) Thus,
T=;

:........----=

[1] rp I.D

Iv ,:t*

it? -c =t, / it? Ith

/ it? 0) f:: MC1j. "£ it /vo Nakayama-san wa hon 0 katte mo / kau

keTedo / kau noni yomi- masen. (Mr. Nakayama doesn't read books
even if / although he buys them.) However, if te mo is used with a
WH-word, it cannot be replaced by keredo or noni.

[2] iPJ

:tt

-C=t, / *:tt

.Qltht:. / *:tt

.Qo)f:::t31t' '-1t'

-;-0 Nani 0 tabete mo / *tabeTu keTedo / *tabeTu noni oishiidesu.

(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)

- temo ii 471 -te mo ii -1: t> L 'L' phr. v ./"" ./""./"'../"""V a phrase which
expresses permission or concession ( may; It is all right if (ANT. - wa
ikenai) . Key Sentences (A) A: Vte B: ..... ..... t::..11 =. P,&-:)-C t 1/' 1/'
T tJ o 'i 1/', 1/'1/' To '- '- K oko de tabako 0 sutte mo iidesu ka. Hai,
iidesu. ( ay I smoke here?) (Yes, you may.) (B) {Adj (i / na) /N +
Copula} te <-C t 1/'1/' / 1/'1/' To Tskskute mo ii / iidesu. (It is all right if
it's expensive.) !t: -r: t 1/'1/' / 1/'1/' To Gskusei de mo ii / iidesu. (It is
all right if you are a student.) Formation (V/Adj (i/na)/N+Copula}te t
1/'1/' mo ii i5 '- "( t 1/ , 1/' hanashite mo ii (may talk; It is all right if s.o.
talks.) = = T = ! I =----= ------- if6 < "( t 1/' 1/' takaku te mo II (It is all
right if s.t. is expensive.) tffttJ t 1/' 1/' shizukade mo ii (It is all right if
s.t. is quiet.) 96!:E t 1/' 1/' sensei de mo ii (It is all right if s.o. is a
teacher.)

472 -temo ii

Examples

(a) ::. Q)"'T

-:J"'( t "''''

TtJ

o Kono isu 0 tsukatte mo iidesu ka. (May I use this chair?) (b)

a Q) mWUi 1'F:)(

T 0 m < "'( t '" "'

TtJ

t3 t '- 0 "'Q)

.","'( < t!.

 "'0 Kyd no shukudai wa sakubun desu. Mijikakute mo iidesu ga
omoshiroi no 0 kaite kudasai. (Today's homework assignment is a
composition. It is all right if it's short, but please write an interesting
one.) (c) A: 7"':=' A

'- *

Iv tJ

o Tenisu 0 shimasen ka. (Wouldn't you like to play tennis?) B: r::F

t"''''

TtJ

o Hetade mo iidesu ka. (Is it all right if I'm poor at it?) (d) A: 1iiJtJ

t::.. '" t Q)

tx,ij. t::.. '" Iv

T tJ

o Nanika tsumetai mono 0 nomitai n desu ga. (I want to drink

something cold.) B : 1::" -Iv

t '" '"

T tJ

o Biru de mo iidesu ka. (Will beer do?)

=r=
 ------

SID 1. When te mo ii is preceded by a verb, it means permission. 2. -

nakute mo ii, the negative te-form with mo ii, means ' It is all right if -
not -' or 'do not have to do -'. (Cp."'" nakeTeba naTanai) Examples:
(1) fL'i

Q)

JJ!

ft tl < "t" t L \ L \0 Watashi wa sono shiken 0 ukenakute mo ii. (I don't

have to take the exam.) (2) fIT '- < tl < "t" t L\L\

"t 0 Atarashikunakute mo iidesu. (It is all right if it's not new (or
fresh).) (3)

!£ t

tl < "t" t L \ L \

"t 0 Gakusei janakute mo iidesu. (It is all right if you're not a student.)

- temo ii / tol 473 3. Other expressions like yoroshii(desu), the polite

form of ii ' good, all right', and kamaimasen 'don't mind' can be used
in place of ii(desu). The degrees of politeness in these expressions
are as follows: (4) ii(desu) > kamaimasen > yoroshii(desu) less polite
more polite Examples: (5) cfb '- t::..1* Iv -c: t J: 0 '- \-' \ -c: T tJ \ 0
Ashita yasunde mo yoroshiidesu ka. (Would it be all right if I take a
day off tomorrow?) (6) t::.. ,1. =- !Qk -:J "'( t tJ\ * \-'\ * Iv tJ o Tabako 0
sutte mo kamaimasen ka. (Do you mind (lit. Don't you mind) if I
smoke?) Note that kamau 'mind' must be negated in this expression.
4. Te mo ii sometimes appears with WH-words like nani ' what' and
ikura , how much'. In this case, the expression means' It is all right
no matter what / who / how much / etc. -' or 'It doesn't matter what /
who / how much -.' (See te mo, Note 3.) Examples: (7) it 'i t=.t1,'!J( '-
"'( t \-' \ \-' \ -c: To Sore wa daTe ga shite mo iidesu. (It doesn't matter
who does it.) (8) (,,( ;1t "'(t\-'\\-'\-C:To IkuTa tabete mo iidesu. (It is all
right no matter how much you eat.) = r = ; II =------= tot t: prt. , a
particle which lists things exhaus- tively and [REL. nl (and); t0 2 ; ya]

474 to 1

. Key Sentence

Noun Noun ?-1?

-:J? (

) 'j:

!£ t.:. /

T 0 Msiku to Dikku (to) wa gakusei da / desu. (Mike and Dick are

students.)

.Exampl

(a) f.L'j:
m

a*

ft

a5To Watashi wa eigo to nihongo 0 hanasu. (I speak English and

Japanese.) (b)

Iv;(

Iv 'i*lF

-{ ';J

7 =}

A A:-{

-..fT < ":) t !J t.:. o Miruzu-san wa rainen Doitsu to Furansu to Supein

e iku tsumori da. (Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and
Spain next year.) (c) A7"-

'i-r-{ 7

7*-?

1t

-30 Suteki wa naifu to f6ku de taberu. (We eat steak with a knife and
a fork.) (d)

Iv

A
A

Iv tJ

7" .:::. A

'- "'(

\ -3 0 Yamamoto-san to Sumisu-san ga tenisu 0 shite iru. (Mr.

Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.) (e) a *m

"lv::J m'i {f.{"'(

\ -3 0 Nihongo to torukogo wa nite iru. (J apanese and Turkish are

alike.)

CD 1. To is used to list things exhaustively. The final to is usually

omitted, but the others are not. Thus," A, B, C and D" is usually
expressed as "A to B to C to D."

iT i 2. To connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for

and in ======- sentences, as seen in (1) - (3). (t:) -te) (1) *

q)/'\

- jf- 'i

\ c!::
\

\o *Koko no hanbaga wa yasui to ii. (Hamburgers here are cheap

and good.) (2) *?.{ Iv >'

Iv'i a *-..fT -:J t::.. c!:: *tt

Iv ,:.

-:J t::.. o *Uiruson-san wa Nihon e itta to Kimura-san ni atta. (Mr.

Wilson went to Japan and met Mr. Kimura.)

tol 475

(3) *

'j: ::J

- " ,::.ff -:J t::..

p !J -=f'i

OOH::.ff -:J t::.. o *Haruo wa konsato ni itta to Yuriko wa eiga ni itta.

(Haruo went to a concert and Yuriko went to a movie.) 3. u N 1 to N
2 (to N 3. . .)" is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns can
occur.
4. When N I to N 2 is used as the subject of a sentence, the
sentence may be ambiguous. In Ex. (d), for example, without
adequate context we cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are
playing tennis together. If the predicate contains reciprocal words
such as niru 'resemble', onaji- da 'be the same' and kekkonsuru
'marry', however, sentences with U N I to N 2" in subject position are
not ambiguous, as seen in Ex. (e).

[Related Expressions] I. When Ex. (d) means' Mr. Yamamoto and Mr.
Smith are playing tennis together', it can be restated using t0 2 '
with', as in [l]. [I] a .

Iv 'i A

Iv

7" ==- A

'- "'( V \ -3 0 Yamamoto-san wa Sumisu-san to tenisu 0 shite iru. (Mr.

Yamamoto is playing tennis with Mr. Smith.) b. A

Iv 'i

Iv

7" ==- A
L "'( v' Q 0 Sumisu-san wa Yamamoto-san to tenisu 0 shite iru. (Mr.
Smith is playing tennis with Mr. Yamamoto.) Note that if the speaker
states [Ia] or [Ib] instead of Ex. (d), he is speaking from Mr.
Yamamoto's or Mr. Smith's viewpoint, respectively. I I. Ya is also
used to list things, but that listing is inexhausti ve. Examples: [2] a.

Iv;(

Iv

r' !J A

Iv tJ

*t::..o Miruzu-san ya Harisu-san ga kita. (Mr. Mills, Mr. Harris, and

others came.) b.

.tt'i A 7° -

7*-?

it -: Q 0 Kore wa suptJn ya foku de taberu. (We eat this with utensils

like spoons and forks.) III. The particle ni can be used to combine
two or more objects that usually come as a set.

T = I i =----= iiiiiii;i;;;iii

[3] a. 4iWJ;Tj.

it,= /
!&

it

-3o Maiasa misoshiru ni / to gohan 0 taberu. (I eat miso soup and

rice every morning.)

476 to l / t0 2

b. cfb Q) A 'i '" ':) t

:J1" v .y

,= / I::..:;ffi '" 7- 3

"'( '" -3 0 Ano hito wa itsumo shiroi shatsu ni / to akai chokki 0 kite
iru. (He is always wearing a white shirt and a red vest.) The
difference between ni and to is that ni always implies that one or
more than one object has been added to the first object as an indis-
pensable member of the entire set. To, however, does not
necessarily carry that implication.

to 2 t: prt. I

! maintains a reciprocal relationship with the subject of a clause (

/......-
with; as; from [REL. ni 4 ; tol]

. Key Sentence

Noun fL 'i 7':/7,(-

-a'.: .I

-T 4 - ,.: ff-:J t::.. / ff

* Lt::.. o Watashi wa Andi to isshoni pati ni itta / ikimashita. (I went to

a party (together) with Andy.)

Examples

T!

(a) " A 'i.y 3

J: < T'::' A

T -3 0 Tomu wa Jon to yoku tenisu 0 suru. (Tom often plays tennis

with John.) (b) -

'i;Tj.
!J

fzI L. t::.. 0 Ichir6 wa Midori to kekkonshita. (Ichiro married Midori.)

(c) =. Q).'imQ).

rm t

T 0 Kono kuruma wa boku no kuruma to onajidesu. (This car is the

same as my car.)

t0 2 477

(d) a *Q)

? !J 'i 7 j !J 7J Q)

? !J

P '-

tJ

\-'\ * To Nihon no kyuri wa Amerika no kyuri to sukoshi chigaimasu.

(J apanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.)

em 1. When Y is the subject of a clause, X to indicates that X and Y

have a reciprocal relationship. For example, in Ex. (a), the fact that
Tom often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often
plays tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a
reciprocal relationship. Thus, to often corresponds to the English
'with', as in 'in the company of'. To also appears with such reciprocal
verbs and adjectives as kekkonsuru ' marry', kenkasuru ' quarrel',
hanashiau 'discuss with', niru ' resemble', chigau ' differ' and onajida '
be the same'. (See Exs. (b), (c) and (d).) 2. In reciprocal sentences,
the subject and X in X to are interchangeable. For example, Ex. (b)
can be restated as in (1). (1) 'J.}.

. !J 'i -

fzI '- t::.. o Midori wa Ichir6 to kekkonshita. (Midori married Ichiro.)

Ex. (b) is described from Ichiro's point of view, while (1) is described
from Midori's point of view. (t:) tol, REIJ. I)

[Related Expression] Some reciprocal expressions take X ni or X to

depending on the meaning, as in [1] and [2]. [1] a. JE

'i96!£

'- t::.. o Masao wa sensei to hanashita. (Masao talked with his

teacher.) b. JE

'i96!:Ef=

L t::.. o Masao wa sensei ni hanashita. (Masao talked to his teacher.)

[2] a. I

JHitt
0tJ

-:Jt::..o Akira wa Kimiko to butsukatta. (Akira bumped into Kimiko.) b.

WHitt

f=

0 tJ

-:J t::.. o Akira wa Kimiko ni butsukatta. (Akira bumped into Kimiko.)

== r === - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

478 t0 2 / t0 3

The difference is that to implies a " bidirectional" action while ni

implies a U unidirectional" one. For example, [2a] implies that both
Akira and Kimiko were moving, whereas in [2b] only Akira was
moving. Thus, to is unaccept- able in [3] because hashira 'post' is
immobile. [3] I

JHittf= / * l::.

0 tJ

-:J t::.. o Akira wa hashira ni / *to butsukatta. (Akira bumped into a

post.)

to 3 t: prt.
(

./"'../'/"'''''''''''/'''''''

.../''''.''J'''''''''' """""" "-'"""\,/".. /'" ,-. /". /". ,.... )

a particle which marks a quotation, ) sound or the manner in which

s.o. / I s.t. does s.t.

that; with the sound of; in the manner of

.....

..",-.

/""'/'."...

/'/"'o.../

,,

"'--"

. Key Sentence

T=I
Quotation, sound or manner adverb 1:: Iv

Iv 'j: fL ,.: a*m -c"' r

Iv ,.: t? 'j: 0 .J

-:J t::.. / Hiru -san wa watashi ni nihongo de II Konnichi wa." to itta /

,,\ * '- t::.. 0 iimashita. (Mr. Hill said to me in Japanese, U Hello! ")

Fermation

( i) Quotation

to

rfL 'i

!:E -c"' To J

II Watashi wa gakusei desu." to

(U I am a student.")

fL 'i

!:E t!.
 watashi wa gakusei da to

(that I am a student)

t0 3 479

(ii) Phonomime

to /'

(with a clattering noise) batabata to (iii) Phenomime

to ":p -:J < 9

(slowly) yukkuri to (i v) Psychomime

to ?

(cheerfully) ukiuki to

Examples
(a) " A ,t a *--fT

t::.. ",

-g -:J"'( '" -3 0 Tomu wa Nihon e ikitai to itte iru. (Tom says that he
wants to go to Japan.) (b) ;: .tt tt +:AiJt*-2 ,:.

"'( t?.tt t::..

.", "'( cfb !J * To Kore wa jurokuseiki ni taterareta to kaite arimasu. (It

is written that this was built in the sixteenth century.) (c) fL'i/

fT;: ?

' ? 0 Watashi wa basu de ik6 to omou. (I think I will go by bus.) (d)

TgtJ]Hi/

!J @] -:J t::.. o Kodomotachi wa batabata to hashirimawatta. (Lit. The

children ran around with a clattering noise.) (e)

T'i '- -:J tJ

!J

fLQ)::F
,:. rf -:J t:. o Machiko wa shikkari to watashi no te 0 nigitta. (Machiko
grabbed my hand firmly.) (I) '"

'i tJ -:J ':) !J

1M -:J "'( '" -3 0 Ben wa muttsuri to suwatte iru. (Ben is sitting

sullenly.)

= r = ;; Ii =--=

CD 1. To is basically used to mark a quotation; the literal meaning of

- to iu is 'say with (the sound) - '. This use of to, however, has been
ex-

480 t0 3 / t0 4

tended further to cover indirect quotations, as in Exs. (a) and (b), and
even thoughts (i.e., internal voice), as in Ex. (c). Note that in
Japanese to is necessary for both direct and indirect quotations, as
seen in KS and Ex. (a). 2. To is used to mark the content of such
actions as omou 'think; feel', kangaeru 'think (with the intellect)', kaku
'write', kiku 'hear' and setsumeisuru 'explain t. 3. To is also used with
phonomimes, as in Ex. (d). Again, the idea is that someone /
something makes the sound marked by to when doing some- thing.
Note that sound symbolisms in Japanese are not children's words.
Rather, they are an important part of the Japanese vocabulary. 4.
When a sound is repeated twice like batabata in Ex. (d), to can be
omitted. When a sound is not repeated, however, to does not drop.
Examples: (1) a. Tgt}i'i.l

?, ,,.
?' c!:: / 0

!J @] -:J t::.. o Kodomotachi wa batabata to / 0 hashirimawatta. (Lit.

The children ran around with a clattering noise.) b. JE

'i.l

?,

c!:: / *0

t::.. o Masao wa batan to / *0 doa 0 shimeta. (Masao slammed the

door (lit. closed the door with a bang).) 5. The use of to with
phonomimes is extended to phenomimes and psy- chomimes, as in
Exs. (e) and (f), though these are not representations of actual
sounds. (t:) Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound
Symbolisms)

=r=i

------

to 4 t: conj.

a subordinate conjunction which : marks a condition that brings

about

an noncontrollable event or state S

if; when [REL. taTa (ba, nara); tok/l

t0 4 481

. Key Sentence

Sentence I Sentence2 (informal, nonpast) ;::'.:J.-3-? ,:. ff <

t3 t L 0 \-" m tJ

t::.. <

Iv cb -3 / cb !> * To Nyuy6ku ni iku to omoshiroi mise ga takusan aru

/ arimasu. (If you go to New York, there are many interesting shops.)

Fermation

{V / Adj (i / na) / N + Copula} inf. nonpast

to

5T

(if s.o. talks)

hanasu to

\-"

(if s.t. is expensive) takai to r;tJ

t!..

(if s.t. is quiet) shizukada to

96!:E tf.

sensei da to

(if s.o. is a teacher)

Examples

(a)

.tt fi 96!:E ,:. P8 <

T <" 7t tJ

-:J t::.. o Sore wa sensei ni kiku to sugu wakatta. (I understood it

immediately when I asked my teacher.) (b)

-{ .y'ii;\-"

cb
t.t\-"

T J: o Taiya wa furui to abunaidesu yo. (Tires are dangerous if they

are old.) (c)

tJ

t! t:J \-" t!..

a * -- ff -:J t::..

IE !> * T tJ

? Sakana ga kiraida to Nihon e itta toki komarimasu ka? (I f you don't

like fish, will you have trouble when you go to Japan?) (d)

!£ t!..

tlJ51 tJ

cfb !> * To Gakusei da to waribiki ga arimasu. (If you are a student,

there is a discount.)

=r=I

CD 1. In Sl to S2, Sl must be nonpast even if it expresses a past

event or action, as in Ex. (a). Tense is expressed in S2.

482 t0 4
2. In SI to S2, S2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion, an
invita- tion or a volitional sentence. The following sentences are all
ungram- matical.

(1) ft$tJ;!f! <

b Q Co fACT) ? 't? ,:. Shigoto ga hayaku owaru to watashi no uchi ni

a. **t

\o *kinasai.

b. **'"C < t!.

\o *kite kudasai.

c. **t::..

c!: ? 1:TtJ\o *kitara do desu ka.

d. **'£itlvtJ\o *kimasen ka. (If you finish your work early, a. come to
my place. b. please come to my place. c. why don't you come to my
place? d. wouldn't you like to come to my place?)
(2) *ft$tJ;!f! <

b Q Co iO ? 't? ':'iO ? tJ

tJ;

\ L '£ To * Shigoto ga hayaku owaru to o-uchi ni o-ukaga; shimasu. (If

I finish my work early, I'll visit your place.)

(For the correct structures, see taTa, Note 4.)

*Semantic Derivations of To

to ' with'

< Accompaniment> t0 2 : :t:

fi -mT Co im -:J t::.. o Taro wa Hanako to odotta. (Taro danced with

Hanako.)

==T

=- =

== == =----=
< Reciprocal relationship> t0 2 : :: tLfi (btL Co

t t!.o Kore wa are to onajida. (This is the same as that.)

t0 4 483

--+

< Exhaustive listing> to l :

'i jfilJ Jff Co '"( Iv;;

it

t::.. 0 Boku wa sashimi to tenpura 0 tabeta. (I ate sashimi and

tempura.)

--+

< Direct quotation> to 3 : "A'i r

Iv ,:. t? 'ioJ Co

-:J t::.. o Tomu wa " Konnichi wa." to itta. (Tom said, U Konnichi wa.")
'--+

< Indirect quotation> to 3 : " A 'i

!:E t.: Co

-:J t=.o T omu wa gakusei da to itta. (Tom said that he was a

student.)

< Thought> to s : -

'i*X:kt!.. Co ,

.. -:J t::.. o Ichiro wa daijobuda to omotta. (Ichiro thought that there

would be no problem.)

-+

< Sound symbolism> to 3 : :t:

'i/

?' /
?' Co

-:J t::.. o Taro wa batabata to hashitta. (Taro ran with a clattering

sound.)

< Manner of action> to 3 : :m-r'i t -:J Co f

-:J '"(

\ t::.. o Hanako wa jitto matte ita. (Hanako was waiting quietly.)

== r == ;

-.

< Condition of noncontrollable occurrence> to 4 : '::'.:z. - 3 -

-..ff < Co

\ V A " '7

tJ

cb-'5 o Nyuy6ku e iku to ii resutoran ga aru. (If you go to New York,

there are good restaurants.)
484 - to ieba -to ieba - c it It phr. an expression which presents as S I
the topic of a following discourse a ? phrase which has just been
uttered j Speaking of - [REL. ttara; tte] . Key Sentence A: (f) * 'i IIlrp
1v ,:. ftr t::.. Iv 1:T 0 Kono hon wa Tanaka-san ni karita n desu. (I
borrowed this book from Mr. Tanaka.) B: IIlrp 1v c!:: -g;1{J i t; 'i ta -:J
t::.. (f) tJ '- o Tanaka-san to ieba mo byoki wa naotta no kashira.
(Speaking of Mr. Tanaka, I wonder if he's gotten over his illness yet.)
Examples (a) A: tX(f) J3 III J3 'iJj(W-..ff < t t:. o Tsugi no nichiyobi wa
Kyoto e iku tsumori da. (I'm going to Kyoto next Sunday.) B : Jj(W c
;1{Ji, -1-tJ;Jj(W* (f)A ':'Jm -:J t::.. ; t:.o Kyoto to ieba, Haruko ga
Kyotodaigaku no nyugakushiken ni totta soda. (Speaking of Kyoto, I
heard that Haruko passed Kyoto University's entrance exam.) (b) A:
IJ'W 'i J: < {tub;!to Konishi-kun wa yoku yasumu nee (Mr. Konishi is
absent frequently, isn't he?) = r = - - B: J: <{tuc ;!t'i, JlJ* tl&i!iJ!*-ttlvbo
Yoku yasumu to ieba, Yamamoto-kun mo saikin mimasen nee
(Talking about (someone's) frequent absences, we don't see Mr.
Yamamoto these days either, do we?) em 1. To ieba literally means'
if you say that -', but it is used as a topic

- to ieba 485

presentation expression meaning' speaking of '. 2. Usually a noun

phrase is presented by to ieba, but any sentence ele- ment is
possible. For example, in Ex. (b), a verb phrase is presented. 3. The
informal form of to ieba is tte ieba.

(Related Expressions] There are several other expressions used to

present topics. I. Ttara is the abbreviation for to kitara or to ittara and
is used to present noun phrase topics in informal conversation. It is
more em- phatic than the topic marker wa and sometimes means
something like 'when it comes to - ' or 'in the case of -'. Example:
[1] J: LiI":) t= a; fA':' 'ifPJ t

bt

\t\ q) J: 0 Yoshie ttaTa watashi ni wa nani mo iwanai no yo. (Y oshie

didn't tell me anything, you know.) I I. Tte, the abbreviation for to iu to
'when you say -', or to iu no wa 'what you say (or call) - " is also used
to present topics in informal conversation. Like to ieba any sentence
element can precede tte, and that element is usually a part of the
conversation partner's previous utterance. Examples: [2] A:

A \t\ '£ L t::.. J: 0 Shibi 0 kaimashita yo. (I bought a CB.) B :

- ":) -C ? Shibi tte? «What do you mean by what you call) a CB?) [3]
A: *JlMtJ

f{;it Q Iv""C:T 0 R aishtJ kara eigo 0 oshieru n desu. (I'm teaching

English from next week.) B :

g
f{ ;it Q ":) -c, t.: tL ,:. ? Eigo 0 oshierutte. dare nil (Teaching English?
To whom?)

=r=

486 - to iu -to iu -cL\5 phr. a phrase marking informaci;r 1 ) identifies

or explains the noun follow- I . ) Ing the phrase ) called; that says -;
that ; I ( ( -""-../"./"t.. ,, -... ..........' """- . Key Sentences (A) Noun
rwOOJ c!:: \t, ? 'J,m fJelv t!. / Me;1j. '£ L t::.. 0 .. Yukiguni" to IU
shosetsu 0 yonda / yomimashita. (I read a novel called Snow
Country.) (B) Message Noun JlJEB 1v tJ AWC '- t::.. c!:: \t' ? 1J1 t.:J
it f18 \t' t::.. / f18 '£ L t::.. 0 Yamada-san ga nyuinshita to IU shirase 0
kiita / kikimashita. (I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been
hospitalized.) (C) Noun t -:J l: tJ Iv 'f. t.:J t,t < '"( 'i (t,t t.:J t,t \t,) l: \t'?
f!f-t? tJ OJ Q / OJ '£ To Motto ganbaranakute wa (naranai) to iu
kimochi ga aru / arimasu. (I have the feeling that I have to keep
hanging in there.) = = T == i :: :...........:: Examples (a) r -t;A (1)ffl J l:
\t, ? iOO J!t::.. l: tJ £VJ !J '£ T tJ\o .. Shichinin no samurai" to iu eiga
0 mita koto ga arimasu ka. (Have you ever seen the film called
Seven Samurai?) (b) .y.:z. - tJ J:L*-..ff < c!:: \t, ? 'i* TtJ\o Jun ga
Nihon e iku to iu hanashi wa honto desu ka. (Lit. Is the story that
June is going to Japan true? (= Is it true that June is going to
Japan?»

-to iu 487

(c) -=t (1) A ,:.

\ t::.. < t
\ c!::

\?

f!f t:> Ii J: < ?ttJ

'£ To Sono hito n; aitakunai to iu kimochi wa yoku wakarimasu. (I am

well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.) (d)

iMtJ

4-J3*Q c!::

\?

l:

T-:JtJ

:gtL'"(

\t::..o Tomodachi ga kyo kuru to iu koto 0 sukkari wasurete ita. (I

completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.)

em 1. To iu is a combination of the quote marker to and iu 'call, say'.

(t:) to 3 ) 2. The head noun in KS(B) is a noun of communication,
such as hanashi , story', nyusu ' news', shirase ' information', tegami'
letter' and uwasa , rumor'. The head noun in KS(C) is a noun of
human emotion, such as kanashimi ' sadness', kanji' feeling', ki'
feeling', kimochi ' feeling', osore ' fear' and yorokobi 'joy'. 3. To iu is
optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which
represents a quotation, as in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (d). 4. When to
iu is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (U I heard that
-, They say -, It is said that - "). The sentence-final to iu is used only
in written Japanese, as in (1). (t:) soda l ) (1)

!:E (1) ms ,:. J: Q l: a fB 96!:E 'i f{;t jj

m- ,:.l:-=F t.: Co ,,\ ? 0 Gakusei no hanashi ni yoru to Yoshida-sensei

wa oshiekata ga hijoni jozuda to iu. (According to the students, Prof.
Yoshida's teaching method is very skillful.)

488 toka taka c tJ\ conj. I a conjunction that lists two or more .. . h )
Items, actions or states as Inex aus- ) ti ve examples and; or [REL.
tari; va] ( ' . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Noun Noun Noun fA
u: .,. C. tJ :r:: - 'Y 7 Iv " C. tJ -,,- /' ':I /' Watashi wa Bahha toka
Motsuaruto toka Be toben tJ; f;f t / f;f '"t: To ga sukida / sukidesu. (I
like Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, among others.) (B) Sentence
Sentence 1Ji tL t::.. JP.j 'i jOJl.8 ,:. A'Q C. tJ 1f!< 'Q C. tJ L t \t\o
Tsukareta toki wa o-furo ni hairu toka hayaku neru toka shinasai.
(When you are tired, do things like taking a bath or going to sleep
early.) Fermatien KS(A) : N c.tJ N toka c. tJ . . . toka. . . = T == I !:E
c. tJ 96!:E c. tJ . . . gakusei toka sensei toka. . . (students and
teachers. . . (among others)) KS(B): Sinf c. tJ toka Sinf c. tJ T 'Q toka
suru 7' v .,. J!'Q c. tJ * MCu c. tJ T'Q terebi 0 miru toka hon 0 yomu
toka suru (do such things as watching TV or reading books)
toka 489

Examples

(a) J3 *(1)

)i l: tJ\!:E It -m l: tJ

\ ? t (1)

J: < 1J1

t.t. v\o Nihon no sado toka ikebana toka iu mono 0 yoku shiranai. (I
don't know much about things like the Japanese tea ceremony and
flower arranging.)

(b) A:

Iv t.t. J3 *(1)

00j

J! '£ '- t::.. tJ

o Donna Nihon no eiga 0 mimashita ka. (What kind of Japanese

movie did you see?)

B:m
(1) r -t;A(1)#¥.... l: tJ

r!:E

Q.... l: tJ

jt

....

J! '£ L t.:: o Kurosawa no "Shichinin no Samurai" toka "Ikilu" toka

"Kage- musha" 0 mimashita. (I saw Kurosawa's Seven Samurai, Ikiru
and Kagemusha.)

(c) A: J3 III J3 ,.: 'i

Iv t.t. -::.. l:

'- '"(

\ '£ T tJ

o Nichiyobi ni wa donna koto 0 shite imasu ka. (What sorts of things

do you do on Sundays?)

B: if

f18< l:tJ

,*
MCUl:tJ

'--C

\'£To Ongaku 0 kiku toka. hon 0 yomu toka shite imasu. (I do things
like listening to music or reading books.)

em

1. The conjunction toka is a combination of the quote marker t0 3

and kal. That is why toka is often followed by the verb iu 'say', as in
Ex. (a). When toka is followed by iu, as in (1), it is not a conjunction;
it is a quote marker. The ka indicates the speaker's uncertainty about
the quoted report.

(1)

Ki

Iv 'iit '- < -C rrlt t.t.

fJ\

-:J '"(

\ t.:: o Sato-san wa isogashikute ikenai to ka itte ita. (Mr. Sato was

saying he can't go there because he's busy or something.) 2. N I to
ka iu N 2 meaning 'N 2 that is called N I or something like that' is
another example of toka used in the above sense.
=r=---------------------------

(2) mrQ

fJ\"\?AtJ;*t::..o Noguchi to ka iu hito ga kita. (A person named

Noguchi or something like that showed up.)

490 toka / toki 3. S toka S toka suru is used when a statement refers
to something in general rather than to something specific. Thus, this
structure is inap- propriate in (3). (See Related Expression.) (3) A:.::.
.:z. - 3 - 1: 'i c!: Iv t ::. l: '- '£ '- t::.. tJ o Nyuyoku de wa donna koto 0
shimashita ka. (What sort of things did you do in New York?) B : * .:z.
- .y :IJ Iv J! Q fJ\ mtin:. ff < fJ\ '- '£ '- t::.. 0 *Myujikaru 0 miru toka
bijutsukan ni iku toka shimashita. (I did things like watching musicals
and visiting art museums.) (Related Expression] - tari - tari suru, like
S toka S toka suru, indicates an inexhaustive listing of examples. It
differs from S toka S toka suru, however, in that it can be used in
both general and specific statements. As noted in Note 3, the toka
construction can only be used in general statements. Thus, the
grammatical version of (3B) is [1]. [1] .:z. - .y :IJ Iv J! t= &.J m!'in:. ff
-:J t= &.J L; l, t= 0 Myujikaru 0 mitaTi bijutsukan ni ittaTi shimashita.
When - tari - tari suru indicates alternative actions or states, it cannot
be replaced by toka. [2] -r tJ; 1t Wt= &.J / *WQ fJ\ A t= &.J / * AQ fJ\
l, -C" \Qo Kodomo ga heya 0 detaTi / *deTU toka haittaTi / *haiTu
toka shite iTU. (A child is going in and out of the room.) ====- r =
toki n. - a dependent noun which indicates the time when s.o. / s.t.
will do / does / did s.t. or the time when s.o. / s.t. will be / is / was in
some state at the time when; when [REL. - tara; t0 4 ]

toki 491

. Key Sentences (A)

Subordinate Topic (subject) . Clause Predicate (informal)t fA

'i 8* I:. ,,\ t= n

( ,:. ) :td

:eJ -:J t::.. / :eJ v\ '£ L t.: o Watashi

wa Nihon ni ita toki (ni) o-cha 0 naratta / naraimashita. (I learned the

tea ceremony when I was in Japan.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.
(B)

Topic (subject) Noun Predicate {} 0 '-

'i &itQ (f) n

0:.) tJ\'if

{} V \ t::.. / {}

'£ '- t::.. 0 Hiroshi

wa shiken no toki

(ni) kaze 0 hiita / hikimashita. (Hiroshi caught cold at exam time.)

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf n

toki {aIST / alS '- t.:} IP.f (when s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu /
hanashita} toki {

,,\ /

tJ\-:Jt.:} n

(when s.t. is / was expensive) {takai / takakatta} toki ( i i) Adj (na)

stem {t

/ t.: -:J t::.. } n

{na / datta} toki {fittJ\t

/ 1(fttJ\t.: -:J t::.. n

(when s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana / shizukadatta} toki (iii) N {(f) / t.:
-:J t::..} IP.f {no / datta} toki {jt1: (f) / %!£ t!. -:J t.:} n

{sensei no / sensei da tta} toki

T=

i =----=

(when s.o. is / was a teacher)

Examples

(a) t'

lv'i$JJ

!&

1t

Q IP.fv\"":) b 7' v

J!Qo Matsumoto-san wa asagohan 0 taberu toki itsumo terebi 0

miru. (Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his
breakfast.)

492 toki

(b) 7-

- 'i.y .::z. - A tJ;1;i: \I\

'

t::.. <

Iv R -:J -C:to \1\ t::.. o T er; wa jusu ga yasui toki ni takusan katte
oita. (Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.) (c) m'ir;tJ
t

LtJ

"£t

\I\o Boku wa shizukana toki shika hon 0 yomanai. (I read only when
it's quiet.) (d) fLtJ

!:E t!. -:J t::"

9*'i "£ t!. ="':) t!. -:J t:::.. o Watashi ga daigakusei datta toki imoto wa
mada mittsu datta. (When I was a college student, my sister was
only three.)

(e) =- tL 'i tfj

q)

,:. b t::.. L "£ To Kore wa shuppatsu no toki ni watashimasu. (I'll give

this to you when you leave (lit. at the time of your departure).)

em 1. Toki, by itself, means' time', but when it is used as a

dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause, it means 'at the
time when' or , when '.
= r = ;;

2. The clause preceding toki is a type of relative clause; therefore,

the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. (c::)
Relative Clause) The following two rules are particularly important:
(A) If the subject of the toki clause is different from that of the main
clause, it is marked by ga. Compare (1) with KS(A): (1) ) '7

-'ifLfJ( a*':'\I\t::"

7:;

A ':'\I\t::.. o Mear; wa watashi ga Nihon ni ita toki Furansu ni ita.

(Mary was in France while I was in Japan.) (B) The predicate form is
usually informal except that da after Adj (na) stem and' N changes to
na and no, respectively. 3. The particle ni after toki is optional. With
ni, time is emphasized and sometimes comes under focus. Compare
the two sentences in (2).

(2) a. fL'i

!:E q)

J: < Ml%i L t:::.. o Watashi wa gakusei no toki yoku benkyoshita. (I

studied hard when I was a student.) b. fL'i

!:Eq)

'= J: < Ml%i Lt::.. o Watashi wa gakusei no toki ni yoku benkyoshita.

(It was when I was a student that I studied hard.)
toki 493

4. If S2 in SI toki S2 is in the past tense and SI expresses a state,

the tense of SI can be either past or nonpast, as in (3). (3) a. fL'i
a*':'L\

/ L\t=

fBqt96!:E':.

-=>t=o Watashi wa Nihon ni iTU / ita toki Tanaka-sensei ni atta. (I

met Prof. Tanaka when I was in Japan.) b.

tJ

L\ /

fJ' -=> t=

'i1.« t ftljip -:J t::.. o Niku ga takai / takakatta toki wa sakana mo

takakatta. (When meat was expensive, fish was expensive, too.) 5.
When SI in SI toki S2 expresses an action, the meaning of the
sentence changes depending on the tenses of SI and S2. (A) When
the verb in Sl is not a movement verb:

(4) a. fL'i

!fi

jt,,
? 0 Watashi wa gohan 0 tabeTu toki te 0 aTau. (I (will) wash my
hands (right) before I eat my meal.) b. fL'i

!fi

jt"t=

? 0 Watashi wa gohan 0 tabeta toki te 0 aTau. (I (will) wash my

hands (right) after I've eaten my meal.) c. fL'i

!fi

jt,,

-=> t=o Watashi wa gohan 0 tabeTu toki te 0 aTatta. (I washed my

hands (right) before I ate my meal.) d. fL'i

!fi

jt"t=

-=> t=o Watashi wa gohan 0 tabeta toki te 0 aTatta. (I washed my

hands (right) after I ate my meal.) (B) When the verb in SI is a
movement verb:

(5) a. fL'i

:h ::f
fj <

T '-

jt"

"J t=-o Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki sushi 0 tabeTu tsu- mOTi da.
(I'm going to eat sushi (A) (right) before I leave for Chicago. / (B) on
the way to Chicago.) b. fL'i

:h ::f --fj -:> t=

T '-

jt"

"J t=.o Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki sushi 0 tabeTu tsu- mOTi da.
(I'm going to eat sushi after I've arrived in Chicago.)

=r=

c. fL'i

:h ::f

fj <

T '-

jt" t=o Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki sushi 0 tabeta.

494 toki

«A) I ate sushi (right) before I left for Chicago. (B) I ate sushi on the
way to Chicago.) d. fL'i.y :h :f

fj -=> t=

T '-

jt'" t=o Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki sushi 0 tabeta. (I ate sushi
after I arrived in Chicago.) (c) When the action in SI and the action in
S2 take place simultane- ously or concurrently:

(6) a. fL'i.y:h:f

fj <

.-c:fj < 0 Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de iku. (When I go to

Chicago, I go by car.) b. *fL'i.y:h:f

fj -=> t=

.-c:fj < 0 *Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki kuruma de iku. c. fL'i.y :h :f

fj <

.-c:fj -=> t=o Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de itta. (When I
went to Chicago, I went by car.) d. fL'i

:h :f

fj-=> t=
.-C:fj-=> t=o Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki kuruma de itta. (When I
went to Chicago, I went by car.)

[Related Expressions] Unlike when-clauses in English, toki-clauses

do not indicate condition. In other words, toki-clauses are genuine
time clauses. In order to indicate con- dition as expressed in when-
clauses, conjunctions like - tara and to are used. (c::) "", taTa; to 4 )
Thus, if [1] expresses a condition which causes the hearer surprise,
toki cannot be used. [1] You will be surprised when you see it. In this
case, tara or to must be used, as in [2].

==- - r = i ; =------=

[2] .:t tL

{J! t=

/ J! Q c!: / * J! Q

/ * J! t::..

} id

"£ T J: 0 Sore 0 {mitaTa / miru to / *miru toki / *mita toki}

odorokimasu yo. (You'll be surprised when you see it.)

tokoro da l 495 tokoro da 1 t: t=. phr. ..... . A place is in a location

which takes > a certain amount of time to get to. ; \ ..............."",-. "". -
is (in) a place where it takes - to get to . Key Sentence Topic
(subject) Noun Means Noun (location) (duration) fL (f) ? 'i IR tJ t J L\-
c + (f) Watashi no uchi wa eki kara BTuite juppun no . !: t!. / T 0
tokoro da / desu. (Lit. My house is in a place where it takes ten
minutes to get to from the station on foot. (= On foot my house is ten
minutes from the station.») . Exa m pies (a) 'i? tJ G,r A =:+7t(f)!: T 0
Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun no tokoro desu. (Lit. My
school is in a place where it takes thirty minutes to get to from home
by bus. ( = By bus it takes thirty minutes to get from home to
school.» (b) .:t (f)m 'j: tJ G. +Ji7t(f) !: t!.o Sono byoin wa koko kara
kuruma de jtJgofun no tokoro da. (Lit. The hospital is in a place
where it takes fifteen minutes to get to from here by car. (= By car
the hospital is fifteen minutes from here.» em Tokoro da is a
simplified form of tokoro ni aru 'be located in a place (where).' This
expression can be simplified even more, as seen in (1). (1) 'i? tJ G/
A =:+7t «(f) !: ) t!.o Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun (no
tokoro) da. (By bus my school is thirty minutes from home.) = = r = =:
=--=

496 tokoro da 2

tokoro da 2 t:

t=. phr. I S.o. / s. t. is in the state wher;

is just about to do s.t., is doing s.t.,

> has done s.t., or has been doing s.t.

((.

..........,
-

be just about to do s.t.; be in the midst of doing s.t.; have just done
s.t.; have been doing s.t.; almost did s.t. [REL. bakari; toki]

. Key Sentences (A)

Topic (subject) Vinf. nonpast

tI: 'i

jt",

C!:=.

t!. / -c: To Harue wa bangohan 0 tabeTU tokoro da / desu. . (Harue is

just about to eat her supper.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Vte

tI: 'i

!fi
jt","'C \I' Q C!:=.

t!. / -c: To Harue wa bangohan 0 tabete iru tokoro da / desu. (Harue

is in the midst of eating her supper.)

(C)

==r=I

Topic (subject) Vinf.past

tI: 'i

jt '" t:. c!:=-

t!. / -C:To Harue wa bangohan 0 tabeta tokoro da / desu. (Harue has

just eaten her supper.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Vte

tI: 'i

jt","'C \I't::.. c!:

t!. / -c: To Harue wa bangohan 0 tabete ita tokoro da / desu. (Harue
has been eating her supper.)

tokofO da 2 497

(E)

Topic (subject) Vinf. nonpast fL

'i t? 1J'L

mm

!:=.

t!. -:J t=. / Watashi ; wa mo sukoshi de shukudai 0 waSUTeTU tokoro

da tta /

L t::.. 0 deshita. (I almost forgot (lit. was about to forget) my

homework.)

(F)
Topic (subject) Adj (i / na) Prt fL

'i N>,s

tct L \ !:=.

.y -

,:. JJJ1

t -r t G -:J t=. / Watashi ; wa abunai tokoro 0 Jin ni tasukete moratta /

t G \1\ * L t=.o moraimashita. (I was saved by Gene when I was in a
crisis (lit. dangerous state).)

(G)

Noun Prt 13fI$q:a (f) !:=.

T,7j. * -it Ivo O-shigotochii no tokoro 0 sumimasen. (I'm sorry to

bother you in the midst of your work.)

Formation

( i) Vi n f !: =.

t!. tokoro da
{

T/

Lt.:} !: =.

t!.. {hanasu / hanashita} tokoro da

(be just about to talk / have just talked)

== r == - - = = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

{11t

Q / 11t

t.:} !: =.

t!. {taberu / tabeta} tokoro da ( i i) V te { \I \ Q / \I \ t::..} !::.

t!. {iru / ita} tokoro da {

L -r \1\ Q /

L -r \1\ t::..} {hanashite iru / hanashite ita}

(be about to eat / have just eaten)

!: :.

t!.. tokoro da

(be in the midst of talk- ing / have been talking)

498 tokoro da 2

{1t

-r \1\ Q / it" -r \1\ t.:}

=.

t!. {tabete iru / tabete ita} tokoro da

(be in the midst of eating / have been eating)

(iii) Adj (i) inf. nonpast

=.
 tokoro

'ttL\I\

='0 isogashii tokoro

(the state in which s.o. is busy)

(iv) Adj (na) stem t.t,

=.

na tokoro

**t.t.

=.

daijina tokoro

(the state in which s.t. is important)

(v) N (f)

=.

no tokoro
f

(/)

=.

yasumi no tokoro

(the state in which s.o. is off duty / on vacation)

Examples

(a)

'i4'-tfjtJ

t Q c!: =.

-c:-r 0 Boku wa ima dekakeru tokoro desu. (I'm just about to go out
now.)

(b) 7-!J - c!: im -:J -r \1\ Q c!: =.

-;" -
':.J! G tL -r '- * -:J t.:: o Ter; to odotte iru tokoro 0 Masa ni mirarete
shimatta. (Lit. The state in which I was dancing with Terry was seen
by Martha. (= Martha saw me when I was dancing with Terry.»

=r=

(c)

!Ji

1t"k.

b -:J to:: c!: =.

,:. * !J .:rtJ

t::.. f.tJ. -r *t::.. o Gohan 0 tabeowatta tokoro ni Mariko ga tazunete

kita. (Lit. Mariko came (to see me) at the state in which I had just
finished my meal. (= Mariko came to see me when I'd just finished
my meal.»

.*-c:

c!:=.

-c:.-r'-*-:J

o Sansh6 made yonda tokoro de nete shimatta. (I fell asleep when I

had read up to the third chapter (lit. in the state in which I had read it
up to the third chapter).)
(e) fL'i cb

t.t. < i3 f£ tL Q c!: =.

t!. -:J t::.. o Watashi wa abunaku oboreru tokoro datta. (I was almost
drowned.)

tokoro da 2 499

(f) :t3 it '-

=-

? t cb !J tJ

\"£ L t::.. o O-isogashii tokoro 0 domo arigato gozaimashita. (Lit.

Thank you very much (for helping me) in the state when you are
busy. (= Thank you very much for sparing your precious time with
me.»
(g) flJ!JJ 'i-***t

=-

-c: J: < Ml%i '- t

tJ

-:J t::.. tJ

GfPJ t 7ttJ

Gt

<t

-:J -C '- "£ -:J t::. 0 T oshio wa ichiban daijina tokoro de yoku
benkyoshinakatta kara nani mo wakaranaku natte shimatta. (Lit.
Toshio has come to the point of not understanding anything because
he didn't study well in the state where (the class) was the most im-
portant. (= Toshio has gotten totally lost because he didn't study hard
when it was most important.»

(h) idf*

q)

=- 0

"£ -tt Ivo O-yasumi no tokoro 0 sumimasen. (Lit. I'm sorry (to disturb)
the state in which you are off duty. (= I'm sorry to bother you when
you are off duty / on vacation.»
em 1. Tokoro itself means' place', but it can also mean' state' or 'time'
when it is used with a modifying verb, adjective or noun. 2. As seen
in KS(A) - KS(D), verbs which precede tokoro are either past or
nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and each one of
the four verb forms expresses a different aspect of the action. 3. As
seen in KS(E), when the preceding verb is nonpast and non-pro-
gressive and the following copula is in the past tense, the sentence
may mean 'someone or something almost did something.' (The literal
mean- ing is 'someone or something was about to do something.)
When to- koro datta means 'almost did something', such adverbs as
mo sukoshi de 'just by a little' and abunaku 'nearly' are often used
also, as in ! Ti KS(E) and Ex. (e). 4. Tokoro can be followed by either
the copula, as in KS(A) - KS(E), Exs. (a) and (e), or such particles as
0, ni, e and de, as in KS(F) and KS(G), Exs. (b) - (d) and (f) - (h).

5. When adjectives or nouns with no precede tokoro, tokoro is

usually followed by a particle rather than the copula, as in Exs. (f)
and (h). The following sentences are ungrammatical:

500 tokoro da 2

(1) a. *fL'i4'-it '-

=.

'"t:T 0 *Watashi wa ima isogashii tokoro desu. b. *fL'i4'-ft

q) c!: =.
'"t:To *Watashi wa ima yasumi no tokoro desu.

=r=&;

[Related Expressions] I. When tokoro is used as a dependent noun,

its function appears to be similar to that of toki. However, these two
expressions are different in that tokoro basically indicates a state,
while toki indicates a time. Thus, [1] makes sense by itself, but [2]
does not. [1]

'im

tJ

,t Q c!:

f: o Boku wa denwa 0 kakeru tOkOTO dB. (Lit. I'm in the state where
I'm going to place a call. (= I'm just about to call someone.» [2] *

'im

ip

tQ

f:o *Boku wa denwa 0 kakeru toki dB. (*1 am when I'm going to
place a call.) II. Vte iru / ita tokoro da is similar to Vte iru / ita. The
difference is that the former focuses more on the state or the scene
while the latter con- centrates on the action. Compare the usages of
the two expressions in [3] and [4]. [3] cb, y 3

tJ

"? -c L ,

/*

-:J -c L ,

c!:

f: 0 A. Jon ga hashitte iTU / *hashitte iTU tOkOTO dB. (Look! John is

running.) [4] ='q)

.'j:

1:tJ;7

A 1::'--

'--cL'

c!:

"'C:T / * L-cL''*To Kono shashin wa gakusei ga furisubi 0 shite iTU

tOkOTO desu / *shite imasu. (This picture shows students playing
frisbee (lit. is a scene of students playing frisbee).) Vinf.past tokoro
da is similar to Vinf.past bakari da. However, their implications are
different. That is, the former indicates that someone / something is in
the state of having just done something, while the latter implies that
someone / something did something and not much time has passed
since then. Thus, tokoro da is strange in [5] because isshtJkan mae
'a week ago' is too far in the past to be used to express U have just
done something".

III.

tokoro da 2 / - to shite 501 [5] fL'i UJ*96!:E": 'i-j}Mr 'wH:' UJ -:J t::..lifJ'
J f:: / * t. f::o Watashi wa Yamamoto-sensei ni wa isshtJkan mae ni
atta bakaTi da / *tOkOTO da. (I met Prof. Yamamoto only a week
ago.) -to shite - t: --C prt. ? a compound particle which indicates the
capacity. role or functio _S '__! or s.t. _ _ _ _____ J as; in the
capacity of . Key Sentence Noun mqt 1v 'i -e - Jif A -:t !: L-r !*ffl tLt.:: /
tL"£ L t::.. o Tanaka -san wa seTusuman to shite saiy6sareta /
saremashita. (Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.) Formation N !:
L-r to shite :Jt!:E !: L-r sensei to shite (as a teacher) Examples (a) fL'i
;f!: L -r cb t t::.. ,:. \ "£ To Watashi wa isha to shite anata ni iimasu. (I'll
tell you (this) as a doctor.) (b) *f1 Iv !: 'i ji!: L -r"':) -:J -r \ t.: ,t -c: To
Kimura-san to wa tomodachi to shite tsukiatte iru dake desu. (I'm just
keeping company with Mr. Kimura as a friend.) (c) q) Rit Hi4o/JfI!: L -
r -:J -r \ Q 0 Kono heya wa monooki to shite tsukatte iru. (I'm using
this room as a storeroom.) =r= ------

502 - to shite wa -to shite wa - c -Cf prt. i ! a standard for

comparisons for [REL. -nl shite wa] -"""/V'"V ./'" ""'-./-'J""""""'" ..".......,
./'"..../'/.."...../ . Key Sentence Noun =- (/) A 7" - =\=- 'i 8* (/) AT-:f L,-C
'i ii: \ / ii: \-c,;T 0 Kono suteki wa Nihon no sutiki to shite wa yasui /
yasuidesu. (This steak is inexpensive for Japanese steak.)
Formation N L, -C ,;t to shite wa *!:E L, -C ,;t sensei to shite wa (for a
teacher) . Examples (a) .y 3 '.J Iv'i J3 *m(/)- !:E L, -C 'i J3 *m;6 l: t.:o
Jonson-san wa nihongo no ichinensei to shite wa nihongo ga j6zuda.
(Mr. Johnson is good at Japanese for a first-year student (of
Japanese).) (b) =- tL'i J3 *(/) 7 .I - " L, -C 'i* \jJ-c,;T 0 Kore wa Nihon
no apato to shite wa 6kii h6 desu. (For a Japanese apartment, this is
one of the bigger ones-.) ===0: ' r == ; [Related Expression] Ni shite
wa is also used to present a standard for comparisons. However, it is
different from to shite wa in terms of the speaker's presupposition.
That is, sentences with X ni shite wa presuppose that the person or
the thing referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with X to
shite wa have no such presupposition. In Ex. (a), for example, Mr.
Johnson mayor may not be a first-year Japanese student. However,
if ni shite wa is used, it is presupposed that he is actually a first-year
Japanese student. The two ex- pressions are also different in that ni
shite wa can be used when the speaker doesn't know exactly what
he is comparing with the standard he presents, but to shite wa
cannot be used in such situations. For example, suppose that
someone receives a package and doesn't know its contents. In this
situa-

- to shite wa I tsumori 503 tion, he can say hon ni shite wa, assuming
that the package contains books, but he cannot say hon to shite wa,
as in [1]. [1] =. tLfi*'= l, "( I / * C. l, "( l gT tf ho Kore wa hon ni shite
wa / *to shite wa karusugiru nee (This is too light for books, isn't it?)
tsumori ? t> n. ./'>./' an intention or conviction of a ! speaker (or a
person with whom the ! speaker can empathize) about his ? future or
past actions or current state ( .,/""<./""\./"'............ intend to - ; be
convinced that -; believe; feel sure that -; be going to; mean [REL.
hazu; - yo to omou] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Vinf.nonpast
fL f;t * J6t1T.Q -'?t t!. / To Watashi wa rainen kekkonSUTU tsumori
da I desu. (I intend to get married next year.) - T - - - (B) Topic
(subject) Adj (i) inf. nonpast fi * t!. L\ -'?t t!. / To Chichi wa mada
wakai tsu mori da / desu. . (My father is convinced that he is still
young. )

504 tsumori

(C)

Topic (subject) Vinf - past fL 'i .1:< E* Iv tf 'Jt

t!. / -C:T 0

- Watashi wa yoku yanda tsumori da / desu. (I'm convinced that I

read it carefully.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun =.tL 'i 13*L (/) 'Jt

t!. / -C:T 0 Kore wa a -Tei no tsumori da / desu. . (Lit. This is my

intention of appreciation. ( = This is a token of my ap- preciation.»

Formation

( i) Vinf 'J t

t!. tsumori da (

T / a! L, t::..) 'J t

t!. (intend to talk / s.o. is convinced he (hanasu / hanashita) tsumor;

da talked) (ii) Adj (i) inf-nonpast 'Jt

t!. tsumor; da %t

\ 'J t

t!. (s.o. is convinced that he is strong) tsuyo; tsumor; da (iii) Adj (na)
stem t,t 'J t

t!. na tsumori da
7G

t,t 'J t

t!. genkina tsumori da iT

(iv) N (/) 'J t

t!. ==== no tsumor; da

(s.o. is convinced that he is healthy)

*!:E (/) 'J t

t!. sensei no tsumori da

(s.o. is convinced that he is a teacher)

Examples

(a) i*

,:. JiM

'J t
-c: T

o Yasumi ni wa nani 0 suru tsumori desu ka. (What do you intend to

do during the vacation?)

tsumori 505

(b)

fi*

':.fT < "0 t

fit

\o Boku wa daigaku ni iku tsumori wa nai. (I have no intention of

going to college.) (c) (blvt

A':'f;tt ?

bt

\"0t

-C:To Anna hito ni wa mo awanai tsumori desu. (I do not intend to

see that kind of person.) (d) fL'i * t': 7G

,/
"0 t

t.: o Watashi wa mada genkina tsumori da. (I'm convinced that I'm
still healthy.) (e)

! L, t::""0 t

-c: L, t::.. tJ

;6

-:J t::..1v -c: T b. 0 Hanashita tsumori deshita ga, hanasanakatta n

desu ne. (I thought I talked to you, but I didn't, did I?) (f) =. Q){t*fijJifa
Q)"0 t

-c:;- 0 K ono shigoto wa asobi no tsumori desu. (This work is

intended to be a pastime.) (g) .:t tL -c:

%l L, -C

"0 t

-C:TtJ

o Sore de benkyoshite ;ru tsumor; desu ka. (Are you sure you can
study like that?)

em 1. Tsumori is a dependent noun and must be preceded by a

modifier. The minimal modifier is sono 'that'.
(1) A: fT < "0 t

-C:T;6

o Iku tsumori desu ka. (Do you intend to go there?) B : ;it;it , .:t Q) "J
t

J -c: T / *;it;it, "J t

J -c: T 0 E, sono tsumoTi desu / *E, tsumOTi desu. (Yes, I do.) 2.

The subject of a statement containing tsumor; da must be the first
person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In a
question, however, the subject must be the second person or
someone with whom the hearer empathizes. (2) a.

/ -a / iXii / *i)(1)if7

/ *i)tlt='i1t

"0 t

t.: o Boku / Haha / Tomodachi / *Ano saTaTiman / *Anata wa taberu

tsumori da. (I / My mother / My friend / That salaried man / You in-
tend(s) to eat it.)

== r =
 iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

506 tsumor;

b. *

/ *£t / *iXii / wW

Iv / "5JtJ,t=. 'i1t

"0 t

o *Boku / *Haha / * Tomodachi / Yamada-san / Anata wa taberu

tsumori desu ka. (Do / Does I / my mother / my friend / Mr. Yamada /
you intend to eat it?) 3. Tsumori da can be negated in two ways. The
verb / adjective in front of tsumor; can be negated, as in Ex. (c), or
tsumori can be negated as tsumori wa na; (not *tsumori de wa nai),
as in Ex. (b). The difference between these two negative versions is
that the second version implies stronger negation than the first one,
as shown by (3) below: (3) A:

Q)if
':.fT < "0 t

TtJ\o Konban no ongakuka; ni iku tsumor; desu ka. (Do you intend to
go to tonight's concert?) B : * t.: J: < 7ttJ

* it IvtJ;,

7t, fj/.)\tJ, L \"J t !J -c!T / ??fj < "J t !J I

!J

1tlvo Mada yoku wakarimasen ga, tabun, ikanai tsumoTi desu / ??iku
tsumoTi wa aTimasen. (I can't tell for sure now, but probably I'm not
going there.)

=T=

= == =-----=

[Related Expressions] I. T sumori should not be confused with hazu

which means 'expectation' rather than 'conviction'. (t:) hazu) II.
Tsumori da is comparable but not identical to yo to omou. Firstly, yo
to omou can replace tsumori da only in KS(A), that is, only when a
verb precedes tsumori da. Secondly, yo to omou indicates a spur-of-
the moment decision while tsumor; da indicates a more stable
convic- tion / intention. Thus, if you are shown a car by a car
salesman, you can say: [1] a.
Q)1t!fiJ:

.:t?t

Q)

iii)?c!:,

,L\*T

\< t?-C:TtJ

o Kono kuruma wa yosasona node kao to omoimasu ga ikura desu

ka. (This car looks nice, so I think I will buy it, but how much is it?)
But it is strange to say: b. ??

Q)1t!'iJ:

.:t? t

Q)

A?"Jt

J-c!T

\ < t?

o ??Kono kuruma wa yosasona node kau tsumoT; desu ga ikura

desu ka.
tsumori / - tte l 507 (Lit. ? ?This car looks nice, so I intend to buy it,
but how much is it?) Or, if you see an interesting ad for a stereo set
in the newspaper, you can say [2a] but not [2b]. [2] a. A 7- v::t Q) i!r
J! -C iti3 ? c!: , ,":) t= .; * j:..&:M tL t::.. o Sutereo no kokoku 0 mite
kao to omottaTa kanai ni han- taisareta. (Lit. Upon looking at an ad
for stereos, I thought I would buy one, but my wife objected to it.) b.
?? A 7- v::t Q) * J! -C it?"J t J t=.":) t=.;, * ,:. .&:M tL t::.. o ?? Sutereo
no kokoku 0 mite kau tsumoTi dattBTa, kanai ni hantaisareta. (Lit. ??
Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I intended to buy one, but my wife
objected to it.) -tte 1 ? -C prt. ./'"'.."""" ..,,../"......../""'" j a colloquial
topic-introducer (' Speaking of - [REL. (no) wa; IWto ieba (ttara)] = T
= I; i =----= . Key Sentences (A) Noun 7)1. 1JA. -:J-C 7 '/ " -'V tJ; 9J
t::. / 9J T ho AmeTikajin tte futtoboru ga sukida / sukidesu nee
(Speaking of Americans, they love football, don't they?)

508 - tte l

(B)

Sentence

jt;t

-:J"'( *

t!. / *

T tJ o Kanji 0 oboeru tee taihenda / taihendesu ne. (Lit. To memorize

kanji, it's terribly hard, isn't it? ( = It's reall y hard to memorize kanji,
isn't it?»

Formation

KS(A) N -:J"'( tte

:%!:E -:J-C sensei tte

(speaking of the teacher)

KS(B) {V / Adj (i)} inf. nonpast -:J -C tte -g!T -:J -C (to talk (topic»
hanasu tte ?Ji v\ -:J -C (to be expensive (topic» takai tee

Examples

:T=

======

(a)
* -:J "'(:t3 t L, 0 V\ -c" T J: 0 Kanji tte omoshiroidesu yo. (Speaking of
kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.) (b) E *A -:J -C J: < 1J.

tH

* TtJ o Nihonjin tte yoku shashin 0 torimasu nee (Speaking of

Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don't they?) (c) j

m-c"fJ G T -:J "'(

L v\ho Gaikoku de kurasu tte muzukashii nee (Living in a foreign

country is hard, isn't it?) (d) *tJ

$- v\ -:J -C v\ v\ t Q) t.: ho Ki ga 6i tee ii mono da nee (It's good to

have many trees, isn't it?)

- tte 1 509

(e) *tJ

\ -:J -c

\-c.*Tno Ie ga hiroi tte iidesu nee (It's good to have a spacious

house, isn't it?)

em 1. You should not use Adj (na) stem tte, unless it is an Adj (na)
that can be used also as a noun as in: kenk6 ' healthy I health "
kodoku ' lonely / loneliness', shinsetsu 'kind I kindness', etc.
(1) a. itBJi":) "'( (b

tJ; t::..

\ -c.* T no Kenk6 tte arigatai desu nee (Health is a precious thing,

you know.) b. * JG

":) "'( (b

tJ

t::..

\ -c.* T no *Genki tte arigatai desu nee (Health is a precious thing,

you know.) 2. You should not confuse - tte l with - tte 2 of hearsay.
(t:) tte 2 ) Consider the following sentences:

(2) a.

tJ

I2f

,:.t

-:J t::..":) "'(*

-c.*TtJ

o Yamazaki ga isha ni natta tte hont6 desu ka. (I heard that

Yamazaki has become a medical doctor, but is it true?) b. J3 *Q) rtJ
tJ;;gj
\":) "'(,

* Q) <*

\it1i

\ Iv -c.* T tJ

o Nihon no niku ga takai tte dona gurai takai n desu ka. (I heard that
Japanese meat is expensive, but how expensive is it?) 3. -ttel tends
to co-occur with the sentence-final particles ne or yo.

[Related Expression] When -tte is attached to a noun as in KS(A)

and Exs. (a) and (b), it is close in meaning to the topic marker wa.
When -tte is attached to a sentence as I TI in KS(B) and Exs. (c), (d)
and (e), it is close in meaning to - (to iu) no wa. -tte, however, is
more colloquial and emotive than wa or (to iu) no wa. In fact, if the
predicate does not express the speaker's emotive judgment /
evaluation -tte cannot be used. Thus,

[1] a.

J=I

Iv'

/ *":) "'(96!:E-C:T 0 Yamaguchi-san wa / *tte sensei desu. (Mr.

Yamaguchi is a teacher.)

510 -tte l / -tte 2

b.

J=I

Ivl

/ ":) -c"'i:.tctA

Tho Yamaguchi-san wa / tte henna hito desu nee (Mr. Yamaguchi is

a strange person, isn't he?)

-tte 2 ? -C prt.

U;;ui

;:

;;t

-"

./'../'v

that [REL. soda I ; t0 3 ]

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) .y.:r.-

'i Hm

tct

\ -:J -C 0 Jen wa odoranai tte (J ane said that she wouldn't dance /
They say that Jane won't dance.)

Examples

(a) 4'pJf!fi

;6

-:J-C o Konban wa yuki ga furutte. (They say it's going to snow

tonight.) (b)

t fT =. ? tJ

-:J -C ,

\ * L, t::.. o Boku mo iko ka tte omoimashita. (I wondered if I should

go there, too.) r=- T i ..
 ----- 1. Quote + tte 2 is a colloquial version of Quote + t0 3 . (t:) to
3 ) Any quota- tion which can precede t0 3 can precede -tte. 2. When
there is a human topic in the -tte construction as in KS, the sen-
tence is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. The person who is
quoting can be either the topic person or 'they'. But if a reporting
verb iu 'say' is used after -tte, then the sentence means 'The person
(topic) says that -'.

-tte 2 511

(1) .y ;r. -

'iM

t,t

\":) "'(a":)"'( L \

J: 0 J en wa odoranai tte itte iTU yo. (J ane is saying that she won't
dance.) 3. When -tte is not followed by a verb, the understood verb is
iu 'say'. Other verbs (i.e., omou 'feel, think') cannot be deleted after -
tte, as shown in Ex. (b).

[Related Expressions] I. Itta / iimashita 'said', itte iru / imasu 'is

saying' or itte ita / imashita , was saying' can be deleted after -tte 2 ,
as seen in KS and [1] below, but not after t0 3 , as seen in [2]. [1] a.
.y;r. -

JiMi '? t,t

\":)"'(
-:J t::.. o Jen wa odoranai tte itta. (J ane said that she wouldn't
dance.) b. .y ;r. -

'iMi

t,t

\":) "'( 0 Jen wa odoranai tte. (=KS) [2] a. .y;r. -

JiMi

t,t

\ c!:

-:J t::.. o Jen wa odoranai to itta. (J ane said that she wouldn't
dance.) b. *.y;r. -

JiM

t,t

\c!: 0 *Jen wa odoranai to. The difference between -tte 2 and t0 3 is

that the former is more emphatic and emotive owing to its glottal
stop. (t:) Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound
Symbolisms) II. When the subject of the understood iu is an
unspecified person(s), as in the second interpretation of KS, -tte 2 is
similar to the hearsay soda I , they say -'. -tte 2 , however, is more
colloquial and informal than soda l . (t:) soda l ) X ga itte ita kedo ' X
was saying but' or its variants are used when specifying an
informational source in the -tte construction, not the usual X ni yoru
to, as shown in [3]. [3] a. :;:1 :,Ib(a":)",(L\f=lt

, .y;r.-

JiMi

t,t
\":)"'(o Jon ga itte ita kedo, Jen wa odoranai tte. (According to John,
Jane is not going to dance.) b. :;:1 :,II:: J::

c!:, .y;r. -

JiM

t,t

\ -t- ? f= / *":) "'( 0 Jon ni YOTU to, Jen wa odoranai soda / *tte.
(According to John, Jane is not going to dance.)

;: T == - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

512 uchi ni uchi ni '5 -; r conj. during a period when a certain situ-
ation remains in effect , -./' /".../"'../"../"'../"".../"' while; before; during
[REL. aida (ni); mae ni; chtJ (ni)] . Key Sentences (A) Subordinate
Clause Topic (subject) Main Clause Verb (stative) MaI 1v ,:t 7)1)j] I:.
L \.Q ? 'tj ,=. ilt tJ l: ,=. Maeda-san wa Amerika ni iTU uchi ni eigo ga
jozuni t.t, -:J t::.. / t.t, !J * '- t::.. o natta / narimashita. (Mr. Maeda's
English improved while he was in America.) (B) Subordinate Clause
Main Clause Vinf. neg. nonpast fij t l, fJ. L \ ? 'tj I:. t i b -:J t::.. / i b !J *
'- t::.. o Nani mo shinai uchi ni kotoshi mo owatta / owarimashita. (Lit.
Before I've achieved anything, this year is over.) (C) = u = I g
Subordinate Clause Main Clause Vte jE-:>""C \-' -3 ? 'tj ,=. to t.t, tJ tJ
1Jti < t.t, -:J t::.. / t.t, !J * '- t::.. o Hashitte iru uchi ni onaka ga
itakunatta I narimashita. (My stomach started to ache while I was
running.)

ucni ni 513

(D)
Subordinate Clause Main Clause Adj (i) inf. nonpast

L\ ? 't? ,=. *

<

1v MC;TJ. t

1r'0 Wakai uchi ni hon 0 takusan yominasai. (Read many books

while you're young.)

Formation

( i) Vinf. nonpast oj tj ,-= uchi ni

(V: stative)

1r' G ? 't? ,=. iru uchi ni

(while s.o. is there)

UttG ? tj ,=. hanaseru uchi ni ( ii) Vinf. neg. nonpast

(while s.o. can talk)

1r' ? 't? ,:. hanasanai uchi ni it",t

1r' ? 't? ,=. tabenai uchi ni

? 't? ,=. uchi ni (before s.o. talks)

(before s.o. eats)

(iii) V te 1r' G ? 't? ,=. iru uchi ni

! '- -c 1r' Q ? 't? ,=. hanashite iru uchi ni it'" -c 1r' Q ? 't? ,=. tabete iru
uchi ni

(while s.o. is talking)

(while s.o. is eating)

(i v) Adj (i) inf. nonpast ? 't? ,-= uchi ni

1r' ? 't? ,:. (while s.t. is expensive) takai uchi ni

=u=-

(v) Adj (na) stem t

? 't? ,=. na uchi ni 1flttJ

? 't? ,=. (while s.t. is quiet) shizukana uchi ni

514 uchi ni

(vi) N (f) ? t J ,:. no uchi ni

1*;Tj. (f)? t.J ,:. yasumi no uchi ni

(during the vacation)

Examples

(a) mtJ
Gt

1r' ? t.J ,:. 7- =:. A

'- -c * *.., 0 Ame ga furanai uchi ni tenisu 0 shite kimasu. (I'll go and
play tennis. (and come back) before it rains.) (b) :gtL t

1r' ? t.J ,:.

-:J -c to

t::.. 1r' =. C tJ

cb Q 0 Wasurenai uchi ni itte okitai koto ga aru. (There is something

I want to tell you before I forget.) (c) :n;t -c 1r' Q ? t.J ,:. 7ttJ

Gt

<t

-:J t::.. o Kangaete iru uchi ni wakaranaku natta. (While thinking

about it, I got lost.) (d) 1tIJ

t Q ? t.J ,:. ttl * Q t.:

t 1'1

t::.. 1r' 0 Hatarakeru uchi ni dekiru dake hatarakitai. (I'd like to work
as much as possible while I can work.) (e) ililtJ

1r' ? t.J ':'

Iv"'("' < t!.

1r'0 Atatakai uchi ni nonde kudasai. (Please drink it while it is warm.)

(f) -f*;Tj. (f) ? t.J ,:. J: <

-c to

* .., 0 Yasumi no uchi ni yoku nete okimasu. (I'll sleep a lot during the
vacation.)

CD 1. The uchi ni clause expresses the general time during which a

given action or state occurs. Uchi ni is preceded by verbs describing
states or progressive actions, or by adjectives, or by nouns
expressing duration such as haru 'spring " hiruma 'day time' and
shtJkan 'week '. (For examples, see KSs(A), (C), (D) and Ex. (f),
respectively.) 2. The tense before uchi ni is always nonpast,
regardless of the tense of the main clause.

= u = ; ii

3. The verb before uchi ni is frequently negated, as In KS (B), Exs.

(a) and (b).

uchi ni 515

[Related Expressions] I. When it indicates an interval of time, aida

refers to the 'time space' between two points, i.e., the beginning and
the end. In other words, the time space indicated by aida can be
measured in clocktime. Uchi, however, does not refer to such
measurable time space; it simply means 'time space within'. Thus, in
a situation where a mother wants to read books while her child is
away at school, either uchi or aida can be used, as in [1a]. However,
in a situation where we want to play tennis before it rains, we cannot
substitute aida for uchi, as in [lb], because it is impossible to specify
a time boundary. [1] a. -r

t3C':.fT-:J-clt'Q ?

f= / r

f=*

;Tj.:t..,o Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru uchi ni / aida ni hon 0 yomi-

masu. (I read books while my child is away at school.) b .

Gt

It' ?

f = / * ra' f = T ':='.A

'- :t .., 0 Ame ga furanai uchi ni / *aida ni tenisu 0 shimasu. (I'll go

and play tennis before it rains.) c. ff1t.:lt'?

f= / *ra,f= t:"-)v

Iv"'(* < t!.

It'o Tsumetai uchi ni / *aida ni biru 0 nonde kudasai. (Please drink

the beer while it is cold.) II. The uchi ni construction cannot be used
for situations where a noun is an event noun such as jugyo ' class',
kaigi ' conference' and shiai C game'.
[2] a .

(1) ra' f = /

(I =) / * (1) ? 1b f = J: < ii rp'

'- t::.. 0 Jugyo no aida ni / chii (ni) / *no uchi ni yoku shitsumon
oshita. (He frequently asked questions during the class.) b.

.g.(1)ra'f= /

(1=) / *(1)? 1b f=

-:J -c *t::.. o Shiai no aida ni / chii (ni) / *no uchi ni ame ga futte kita.
(It started to rain while the game was going on.)

=u=-

516 wa l wal, prt. , , S a particle which marks a topic or ? . I ( > a

contrastive e ement ( ...... ,,"'- talking about -; as for -; the [REL. gal] .
Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) f1 'i !:E t:. / '"(*"'0 Watashi wa
gakusei da / desu. . (I am a student.) (B) Contrastive Elementl
Contrastive Element2 m N 'i ff '1.., tJ f1 'i ff * tt Iv o Sugita-san wa
ikimasu ga watashi wa ikimasen. (Mr. Sugita will go (there) but 1
won't go.) Examples (a) .y 3 - A"' Iv'i f3 *ilt %i L -c 1r\ 0 Jonzu-san wa
ima nihongo 0 benkyoshite iru. (Mr. Jones is studying Japanese
now.) (b) =. (/) lIT ,:. 'i * tJ = "'J cb Q 0 Kono machi ni wa daigaku ga
futatsu aru. (There are two universities in this town.) (c) fL'i 1::"- Jv'i
;Tj. * ..,tJ irHi ;Tj. * tt Iv o Watashi wa biru wa nomimasu ga sake wa
nomimasen. (I drink beer but don't drink sake.) (d) T':"iAm , f)cT':"i *
cb'ft::. o Haruko ni wa ningyo 0, Akiko ni wa ehon 0 ageta. (I gave
Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.) =- w - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - em 1. The ongln of wa can be traced to the conditional
marker ba. (Com- pare the spellings of wa OJ:) and ba Of).) (t:) ba)
However, in con-

wa l 517

temporary Japanese, wa is used, in general, to mark information

which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register. In
other words, when wa marks X, the speaker usually assumes that
the hearer knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be
marked by wa in ordinary circumstances are as follows: (A) Common
nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the
discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example: (1) {fk , -A (7)

L. L \

Ai fJ({1: Iv '"("' 1r' * L t::.. o Mukashimukashi. hitori no a-ji-san ga

sunde imashita. (Once upon a time, there lived an old man.)

L. L \

Ai'

C: -c t

L 1r \ A '"("' L t::.. 0 O-ji-san wa totemo yasashii hito deshita. (The old

man was a very gentle man.) (B) Proper nouns. Examples:

(2) 7)
j] 'America'; Amerika

Iv 'Mr. Smith' Sumisu-san

(c) Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified (that IS, they
are one of a kind). Examples:

(3) ;t

'sun' ; taiyo (D) Generic names. Examples: (4) A 'man' ; hito

C sky' sora

Jt[ 'car' kuruma

It is noted that wa never marks WH-words such as nani ' what' and
dare 'who'. Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.

(5) *t=h'
-7..( -'=-*'1 '-t::..tJ

o *DaTe wa pat; ni kimashita ka. (Who came to the party?) This is

because WH-words do not refer to a known thing and, there- fore,
their referents can never be in the hearer's register. 2. More
specifically, wa marks a topic and / or a contrastive element. When
wa is used as a topic marker, as in X wa Y, X is something the rest of
the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on
Y or part of Y. (Cp. gal) The topic X wa normally appears at the
beginning of a sentence.

- w -==- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

518 wa l

3. Wa is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in KS (B), Exs.

(c) and (d). However, whether wa is being used as a topic marker or
as a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear
particularly when there is one element X marked by wa but there is
no other ele- ment Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some
general rules for determining whether a given wa is topical or
contrastive. (A) When more than one wa appears in a sentence, as
in U X wa Y wa Z wa. . . ", the first wa is usually understood to be the
topic marker, the second wa is more contrastive than the first one,
the third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Ex-
amples:

(6) ;ta

'
7- =- A ,

ttl**.., 0 Taro wa tenisu wa dekimasu. (Taro can play tennis.) (7)

f3 ,

7- =- A'

'- t

1,-'0 Boku wa kyo wa tenisu wa shinai. (I won't play tennis today.) (B)
When X wa is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive
element. Examples: , (8) fL'

--

'"("' i- 0 Watashi wa ichinen desu. «I don't know about other people

but, at least) f am a freshman.) , (9) 1::" - Jv'

;Tj. *"'0 Btru wa nomimasu. «I don't drink other drinks but) 1 drink
beer.)

4. When wa is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated

element. This is a special use of wa as a contrastive marker.
Compare the following sentences:

-w====
(10) a. fL'i

(/) ?

-...fftJ

tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa kino Bosuton e ikanakatta. (I didn't go to Boston

yesterday.) b. fL'i

(/) ? ,

-...fftJ

tJ

-:J t::.. o Watashi wa kino wa Bosuton e ikanakatta. (I didn't go to

Boston yesterday.)

wa l 519
c. fL'i

(7) ?

-"I-j:fftJ

tJ

-:J t=.o Watashi wa kino Bosuton e wa ikanakatta. (I didn't go to

Boston yesterday.) (lOa) simply states that the speaker didn't go to
Boston yesterday. (10b) negates yesterday, implying that the
speaker went to Boston on other days or that he usually goes to
Boston on that day but didn't yesterday. Likewise, (lOc) negates to
Boston, implying that the speaker went some- where but it was not to
Boston. S. There are rules for particle ellipsis when wa marks noun
phrases with case markers (i.e., particles such as the subject marker
ga (= gal) and the direct object marker 0 (=0 1 ». (A) When wa marks
X ga or X 0, ga or 0 must drop. (Exs. (a) and (c» (B) When wa marks
X e or X ni 6 (location), e or ni optionally drop. (Ex. (b»

(c) When wa marks X nil / ni 2 / ni 3 / ni f (time, indirect object, agent,

contact), X de, X to, X kara, X made or X yori, the case marker
usually remains and wa follows it, forming a double particle. (Ex. (d»
More examples follow: (11) =. =. -c: I-j: t::.. 'f =.

bt

1,-'
< t!.

1,-'0 Koko de wa tabako 0 suwanaide kudasai. (Please don't smoke

here.) (12) a3 q:.

Iv t: I

J: <

1,-' :t .., 0 Tanaka-san to wa yoku aimasu. (I see Mr. Tanaka often.)

6. The topical wa does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).
(13) a.

T'ifLfJ( / *I

(7) ? mi

/v t!. =. c:

-:J -c 1,-';;' 0 Hanako wa watashi ga / *wa kino sake 0 nonda koto 0

shitte iru. (Hanako knows that 1 drank sake yesterday.) b. fLfJ( / *I-j:

lvt,:*'i rwOOJ

"'o Watashi ga / *wa yonda hon wa U Yukiguni" desu. (The book 1

read was Snow Country.)

= w ..... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
520 wa 2

wa 2 t> prt.

""-"''''''''''''''-''-......

......

''''' a sentence particle used in weak as- I sertive or volitional

sentences by a !

female speaker

.....""-

""""-""."'

. Key Sentence

Sentence fL t cb L t.: (/) /

- T .{ - ,:. ff < b o Watashi mo ashita no pati ni iku wa. (I'll go to

tomorrow's party, too.)
Examples

(a) **

Iv'i t ?

!J * Lt::..b o Oki-san wa mo kaerimashita wa. (Mr. Oki has already

gone home.) (b) !A T 'i * t.:

!:E '"("' T b o Hisako wa mada gakusei desu wa. (Hisako is still a

student.) (c) =. (/)H1t

Ui/J'

1r'b o Kono heya wa chisai wa. (This room is small.)

mm 1. The sentence particle wa is used only in female speech and

expresses the speaker's weak assertion or volition. In addition, wa
sometimes expresses the speaker's intimacy or friendliness. 2. Wa
can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional
forms of verbs. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

=- w = :

(1) *fLtJ

ff

* l, J: ? / ff
? b o *Watashi ga ikimasho I iko wa. (I will go.) Note that wa cannot
be used in questions. (2) a. *

-'r

'.l

1v'j:

!:E"'(*TtJ

bo *Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu ka wa. (Is Mr. Jackson a

student?)

wa 2 I - wa -da 521 b. *.y -'r >' lv'i !:E ..,btJ o *Jakuson-san wa

gakusei desu wa ka. (Is Mr. Jackson a student?) c. * -'r >' lv'i !:E ..,b?
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu wa? (Is Mr. Jackson a student?) 3.
Other sentence particles such as ne and yo can occur with wa. In
this case, wa must precede these particles. (3) fL t ff < *'no Watashi
mo iku wa nee (I'll go there, too. All right?) (4) fL tff < *,J:o Watashi
mo iku wa yo. (I'll go there, too. (Emphatic» -wa -da -, -t:.. str. ) ) >
S.o. or s.t. is / was s.o. or s.t. or ) ) j is / was in some state, or will do
/ does / did s.t. """''' '''' . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Noun =.tL
'i * t=. / .., 0 Kore wa hon da / desu. . (This is a book.) ==w=

522 - wa -da

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun Prt ::J

- " 'i J\

iJ\

t!. /

T 0 Konsato wa hachiji kaTa da / desu. . (Lit. The concert is from

eight o'clock. (= The concert starts at eight o'clock.»

Examples

(a) dJ q) A 'i96!:E t.: 0 Ano hito wa sensei da. (That person is a

teacher.)

(b) fL'i.y 3 -

T 0 Watashi wa Jonzu desu. (I am Jones.)

(c)

'illY

:t
To Jugyo wa yoji made desu. (Lit. My classes are till four o'clock. (= I
have classes till four o'clock.» (d)

J.tq)

'i!7 y

"

c t!.o Kondo no shiai wa Washinton Daigaku to da. (The next game

is against the University of Washington.)

em 1. "A wa B da" is probably the most basic sentence structure in

Japanese. The very basic meaning of this construction is "A is B".
However, this pattern can convey more than that meani ng. F or
example, the second sentence in (1) literally means 'My wife is tea',
but actually means 'My wife drinks tea.' Here, the copula da is used
in place of nomu C drink '.

......-- .W=

(1) fL'i

::J -

- a:
tro *P'i,

t=o Watashi wa maiasa kohi 0 nomu. Kanai wa kocha da. (I drink

coffee every morning. Lit. My wife is tea. (= My wife dri nks tea.»

In fact, this structure is used frequently in conversation, as in (2),

where the copula desu in B's sentence means ikimasu 'am going '.

- wa -da 523

(2) A: fL'i.l"!7.{

ff

:tTo Watashi wa Hawai e ikimasu. (I'm going to Hawaii.) B : fL'

7 p !J

.",(!T 0 Watashi WB Furorida desu. (Lit. I am Florida. (= I'm going to

Florida.»

In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the

mean- ing can be understood from context. Note the following
examples: (3)

v A " '7
'iT LtJ

td

\L

\o dJ

v A " '7

-C Iv;;' G t:. o Kono resutoran wa sushi ga oishii. Ano resutoran WB

tenpura dB. (Sushi is good at this restaurant. At that restaurant
fempura IS good.) (4) 7

':I

'i A -7 - "tJ

l:

t.:o

-'v'

A:\=- - t:. o Dikku wa suketo ga jozuda. Poru WB ski dB. (Dick is

good at (ice) skating. Paul is good at skiing.) (5) Jj.-'J-=f'itdlI3:

IvtJ

t.:o -'J c tr,

td
Ivt:. o Mitsuko wa o-ka-san ga byoki da. Tsutomu WB o-to-san dB.
(In Mitsuko's family, her mother is ill. In Tsutomu's family, his father is
ill.) What the copula da means may be understood from the linguistic
con- text, as in (1) - (5), or from the extra-linguistic context, as in (6).
(6) [In an order situation at a restaurant]

?t

t:.o Boku WB unagi dB. (Lit. I am an eel. (= I'll have eel/I'd like eeL»

2. In "A wa B da ", B may be a noun phrase, as in KS(A) or a noun

phrase with a particle, as in KS(B). General rules about particle el-
lipsis and retention in this construction follow: (A) Ga, 0, e and ni
(time (= nil), location (= ni 6 » must drop. (See (1) - (6). ) (B) Ni
(indirect object (=ni 2 ), agent (=ni 3 ), direct contact (=ni 4 » and de
(location (=de l ), means (=de 2 » may drop. Examples: (7) A: 1'Ui -7

,= t::..

Iv t!.o Boku wa Ken ni tanonda. (I asked Ken.)

= w -= - - - - - -

524 - wa -da

B:
'

7'

T'.-( - 0=) f::o Boku WB And; (ni) dB. (I asked Andy.) (8) A:

,:t 7' .I

- "-C:Ml%iT -3 0 Boku wa apato de benkyosuru. (I study in my

apartment.)

-w=

B:

.tir(-c:) f::o Boku WB toshokan (de) dB. (I study at the library.) (c) De
(reason), to, kara and made usually do not drop. Examples: (9) A:

'i1jJi

-c:1*1v t.: o Boku wa byoki de yasunda. (I was absent because of

illness.) B :

t tJ

-c: / ??o f::o Boku WB kega de / ??o dB. (I was absent because I got
injured (lit. because of an injury).) (10) A: fL'i -
Hm

:t L t.: o Watashi wa Ichiro to odorimashita. (I danced with Ichiro.) B :

fL'

/ ??o -c: T 0 Watashi WB Nobuo to / ??o desu. (I danced with N

obuo.) 3. When the copula is used for a predicate, it usually appears
in the non- past tense regardless of the tense of the predicate, as in
(7) and (9). 4. In "A wa B da ", A wa may drop if it can be understood
from context, as seen in ( 11 ). (11) A:

t 'i fPJ

T tJ

0 Sore wa nan desu ka. (What is that?) B : C

:. tL'i)

T 0 (Kore wa) Jisho desu. (This is a dictionary.)

-wa -ga 525 -wa -ga -I -fJ'( str. r ti l ! controllable state of S.t. or 5.0.
to a topic -"",- """,-/ - . Key Sentences (1) Predicate I Topic (subjectl)
Subj ect 2 Predicate2 fL - 'i m tJ tJ -3 / tJ t) :t To Watashi wa eigo ga
wakaru / wakarimasu. (I understand English. (Lit. To me, English is
understandable.» :tE=f 'i tJ tL 't.: / tL '-C: To Hanako wa me ga
kireida / kireidesu. (Hanako has pretty eyes. (Lit. Speaking of
Hanako, her eyes are pretty.)) . 'i rj:s:.7A - tJ , , / ' '-C:To Jisho wa
Webusuta ga ii / iidesu. . . (Talking about dictionaries, Webster's is
good.) (2) (3) Examples (a) t::.. tJ\ L 'i 7-.::. A tJ l: t.: 0 Takashi wa
tenisu ga jozuda. (Takashi is good at tennis.) (b) fL'i -.{ 7 v f' tJ '1 '- 'o
Watashi wa boifurendo ga hoshii. (I want a boyfriend.) (c) 'j: 7 ':I " -
lvtJ f t.:o B oku wa fu ttoboru ga sukida. (I like football.) (d) Hi.tJ 'o Zo
wa hana ga nagai. (Elephants have long trunks.) T

526 -wa -ga

(e) fL'i to tel tJ\ tJ;-t

\ t::.. o Watashi wa onaka ga suita. (I am hungry.) (I)

'7 -

Iv 'i:W tJ;

\o Mira-san wa se ga takai. (Mr. Miller is tall.) (g) J3 *'i A 7" -:\=- tJ;

\o Nihon wa suteki ga takai. (Steak is expensi ve in Japan.) (h) tfiUi

J3 *#4tJ;

tL

\ t::. o U mi wa Nihonkai ga kireida. (Talking about the sea, the Japan

Sea is clean.) (i) J3*q)Jf

'j: c.

tJ;%t
\-c:-ttJ\o Nihon no yakyu wa doko ga tsuyoidesu ka. (Talking about
baseball in Japan, who is strong?)

em 1. U A wa B ga C " is one of the basic constructions in Japanese.

I n this construction, C usually expresses something about Band U B
ga C" expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).

(1)

o1

wa

o ga f

@] T

==-=- 'w=
2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three
classes: (A) A is human, and" B ga C " expresses A's physical and /
or mental state, for example, ability or desire, as in KS (1), Exs. (a),
(b) and (c). (B) B is part of A, and C expresses something about B,
which, in turn, expresses something about A, as in KS (2), Exs. (d),
(e), (f) and (g). (0) B is a member of A, and C expresses something
about B, as in KS (3), Exs. (h) and (i). 3. Listed below are the verbs
and adjectives which usually require the "A wa B ga C" construction.
(Sentences with these verbs and adjec- tives belong to Class (A) in
Note 2.)

-wa -ga 527

(2) Ability: 7ttJ\ -3 (be understandable; understand) wakaru

m*-3 (can be done; can do) dekiru

G tL -3 (can) rareru 2

j!x.-3 (be visible) mieru

f)f)

X. -3 (be audible) kikoeru

l:

t.: (good at) jozuda

:f:t.: (proudly good at) tokuida

(3) Desire / Need: '1 L

' (desirable; want) hoshii '" -3 (be necessary; need) iru 3

(4) Fondness: Jf

t.: (be liked; like) sukida

(5) Emotion: Ii -r tJ\ L '" (embarrassing) hazukashii

,:. < G '- '" (hateful) nikurashii

b '" (fearful) kowai

<

' (vexing) kuyashii

r

t.: (poor at) hetada *

t.: (ashamedly poor at) nigateda (t:) kikaeTu; mieTu; TSTeTu 2 )

t:.. ", (want to) tai

t.: (necessary) hitsuyoda

(t:) hash;;l; iTU 3 ; tsi)

G ", t.: (be disliked; dislike) kiraida

(t:) kiTSids; sukids)

tet. ':) tJ

L '" (nostalgic) natsukashii to i-

' (dreadful) osoroshii

?G

:t L

' (enviable) urayamashii

= w - - - - - - - ;; i

528 - wa i kenai -wa ikenai -1 L"j L' phr. ) a phrase which indicates
prohibi- tion "A." " cannot do s.t. ; must not do s.t. ; Don't do s.t. ;
should not do s.t. [REI.I. - wa naranai] . Key Sentence Vte i-Bm ,:. A?
-c 'i \ t t \ / \ t :t -tt Ivo Kono heya ni haitte wa ikenai / ikemasen. (Y ou
must not enter this room.) Formation V te 'i \ t t \ wa ikenai ai5 '- -C 'i
\ t t \ (must not talk) hanashite wa ikenai 1t -C Ii \ ,t t \ (must not eat)
tabete wa ikenai Example-s (a) -c: b a: 1t -C 'i \ t:t -tt Ivo Kyoshitsu
de mono 0 tabete wa ikemasen. (Y ou must not eat (food) in the
classroom.) (b) :tE.:r 'i :t t.: a: Iv -c: 'i \ t t \o Hanako wa mada sake 0
nonde wa ikenai. (Hanako must / can not drink alcohol yet.) em 1. In
V te wa ikenai, the second person subject IS usually omitted, as in
KS and Ex. (a). -w= 2. V te wa ikenai is often used as a negative
answer to "V te mo iidesu ka. (May I - ?)." (t:) ,.", te mo ii) [Related
Expression] V te wa naranai also expresses prohibition. V te wa
naranai, however, sounds a little stronger than V te wa ikenai.

wakaru 529 wakaru fJ\Q v. (Gr. 1) ) can figure out (spontaneously)

vari- 5 ous facts-such as content, nature, value, meaning, cause,
reason, result -about s.t. whose existence is pre- supposed ( ( ,, . ...
be comprehensible; understand; can tell; figure out [RE L. shiru] .
Key Sentence Topic (experiencer) Object of Comprehension : fL 0:.)
'i ::. -g tJ 7ttJ\ G t,t \ / 7ttJ\ !J :t -it Iv 0 Watashi (ni) wa kono kotoba ga
wakaranai / wakarimasen. . (Lit. To me this word IS not
comprehensible. (= I don't understand this word.» Examples (a) fL':' 'i
::. 001 :f: tJ 7ttJ\ G t,t \o Watashi ni wa kono eiga no imi ga
wakaranai. (I don't understand the meaning of this movie.) (b) ::. r
JlHijl L < -C 7ttJ\ G t,t \o Kono mondai wa muzukashikute wakaranai.
(This problem is too difficult to understand.) (c) dJ L t::.. :t -c: ,:. ::.
ft.tJ;m*-3 tJ\ c ? tJ\7ttJ\ !J :t -it Iv o Ashita made ni kono shigoto ga
dekiru ka do ka wakarimasen. (I can't tell if I can finish this work by
tomorrow.) (d) A: fE Iv a: -:J -C \:t TtJ o Tanaka-san 0 shitte imasu
ka. (Do you know Mr. Tanaka?) B : x.x., -:J-C \:tTtJ;, dJ A'i C? b.t <
:$ttJ\!J :t-itlv o E, shiue imasu ga, ana hito wa domo yoku
wakarimasen. (Yes, f know him, but he is somehow
incomprehensible to me.) em 1. The basic pattern for this verb is the
- wa - ga pattern. (t:),.., wa ,.., ga) The experiencer of wakaru takes
ni optionally, as in KS. = w =- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

530 wakaru

2. Because wakaru is already a potential verb, it cannot take the

potential form *wakareru 'can understand'.

3. Wakaru normally takes ga to indicate the object of

comprehension, but must take 0 when' non-spontaneous
comprehension' is involved, as in causative sentences «1a» or
sentences in which the experiencer makes a conscious effort to
understand something «1 b». (1) a. U(1)JE

/ *iJ(/J

'-=f

':.7ttJ\ G"it-3 (1)'iji L

'o Oya no shi 0 / *ga chisai kodomo ni wakaraseru no wa
muzukashii. (It is hard to make a small child comprehend the death
of a parent.) b. .y .y ':I

tl: 9

. (1) 3f.\

tj

/ *1J<7J-tJ\ 7j ? C '- t

l- '0 Jakku wa Rinda no kimochi 0 / *ga wakaro to shinai. (J ack does

not try to understand Linda's feeling.)

[Related Expression] Wakaru indicates 'the process of figuring

something out' and is different from shiru which basically means 'to
get some raw information from some outside source'. The primary
difference between the two verbs is illustrated in the following
sentences:

[1] ti:Ji':.fJa

'-C*lf(1)

C1)
c

? -c L't.: / *tJ(

tJ\? -c L't.:o Tomodachi ni kiite ano no kekkon no koto 0 shitte ita /

*ga wakatte ita. (I knew about Ono's marriage by hearing it from a
friend.) [2] .t <

;ttL

tJ\ I.) *"t / *

I.) *"t J: 0 Yoku kangaereba wakaTimasu / *shiTimasu yo. (If you

think hard, you'll understand / *know it.) [3] A:

, < G tJ\)ttJ\ !J :t -;-tJ\o Ikura ka wakarimasu ka. (Can you tell how
much it is?) B : 'i

', W&J"-:

lAf

tJ\ I.) *"t / *

I.) *"t 0 Hai, shirabereba wakaTimasu / *shiTimasu. (Yes, I can tell /

*know it, if I check into it.) [4] A:

P.$f!{iiJ

-;--3'.) b !J ""C:-;-tJ\o Konban nani 0 suru tsumori desu ka. (What do

you intend to do tonight?)
wakaru / wake da 531 B : :t t.: tJ\ I.) *1t N / * I.) *1tN o Mada
wakaTimasen / *shiTimasen. (I don't know yet.) wake da tJ Ij t=. phr. '
' ""'J \ the speaker's conclusion obtained through deductive, logical
judgment < ( or calculation on the basis of what ( he has heard or
read ( ..... ) J "- no wonder; so it means that - ; that's why; should -; I
take it that -; naturall y [REL. hazu da] . Key Sentences (A) Sentence
I a .=: rfl' b a *Zlf a: %tL-C '" -3 Iv -c: -r '/)'0 Mainichi sanjikan mo
nihongo 0 benkyoshite iru n desu ka. Sentence2 Vinf .t< W*.Q *:> ,t -
c: -r JJ.o Yoku dekiTu wake desu nee (Are you studying Japanese
(as long as) three hours every day? No wonder your Japanese is
good.) (B) Sentence I Sentence2 Adj (i) inf dJ Lt::.. -c:-r tJ\o 1.: dJ 4'-
P.$f! ttLL' bIt -c: -r tJ. o Ashita shiken desu ka. Ja konban isogashii
wake desu nee (Do you have an exam tomorrow? Then, you must
be busy tonight.) = w =- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

532 wake da

Formation

( i) {V / Adj} (i) inf bIt t!. wake da {

T/

'- t::} bIt t!. (I take it that s.o. talks / talked) {hanasu / hanashita} wake
da {it"'.'5 / it'" t::..} bIt t!. (I take it that s.o. eats / ate) {taberu / tabeta}
wake da {jiji'" / jijitJ

-:J t::..} bIt t!. (I take it that s.t. is / was expensive) {takai / takakatta}
wake da ( ii) Adj (na) stem {t

/ t!. -:J t::} bIt t!. {na / datta} wake da {r;tJ

/ r;tJ
t!. -:J t::..} bIt t!. (I take it that s.t. is / was quiet) {shizukana /
shizukadatta} wake da (iii) N {

"'? / t:. -:J t::} bIt t!. {to iu / datta} wake da {9G!:E

"'? / 9G!:E t!. -:J t::} bIt t!. {sensei to iu / sensei datta} wake da

(I take it that s.o. is / was a teacher)

Examples

(a) A

Iv'j:+

' t 7-.::: A

L t::

t!.tJ

l::=pt

b It t!.o Sumisu-san wa junenkan mo tenisu 0 shita no da kara

jozuna wake da. (Mr. Smith has played tennis for ten years, so he
should be good at it.)
(b) A: *,ijtJ

lmtJ

,ij77

A':.ff

:tTo Raigetsu kara yonkagetsu Furansu ni ikimasu. (I'll go to France

next month and stay there for four months.) B : T.'5

,ij

:'

-:J"'( < .'5 blt\:Th o Suru to. rokugatsu ni kaette kuru wake desu nee
(Then, I take it that you're returning here in June.)

-w=

(c)

a :1'- JV\:l7J<"'\: "'.'5 Iv\:TtJ

o :t:kt

b It \:Tb o Mainichi puru de oyoide iru n desu ka. Jobuna wake desu
nee (Are you swimming in the pool everyday? No wonder you're
healthy.)
(d)

? 'j:=:

' LtJ

"'("'t

,,,o i

:JJ!\:D&"'blt t:. o Kino wa sanjikan shika nete inai. Dori de nemui

wake da. (Yesterday I slept only three hours. No wonder I am
sleepy.)

wake da 533

(e) ;t -:J? JE

Iv tJ; A

L t::..lv"t"' T tJ

o/

-9" .{ - ,:.*t
tJ

-:J t::.. bIt t.: o E? Adachi-san ga nytJinshita n desu ka. Pat; ni

konakatta wake da. (What? Was Mr. Adachi hospitalized? No
wonder he didn't come to the party.) (I) A: JIHE

/v'i

ftGl)

'i{ij"t"' t

-:J -rl.-' :l To Yamada-san wa eigo no koto wa nan demo shitte imasu.

(Mr. Yamada knows everything about English.) B :

*gl

l.-' ? ;blt "t"'Tt.J\o Iki jibiki to iu wake desu ka. (You mean he is a
living dictionary?) (g) JeV)

tJ

7t t.J\

l.-';b It"t"' 'i t

l.-' t,)
,

? L -r t l*

'

IJ t::. < t

l.-'o Chichi no iu koto ga wakaranai wake de wa nai ga. d6shitemo

isha ni naritakunai. (It is not that 1 don't understand what my father is
saying; 1 simply don't want to become a medical doctor.)

BID 1. Wake can be used as a full noun, meaning' reason' as in (1)

and (2) below: (1)

tl:

t::..

Tt,)

"->b It

aatJ

-tt-r < t.:

l.-'o Kaisha 0 yameta s6desu ga. sono wake 0 kikasete kudasai. (I

heard that you quit the company. Let me hear the reason for that.)
(2)

;: ':.*t::..b It 'iiJ;t :t -tt /vo Koko ni kita wake wa iemasen. (I can't tell
you the reason why 1 came here.) 2. Wake de is the te-form of wake
da. (3) jafa:

Iv

=At!lt"t"'TtJ

? l.-'? blt1:

m*t

l.-'Iv"t"'Tt,)

o Q-ka-san to futari dake desu ka. S6 iu wake de kekkon deki- nai n

desu ka. (It's only you and your mother? For that reason you can't
get married, eh?)

[Related Expression] Hazu da 'expect' is similar but not identical to

wake da. Hazu da can ex- press a speaker's expectation when there
is no preceding context; wake da cannot. In other words, wake da is
highly dependent on verbal context. (t:) hazu da)

= W ....... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

534 wake da
[1] a. cb Lt::..'j:

tJ

\,;t-r / *blt"'f-r.to Ashita wa jugy6 ga nai hazu / *wake desu yo. (I

expect that there is no class tomorrow.) b. cbQ)A'j::t=

\';t-r / *blt"'f-r.to Ano hito wa wakai hazu / *wake desu yo. (I expect
him to be young.)

-w=------------------------

-ya 535 .ya 1M suf. I "-""' ;"'\"," "' '" a suffix attached to names of
stores, store inns and J apanese-styl.e resta rants > or to persons
engaged In certain oc- cupations j Examples (a) -mIi (fl oris t) hana-
ya *Ii (bookstore) hon- ya Ii (drug store) ku suri - ya Ii (butcher) niku-
ya .I 7- ::7 Ii (pinball parlor) pachinko-ya .I Ii (bakery) pan- ya Ii (fish
monger) sakana - ya Ii (liquor store) saka-ya (b) Ii Iv ,:. 'I: 15 L "'( 1:'"
- Iv =: I? - A -:J "'( *"'( b -:J t:. 0 Saka-ya-san ni denwashite biru 0
sandasu motte kite moratta. (I called the man at the liquor store and
had him bring me three dozen beers.) (c) cb"->A'J:{tia*"'f'J:t <
"'({ttaIit.: o Ano hi to wa seijika de wa nakute seiji-ya da. (He is not a
statesman but a mere politician.) aD The suffix - ya IS sometimes
used to downgrade a person. This use, how- ever, is very restricted.
Examples follow: = y = == !!!!::! - - -=- !!!!::! - - -- !!!!!!!!! - - - -
536 -ya / ya (1) 'i-rtJ L tJ !J Ai (a shy person) hazukashigari - ya "i !J
m (a haughty person) ibari-ya J& !J Ai (an affected person) kidori -
ya Note that these examples are all derived from V masu+ va, as in
hazukashigari + ya, ibari + va and kidori + va. ya conj. > a coordinate
conjunction that is l to list two or more items (nouns or I noun
phrases) in an inexhaustive ! fashion ( ,.! and [REL. to l ; toka] . Key
Sentence Subject Noun Noun EB A, IJ\JII A, tJ *t::.. / *:t Lt::.. o
Yamada-san ya Ogawa-san ga kita / kimashita. (Mr. Yamada and Mr.
Ogawa (and others) came.) Examples (a) JlJ* Iv A A IvtJ 7::::' A L"'C
'Qo Yamamoto-san ya Sumisu-san ga tenisu 0 shite iru. (Mr.
Yamamoto, Mr. Smith and others are playing tennis.) = y = - = == (b)
m'i }:.- Jv ? lXlvt!.o Boku wa biru ya wain 0 nonda. (I drank beer,
wine and things like that.) (c) :l:fB lv'i*JII Iv * Iv :. . ,t::..o Tsuchida-san
wa Okawa-san ya Suzuki-san ni tegami 0 kaita.

ya 537

(Mr. Tsuchida wrote a letter to Mr. Okawa and Mr. Suzuki (and
others).)

em

1. Ya is used to combine two or more nouns or noun phrases. It

cannot be used to combine predicates. Thus, (1) is unacceptable. (1)
*

? 'i T .I

- ,.. ':.ff

:t L t::..
00i

J!:t '- t::.. o *Kino wa depato ni ikimashita va eiga 0 mimashita.

(Yesterday I did things like going to a department store and seeing a
movie.)

Instead of (1) we have to use - tari - haustive listing of predicates, as

in (2).

tari suru to express an Inex- (t:),.", taTi ,.", taTi SUTU)

(2)

? 'i T.I

- ,.. ,:.ff -:J t=. 1,)

00i

J!t=. 1,) l., * l., t=.o Kino wa depato ni ittaTi eiga 0 mitaTi shimashita.
2. N ya N can be used as a noun phrase in any position where a
single noun can be used. It can be used as the subject, as in KS and
Ex. (a), or as the direct object as in Ex. (b), or as the indirect object
as in Ex. (c). 3. N ya N cannot appear in the position of X in the X ga
Y da construc- tion, because ga in X ga Y da is a highly exhaustive
listing marker. (t:) gal)
(3) *.y x -

':I

x JvfJ(

!:E"'f-r 0 *Jen va Missheru ga gakusei desu. (*J ane and Michelle

and only they (and others) are students.) This idea can be conveyed
using the construction in (4): (4)

!:E'i.y x -

':I

x Jv"'f-r 0 Gakusei wa Jen va Missheru desu. (The students are Jane

or Michelle (and others).)

[Related Expression] Toka is used to make a rather general,

inexhaustive listing of items as ex- amples, whereas ya is used to
make an inexhaustive listing of items related to a specific time and
place. Consider the following exampl

s: [1] a. A: A

Iv 'i{11J;t 'i

Ivt

a*1ttJ

!if
"'f-rtJ

o Sumisu-san wa tatoeba donna nihonshoku ga sukidesu ka. (Mr.

Smith, what kind of Japanese cuisine do you like? Give me some
examples.)

= y = = a=o - - - -

538 ya / yahari B : ? Tno -C Iv;;' t:J t. fJ\ / ? T t. fJ\ / ? JPIJ!t Tno So

desu nee Tenpura toka / ?va sukiyaki toka / ?va sashimi desu ne.
(Well, I'd say tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).) b. A: Q)?
}!m {PJ it :t'-t::..tJ o Kino ryori-ya de nani 0 tabemashita ka. (What
did you eat at the Japanese restaurant?) B : -C Iv;;' t:J / ??? t. fJ\ T /
??? t. fJ\ JPIJ!t it :t L t 0 T enpura va / ??? toka sukiyaki va / ???
toka sashimi 0 tabe- mashita. (I ate tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi
(and others).) yahari f;;t!) adv. ).......,. i } an adverb indicating that an
actual situation expectedly / anticipatively S conforms to a standard
based on past ) i ! experience, comparison with other ! < people, or
common sense ( ( , "' """"-"""-"..../ still; also; after all; as expected;
you know [REL. kekkyoku; sasuga (ni)] (ANT. masaka) . Key
Sentence Topic (subje,ct) "",-( !J - Iv ,t ,t * t.t, tJ -:J t::.. / *:t -it Iv L t no
Beiri -san wa yahari konakatta / kimasendeshita ne. . (As expected,
Mr. Bailey hasn't come, has he?) . Examples ii y s ! ; ====- (a) -r
lv't4- t ,t!J tL ' To Yukiko-san wa ima demo yahari kireidesu. (Yukiko
is still pretty.) (b) jo£ Iv 'i 7";::' A tJ l: TtJ , m Iv t -:J '1 !J l::=P T J: 0 Q-
ni-san wa tenisu ga jozudesu ga, ototo-san mo yappari jozudesu yo.

yahari 539

(The older brother is good at tennis, and the younger brother is also
good at it.) (c)
'"1 !J f3 *Q) 1::" -/v'j: to

,L

'"'f T

Jo Yahari Nihon no biru wa oishiidesu nee (As expected, Japanese

beer is good.)

(d)

'j:

'j:!J

TQ

,:. L :t L t=.o Boku wa yahari kekkonsuru koto ni shimashita. (I've

decided to get married, after all.)

em 1. Yahari is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use is based

on the speaker's subjective and presuppositional standards. Its
overuse in con- versation makes a discourse overly subjective, but
its proper use in conversation makes a discourse sound like real
Japanese. 2. Yahari can be positioned sentence-initially or sentence-
medially, just like other adverbs. Thus, in KS yahari can be
positioned in two ways. (1) a.

,;t I.)

.{
-

Iv 'j:*t

tJ

-:J t::..b o YahaTi Beiri-san wa konakatta nee

b.

.(

Iv ,:1

,;t 1,) *t

tJ

-:J t::.tJ o Beiri-san wa yahaTi konakatta nee e. ?

.(

Iv 'j:*t

t.P -:J t::..

J,

,;t 1,) 0 ? Beiri-san wa konakatta ne. yahaTi. The sentence-initial

yahari is more emphatic than the sentence-medial yahari. The
sentence-final yahari as in (lc) sounds like an after-thought, and its
usage is slightly marginal. 3. Yappari is a more emphatic and
emotive version of yahari, owing to its glottal stop -pp-. (t:)
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)

[Related Expressions] I. Sasuga is an adverb / adj (na) whose

meaning is similar to yahari. Sa- suga, however, has only one
meaning' as expected' and indicates that the speaker is very much
impressed or surprised by the given situation.

[1] a.

T fJ( <1=) f3 *A 'j: J: < 1tJJ < 0 Sasuga(ni) nihonjin wa yoku

hataraku. (1

ruly Japanese people work hard!)

= y = = -=- - -

-=- == -=-

540 yahari

b.

TfJ( 0=) 7 j !J 11 'j:

,,'o Sasuga(ni) Amerika wa hiroi. (Exactly as I expected, America is

huge.) Sasuga(ni) can replace yahari only when yahari means ' as
expected', as in KS and Ex. (c). I I. The adverb kekkyoku 'after all, in
short' can replace yahari only when the latter means 'after all', as in
Ex. (d). More examples follow: [2] a.

Iv t.: tJ;

,;t 1,) / 's

ta

tJ

-:J t=.o /roiro kusuri 0 nonda ga yahaTi / kekkyoku naoranakatta. (I

took all kinds of medicine, but I wasn't cured.) b.

,;t 1,) / 's

fftJ

'"

,:. L t.: o YahaTi / K ekkyoku ikanai koto ni shita. (After all, I decided
not to go there.) In [2] kekkyoku sounds more formal than yahari,
because the former is a Sino-Japanese word, while the latter is a
Japanese word. Yet both can be used in conversational Japanese. I I
I. The adverb masaka 'by no means,. on no account, surely not' is
used when a given situation is far from the speaker's expectation. In
that sense, it is an antonym of yahari. Masaka is used with a
negative pred- icate or is used all by itself, meaning' Unbelievable !,
You don't say!'. [3J a. *
fJ\/J'JIl

Iv tJ

;t!:E':' t

'il

,b t

tJ

-:J t=.o Masaka Ogawa-san ga sensei ni naru to wa omowanakatta.

(I never expected Mr. Ogawa to become a teacher.) b. A: "A tJ; A
IS1E L t::..

? t.: 0 Tomu ga nytJinshita soda. (I heard that Tom was hospitalized.)

B:*

fJ\!

Q) ? ::;- ::::. A a: L"'('" t

J: 0 Masakal Kino tenisu 0 shite ita yo. (You don't say! He was
playing tennis yesterday.)

= y = =- =

--

==
- yasul 541 .yasui 9L \ aux. adj. (i) :"...................-.....".................... ')
S.t. or s.o. is easy to -. , ..... ..r.../"'" easy to; ready to; be apt to; prone
to; do s.t. easily (ANT. -nikul) . Key Sentence Topic (subject) V masu
Q) * 'J: jt;t T \ / T \"'fTo - Kono kanji wa oboe yasui I yasuidesu. .
(This kanji is easy to memorize.) Formation Vmasu T \ yasui t L T \
(easy to speak) hanashi yasui it'" T \ (easy to eat) tabe yasui
Examples (a) 'bJQ)AQ)? i?,:tJ!':>Jt T \o Ano hieo no uchi wa
mitsukeyasui. (His house is easy to find.) (b) {tr:h};ta!:E 'i t L T \ "'f T
0 Sato-sensei wa hanashiyasuidesu. (Prof. Sato is easy to talk to.)
(c) Q) 'i. T \o Kono pen wa kakiyasui. (This pen is easy to write with.)
(d) l:mf 1v':t-fri':.tt*tJ L TtJ\-:J t::.. o Veno-san wa isshoni shigoto ga
shiyasukatta. (Mr. Ueno was easy to work with.) (e) .fi 'J:.!J T \o Tofu
wa kusariyasui. (Tofu rots easily.) y i -=- !

542 -yasui

em 1. V masu yasui is an i-type compound adjective and conjugates

as an Adj (i), as seen in the following:

Informal Form al N onpast

T""

T"""'t:T hanashiyasui hanashiyasuidesu Aff. Past

TtJ

-:J t::..
L

TtJ\ -:J t::.."'t:T hanashiyasukatta hanashiyasukattadesu Nonpast

T < tt""

t '-

T < tt """'t:T hanashiyasukunai hanashiyasukunaidesu

t '-

T < cb !J * it Iv Neg. hanashiyasukuarirnasen Past

'-

T < tt tJ\ -:J t::..

'-

T < tt tJ \ -:J t::.. "'t: T hanashiyasukunakatta hanashiyasu kunaka

ttadesu

'-

T < cb !J * it Iv"'t: '- t::.. hanashiyasukuarirnasendeshita

2. The following sentences (1) - (4) are closely related to Exs. (a) -
(d). (1) cb

? i?

J!--:>
t Q 0 (Cp. Ex. (a» Ano hito no uchi 0 mitsukeru. (One locates his
house.)

(2)

Ki96!:EI=

T 0 (Cp. Ex. (b» Sato-sensei ni hanasu. (One talks to Prof. Sato.)

(3) :.

1!. < 0 Kono pen de kaku. (One writes with this pen.)

(Cp. Ex. (c»

VI ==-

(4) l:lf

Iv

I:.tt=$=

'- t::.. o (Cp. Ex. (d» Veno-san to isshoni shigoto 0 shita. (One
worked together with Mr. Ueno.) The noun phrases in (1) through (4)
above, such as the direct object - 0, the indirect object - ni, the
instrumental phrase - de, and the com- itative phrase - to are the
sources for the topic (subject) of Exs. (a),

-yasui / yo 543 (b), (c) and (d), respectively. It is important to note

that all these particles drop in the yasui-construction, and that the
topic is the new subject of the yasui-construction. 3. If the subject of
the yasui-construction is under focus, it is marked by ga, as in (5).
(t:) gal) (5) A: q)96!:E1J( '- T \"'t:TtJ o Dono sensei ga
hanashiyasuidesu ka. (Which professor is easy to talk to?) B :
Ki96!:E1J( '- T \"'t:T 0 Sato-sensei ga hanashiyasuidesu. (Prof. Sato
is easy to talk to.) 4. The antonym of -yasui is -nikui 'hard to -', and is
used in exactly the same way as -yasui. (t:) nikui) yo J: prt. '
/'/"'..r..../'./"./"" ' a sentence-final particle that indi- S cates the
speaker's (fairly) strong con- S viction or assertion about s.t. that is 5
assumed to be known only to him ) /'v" I tell you; I'm telling you; you
know; contrary to what you think . Key Sentence Sentence * Iv 'i t::...f
btl \ / \*-ttlv .1:0 Sakamoto-san wa tabako 0 suwana; / suimasen yo.
(Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, you know.) Examples (a) A: J3 *m.ijO
b '- 0 \"'t:TtJ o Nihongo wa omoshiroidesu ka. (Is Japanese
interesting?) = y = = - - - 5! =

544 yo B : it it, C!::"'( t jo t L 0

-t J:: 0 E, totemo omoshiroidesu yo. (Yes, it's very interesting, I tell

you.)

(b) A: cbq)A'i

lvtl*

Rbtl
\

L.1: ?o Ano hito wa sonna hon 0 kawanai desho. (He probably won't
buy that sort of book.)

B:

\it, A

\* -t J:: o ie, kaimasu yo. (Yes, he'll buy it (contrary to what you
think).)

emt

1. In this construction, the sentence preceding yo can be any

informal or formal sentence except a question.

(1)a.*

U 1J' J:: 0 *Yomu ka yo. b. *

Jj. * -t1J' J:: 0 *Yomimasu ka yo.

=y=!

;
The sentences in (1) are unacceptable because the speaker's strong
con- viction and his act of questioning contradict each other. If (1a) is
in- terpreted as a rhetorical question meaning' I bet he isn't going to
read it', however, the sentence becomes acceptable. But (1b), the
formal version of (1 a), cannot be a rhetorical question. 2. A
sentence preceding yo can be an informal or a formal request. Ex-
amples : (2) a. Mf

J:o Yome yo. (Read it.) b.

Jj.tl

\J:o Y ominasai yo. «From a superior to his inferior) Read it.) c . Me

Iv

< t=.

\ J: 0 Y onde kudasa; yo. (Please read it.)

When yo is used in this way, the sentence becomes more forceful.

yo 545

3. Another sentence-final particle ne may be attached to S yo,

yielding the meaning' I assert S and don't you agree?'. S yo ne is
used when the speaker wishes to mitigate the force of his assertion
by talking as if the content of S were also known to the hearer. (t:)
ne, Note 5) Examples: (3) a.

q)*'i to t '- 0

\"'t:T J: no Kono hon wa omoshiroi desu yo nee (This book is

interesting, right?) b. 7;)!J 11 * "'t:+

rtt' 'i tJ

tJ

!J * T J: no Amerika made jujikan wa kakarimasu yo nee (It takes at

least 10 hours to get to America, right?) S yo ne can also be used
when the speaker is addressing someone who doesn't know about
an asserted fact and there is another person nearby who is aware of
it. In such circumstances, the speaker asks the person who shares
the asserted fact for his agreement at the end of the sentence. (4)
[The speaker is talking with someone about Mr. Kato, who is
standing nearby.] l.mKi

Iv'i 1:7

7mtJ;m* * T J:, n? Kata-san wa roshiago ga dekimasu yo, ne? (Mr.

Kato can speak Russian... Can't you, Mr. Kato?) 4. In nonpolite,
informal speech (i.e., intimate speech) sex differences are expressed
by a combination of yo and the female speech markers wa and no.
(t:) wa 2 ; no 4 ; Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 7. Sentence-
final Particles) The following chart illustrates the use of yo in informal
male and female speech.

Male Speech Female Speech Vinf+yo Vinf+ wa+yo Exs. :IST J:o (I'll
talk, you know.)

T i:J J:o Hanasu yo. Hanasu wa yo. :15 '- t::.. J:o (I talked, you
know.) :
'- t::.. b J:o Hanashita yo. Hanashita wa yo. Adj (i) + yo Adj (i) + wa+
yo Exs. iWi

\ J: o (It's expensive, you know.)

\ b J:o Taka; yo. Taka; wa yo. iWi tJ

-:J t::.. J:o (It was expensive, you know.)

tJ

-:J t::.. b J:o Takakatta yo. Takakatta wa yo.

---

--------

546 yo

Male Speech

{Adj stem (na) / N} Ida / datta} yo

Exs. f{fttJ

t!. J::o (It's quiet, you know.) Shizukada yo. 1ffttJ

t!. -:J t::.. J::o (It was quiet, you know.) Shizukadatta yo. 96!:E t!. J:: o
(He's a teacher, you know.) Sense; da yo.

96!:E t!. -:J t::.. Sensei da tta

J::o (He was a teacher, you yo. know.)

n da (yo) Exs.

T Iv t!. (J::)o (I'll talk, you know.) Hanasu n da (yo).

Female Speech

{Adj (na) stem / N} Ida / datta} wa yo 1fft tJ

(t!. b) J:: 0 Sh;zuka (da wa) yo. 1fft tJ

t!. -:J t::.. b J:: 0 Shizukadatta wa yo. 96!:E ( t!. b) J:: 0 Sense; (da
wa) yo. 96!:E t!. -:J t::.. b J:: 0 Sense; datta wa yo.

no (yo)

IST
(J::)o Hanasu no (yo).

'-t::.. Iv t!. (J::)o (I talked, you know.)

'-t::..

(J::)o Hanashita n da (yo). Hanashita no (yo).

\ Iv t!. (J::)o (It's expensive, you know.) rRi

(J::)o Takai n da (yo). Taka; no (yo).

tJ

-:J t:. Iv t!. (J:)o Takakatta n da (yo).

(It was expensive, you know.)

11i IJ \ -'J t:. (/) (J: )0 Takakatta no (yo).

ffttJ

tl Iv t!. (J::)o (It's quiet, you know.) fjttJ

t
(J::)o Sh;zukana n da (yo). Shizukana no (yo). 1ffttJ

t!.-:Jt::.. Iv t!. (J::)o (It was quiet, you 1ffttJ

t!.-:Jt::..

(J::)o Shizukadatta n da (yo). know.) Sh;zukadatta no (yo).

96!:E t

Iv t!. (J::)o (He's a teacher, you Sense; na n da (yo). know.)

96!:E t

(J::)o Sensei na no (yo).

96!:E t!.-:Jt::.. Iv t!. (J::)o (He was a teacher, 96!:E t!.-:Jt::..

(J::)o Sensei datta n da (yo). you know.) Sense; datta no (yo).

s. Ne, the Japanese tag guestion marker, is another frequently used

sentence- final particle. (t:) ne) Yo should not be confused with nee
In contrast to yo, ne is used when the speaker and the hearer share
some specific information. For example, if the speaker is looking at a
delicious-looking piece of cake with his friend, he would say (Sb)
instead of (Sa).
:ai y

= ==-=-=-

yo / y6da 547 (5) a. *jO \'-.:t?1."'TJ::o *Oishisodesu yo. (Looks

delicious, I tell you.) b. jO \'-.:t?1."'Tno Oishisodesu nee (Looks
delicious, doesn't it?) On the other hand, if he is eating some
delicious cake which his friend has not tasted, he would say (6a)
rather than (6b). (6) a. jO \L \1."'TJ::o Oishiidesu yo. (It's good, I tell
you.) b. *jO \'- \1."'Tno *Oishiidesu nee (It's good, isn't it?) yoda J:?
tf.. aux. adj. (na) 1 /'.".... "-""""/"/' ./' '../'v......,.. an auxiliary na-type
adjective which expresses the likelihood of s.t. / s.o. or the likeness
of s.t. I s.o. to s.t. / s.o. look like; look as if; be like; appear; seem
[REL. daro; rashii; soda 1 ; -soda 2 ] ...../".. ./' -......,,'"'-""'"'-'......./"/' ...,
..: . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) {V / Adj (i)} inf f U-J Iv 'i 7;)1)'j]
'" ff< J:: ? t!. / J:: ? 1."' T 0 Sugiyama-san wa Amerika e iku yoda /
yodesu. (It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America.) y = i -
====-

548 yoda

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (na) stem l:fIJ

1v Lt '*
# IJ

tf

tet J:: ? t!.. / J:: ?

T 0 - Veda-san wa bokushingu ga suki na yoda / yodesu. (Mr. Ueda

appears to like boxing.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Noun 'bJ

A ,;t 83

]t

J:: ? t!. I J:: ?

T 0 Ano hito wa Tanaka-sensei no yoda I yodesu. . (That person

looks like Prof. Tanaka.)

(D)

A: B: Demonstrative

tt

Iv 'i t? +M- !J * '- t::.. 7J\0 'i "",

(J) J::?

To Ishii-san wa mo kaerimashita ka. Hai. sana yodesu. (Has Mr. Ishii

gone home already?) (Yes, it looks like it.)

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf J::? t!. yoda {

i- I

5 '- t.:} J:: ? t!. (It seems that s.o. (will) talk / talked.) {hanasu I
hanashita} yoda {rwJ"" I

1.J''''..J t.:} J::? t!. (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.) {takai I
takakatta} yoda ( ii) Adj (na) stem {tt / t!. -:J t::..} J::? t!. {na / datta}
y6da {r; 7J" t

/ 1fft IJ" t!.. -:J t::.. } J:: ? t!. {shizukana / shizukadatta} yoda

(It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)

YI =

(iii) N {

/ t!.. -:J t::..} J::? t!. {no / datta} yoda

yoda 549 {%1:

/ %!:E t.: -:J t::..} J::? t.: (It seems that s.o. is /was a teacher.) {sensei
no / sensei datta} yoda

(iv) Demonstrative

:c (j) J::? t!. sono yoda

J:: ? t!. yoda (It seems so.)

, Examples

(a) *f1"

Iv 'i

? :t3mi

Iv t.:. J:: ? t!.o Kimura-san wa kino o-sake 0 nonda y6da. (It seems
that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday.) (b) ;::

rp
I1Hi

!:E ,:. 'i

J: -:J c!: jI '- '" \ J:: ? t!. 0 Kono mondai wa gakusei ni wa choeto
muzukashii yoda. (This problem seems to be a little difficult for the
students.) (c) ;::;:: 'i 1r

BC t!. -:J t::.. J:: ? t!. 0 Koko wa mukashi gakko datta yoda. (It seems
that this place used to be a school.) (d) ;::

mi 'i7J<

J:: ? t.:. o Kono sake wa mizu no yoda. (This sake is like water.)

em

1. Yoda expresses the likelihood of s.t. I s.o., or the likeness of s.t. /

s.o. to s.t. / s.o. In either case, when the speaker uses y6da, his
statement is based on firsthand, reliable information (usually visual
information).

2. Yoda can be used in counter-factual situations, as in Ex. (d). In

this case, the adverb marude 'just' can be used for emphasis.

(1) *f1"

Iv ,;t * .Q -c:mi
Iv t!. J:: ? t!.o Kimura-san wa mSTude sake 0 nonda yoda. (Mr.
Kimura looks as if he had just drunk sake.)

(2)

A'i*.Q1! f3*A

J::? "'t:To Ano hieo wa mSTude nihonjin no yodesu. (That person is

just like a Japanese person.) 3. Yoda is a na-type adjective and has
the prenominal form yona and the adverbial form yoni. (t:) yonP')
Examples:

= y = = -== - -

-=

-=

550 yoda (3)

f3 fIJ qt

Ivq) J:? t

J! * '- t::.. o Kyo Tanaka-san no yons hito 0 mimashita. (I saw a man

who looked like Mr. Tanaka.) (4) A 3: A

Iv'i f3 *Aq) J:? I:: f3 *m

'- * To Sumisu-san wa nihonjin no yoni nihongo 0 hanashimasu. (Mr.
Smith speaks Japanese like a Japanese.) 4. The colloquial version
of yoda is mitaida, which is also a na-type adjec- tive. The uses of
mitaida are exactly the same as those for yoda. The formation rules
are as follows:

(5) {V / Adj (i)} inf J.j. t::.. '" t!. mitaida

(6) {Adj (na) stem / N} {o / t:. -:J t::..} J.j. t::.. ", t!.. o datta mitaida

y=-=

[Related Expressions] The conjecture expressions S daro, S rash,.,.

and S soda 2 convey ideas similar to S yoda. The differences are as
follows: (A) S daro expresses the speaker's conjecture, but it is not
necessarily based on any information. In other words, S daro can be
used when the speaker is merely guessing. (B) S rashii usually
expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what the speaker has
heard or read. That is, the information his conjecture is based on is
not firsthand. (c) S soda 2 expresses the speaker's conjecture about
what is going to hap- pen or the current state of someone or
something. Although this ex- pression is based on what the speaker
sees or feels, it is merely his guess and the degree of certainty in his
statement is fairly low. Only V masu or Adj (i / na) stem can precede
soda 2. (D) S yoda is also an expression which is usually based on
what the speaker sees or saw. However, unlike S soda 2 , this
expression involves the speaker's reasoning process based on
firsthand, reliable information and his knowledge. Thus, the degree
of certainty in yoda is the highest of the four expressions compared
here. The following examples demonstrate the differences among
these four ex- pressions. The sentences in [1] present examples with
the adjective takai , expensi ve' before the conjecture auxiliaries.

y6da 551

[1] a.

q)*'iif6

\ f:

? 0 Kana han wa taka; daTo. (This book is probably expensive.) b.

q) *.i if6

\; L L '0 Kana han wa takai Tashii. «From what I heard and I or read,)
this book seems expensive.)

c.

q)* 'irRi of ? f:o Kana han wa taka soda. (This book looks
expensive.) d.

q) * 'i if6

\ J: ? f= 0 Kana han wa taka; yoda. «Considering the prices of similar

books,) this book seems ex- pensive.) Here, [la] is mere conjecture.
[Ib] expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what he has heard
and I or read. (If the sentence involves little conjecture, it is almost
like hearsay. (t:) soda l » [Ic] is also the speaker's guess, but in this
case it is based on what he sees. [Id] expresses the speaker's
judgment about the price of the book. Note that in [ld] the speaker
knows the book's price; therefore, this is not a guess. [2] provides
examples with the noun sensei' teacher' preceding the conjecture
words. The differences in meaning among the sentences here are
the same as those explained in [1], except that [2c] is
ungrammatical.

[2] a. (b q) A 'i96!:Ef:

? 0 Ana hiea wa sensei daTO. (I guess he is a teacher.) b. (b q) A

'i96!:E; L L '0 Ana hiea wa sensei Tashii. «From what I heard,) he
seems to be a teacher.) c. * (b q) A 'i 96!:E of ? f= 0 * Ana hiea wa
sense; soda.

d. (b q) A 'i96!:E q) J: ? f=o Ana hiea wa sensei na yoda. «J udging

from how he looks,) he seems to be a teacher. / He looks as if he
were a teacher.) In [3], the verb furu ' fall' precedes the conjecture
auxiliaries.

y==-

!!!

552 y6da [3] a.

a 'imiJ
-'5 f:

? 0 Ky6 wa ame ga furu daTa. (I guess it will rain today.) b.

a 'i m iJ

-'5 i; l., L '0 Ky6 wa ame ga furu Tashii. «From what I heard,) it
seems that it will rain today.) c.

:. t miJ

!J -{-? f:o Imanimo ame ga furi soda. (It looks like it's going to rain at
any moment.)

d.

Q),2Hi J: < miJ

-'5 J:? f:o Kono hen wa yoku ame ga furu yoda. «J udging from the
abundance of trees and moss,) it appears that it rains a lot around
here.) Here, [3a] is the speaker's guess. [3b] is the speaker's
conjecture based on what he heard or it is almost like hearsay. [3c] is
also the speaker's guess, but, in this case, he is probably looking at
the sky. Like [3c], [3d] is based on what the speaker sees, but in this
case the information is reliable, and involves the speaker's reasoning
process. The diagram in [4] summarizes the characteristics of the
four conjecture ex- pressions and s6da 1 (hearsay).
[4]

s6da I (hearsay)

conjecture rashH

report

) ./

reasoning /

judgment

y6da

dar6

______u____________
= y = == = i

yoni 1 553 yonP J:? r=. conj. Do s.t. in such a way that -. /'v' > so
that . Key Sentences (A) Vinf. nonpast(potential) Q J: ? ,:. * tL "'\ ,:.
=- "'\-r < t!. "'\0 YomeTU yoni JI 0 kirei ni kaite kudasai. (Please write
neatly so that I can read it.) (B) Vinf. neg. nonpast ip -tf L'f.)\tl L \ J: ?
,:. '.) Jt -r '" \ / '" \ "* T 0 Kaze 0 hikanai yoni ki 0 tsukete iru / imasu.
(I'm taking care of myself so that I don't catch cold.) Formation Vinf.
nonpast {pot / neg} J:? ,:. yoni { -tt / let. "'\} J:? ,:. (SO that s.o. can
talk / does not talk) {hanaseru / hanasanai} yoni {1t tL / 1t /et."'\} J:?
,:. (so that s.o. can eat / does not eat) {taberareru / tabenai} yoni
Examples (a) iJ 7ttJ J: ? ,:. A A Iv';! -:J < !J iH j l, -r < tLt::.. o Boku ga
wakaru yoni Sumisu-san wa yukkuri eigo 0 hanashite kureta. (Mr.
Smith spoke English slowly so that I could understand him.) (b) tL
let. "'\ J: ? ,:. ?1 - fT "* l, t::.. o Okurenai yoni takushi de ikimashita. (I
went there by taxi so that I wouldn't be late.) (c) m iJ ta J: ? ':' lvt!.o B
yoki ga naoru yoni ku suri 0 nonda. (I took medicine so that I would
(lit. recover from illness) get well.) = y = -- :::::::::

554 yoni 1 / yoni 2

(d) -r{jtiJ

MCtrJ:? ':':13 t 1,0

?t

J\-:J"'(*t::..o Kodomo ga hon 0 yomu yoni omoshirosona hon 0 katte

kita. (I bought some interesting-looking books so that my child would
read books.)
BID 1. Although yoni l can be used with almost any informal, non
past verb, it is most commonly used with potential verb forms (as in
KS(A) and Ex. (a» and negative verb forms (as in KS(B) and Ex. (b».
2. - yoni iu 'tell s.o. to do s.t.', - yoni naru 'reach the point where - '
and - yoni suru ' try to - ' are idiomatic uses of yoni. (t:) #wyoni iu;
#wyoni naTU; #wyoni SUTU)

yoni 2 J:?'

aux. adj. (na)

"'/

./"

.......,""''''''''' (

an adverbial form of yoda

as; like

. Key Sentences (A)

Vinf fL tJ

? J: ? ,.: .

\"'( < t!.

\ 0 Watashi ga iu yoni kai te kudasai. (Please write it down as 1 tell

you.)

(B)

Y5!

==

Topic (subject) Vinf. past

a 'i

,:. ti. "':) t= J: ? ,:. fliiJ

' / fliiJ
' "t*-r- 0 Kyo wa haru ni natta yoni atatakai / atatakai desu. (Lit.
Today is as warm as if it had become spring.)

yoni 2 555

(C)

Topic (subject) Noun t:py- li B*A. (j) J: ? ,

a*m

T/

l, "* To Doroshi - wa nihonjin no yon; n;hongo 0 hanasu /

hanashimasu. . (Dorothy speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)

Format"ion

( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf J:? ,:. yon;

{
T/

l, t::..} J: ? ,=. {hanasu / hanashita} yoni {rf6 v\ / iRi ip -:J t::..} J:? ,:.
{takai / takakatta} yon;

(as s.o. talks / talked; as if s.o. (had) talked)

(as s.t. is / was expensive; as if s.t. were / had been expensive)

( ii) Adj (na) stem {f.t, / t!. -:J t:;J J:? ,:. { na / datt8J yoni {fittJ

f,t / trfttJ\ t!.

t:.} J:? ,:. {shizuka na / shizuka datt8J yoni

(as s.t. is / was quiet; as if s.t. were / had been quiet)

(iii) N { (j) / t!. -:J t:.} J:? ,=. { no / datt8J yoni {%!:E (j) / %!:E t!. -:J t:.}
J:? ,:. {sensei no / sensei datt8J yoni

(like a teacher / as s.o. was a teacher; as if s.o. were / had been a

teacher)
Example's

(a) fjiH:'

l,t::..J:? ':.fL'j:*J1

ti:

"*To Mae ni hanashita yoni watashi wa raigetsu kaisha 0 yamemasu.

(As I told you before, I'm going to quit the company next month.)

(b) l:a!

Iv (j) J: ? '

t"* T tJ

o U eda -san no yoni hashiremasu ka. (Can you run like Mr. Ueda?)

(c)

v\

(j) J: ? ,:. 'j: 7C

iJ
t.t, < t.t, -:J t::.. o Wakai toki no yoni wa genki ga nakunatta. (I don't
feel as strong as I used to when I was young.)

y==-----

!!!!! - -

!!!! - - - - --=-

556 yoni 2 / - yoni iu (d) I# Iv 'i v\':) t Q) J: ? ':' A ':' t::.. o Doi-san wa
itsumo no yoni asa rokuji ni okita. (As usual Mr. Doi got up at six in
the morning.) (e) RtJ A -/'tJ l: t J:? ,:. tl: t.:o Ani ga supotsu ga jozuna
yoni ototo mo jozuda. (J ust like the older brother, the younger
brother is also good at sports.) (f) t,) tJ'i v\v\J:? ':.::kttJ\vv\v\o Neko
ga kawaii yoni inu mo kawaii. (Lit. Just like cats are cute, so are
dogs. (= Dogs are cute, just like cats.» CD 1. Yoni l expresses
purpose but y6ni 2 doesn't; it expresses similarity, es- pecially in
appearance. (t:) yani l ) 2. Yoni 2 can express a counterfactual
situation as in KS(B). The adverb marude 'just' is often used to
emphasize counterfactuality. Examples follow: ( 1) a. a; .Q -C:!:E J!&
-:J t::.. J: ? 1= JC ,:. t -:J t::.. 0 MSTude ikikaetta yani genkini natta.
(Lit. He recovered as if he had risen from the dead.) b. (b Q)-rfia;.Q -
c:*AQ) J:? I= T 0 Ano ko wa mSTude otona no yani hanasu. (That
child speaks as if he were an adult.) y = . = ! -- -y oni iu -J:?' :" ? phr.
0 ell 5.0. in such a way t l v tell - to -; say - in such a way

- y6n; iu 557

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vinf.nonpast 96!:E - 'i

!:E ,:. mm

9.Q Sensei wa gakusei ni shu kudai 0 SUTU J: ? ,:. -g -:J t::.. / -g

\"* L. t::.. o y6ni itta / iimashita. (The teacher told his students to do
homework.)

Formation

Vinf. nonpast J: ? I:. -3" -

? y6ni iu

T J: ? ,:. -3" - (tell s.o. to talk)

? hanasu y6ni iu 1t

-'5 J: ? ,

-3" - (tell s.o. to eat)

? taberu y6ni iu

Examples

(a) #i*

lv'i

iI':'

.
q)M

-:J-r

\-'5 J: ? '

-g-:J t::.. o Sakamoto-san wa Yukie ni toshokan no mae de matte iru

yonl Itta. (Mr. Sakamoto told Yukie to be waiting in front of the
library.) (b) T}j."*itlviJ

t IJ'#

Iv':.&; '-t:.

*-'5 J:? ,:.-g-:J-r < t:.

\ "* it Iv iJ

o Sumimasen ga, Kobayashi-san ni ashita asa kuji ni koko e kuru

y6ni itte kudasaimasen ka. (I'm sorry, but could you please tell Mr.
Kobayashi to come here at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning?)

(c) fL 'i fJa

It -'5 J: ? ,:. 'i -:J

!J -g -:J t::..1v
T iJ

. . . Watashi wa kikoeru y6ni hakkiri itta n desu ga . . . (I said it in

such a way that it was clearly audible, but. . .)

em

1. Yoni iu can be used either as an indirect imperative as in KS and

Exs. (a) and (b), or to mean' say in such a way that -,' i.e., the use of
yoni. 1

= y = = -=

!!!

558 - yoni iu

(t:) yonjl) In the former case, the verb must be a controllable verb- a
verb that represents something controllable by human volition, such
as suru 'do', matsu ' wait', kuru 'come', yomu ' read' and kau ' buy'. In
the latter case the verb must be a noncontrollable verb, such as
wakaru , understand', kikoeru ' be audible' (Ex. (c», or a potential
form of verbs. 2. When yoni iu is used as an indirect imperative, the
verb iu can be replaced by other verbs such as tanomu 'ask', meijiru
'order' and motomeru 'request'.

( 1) m
Iv 'i JlJ *

Iv ,:. T <' * -'5 J: ? (::

-:) t.: / fi Iv f=. / $ L; f.: 0 Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni sugu kuru

yoni itta / tanon- da / meijita. (Mr. Tanaka told / asked / ordered Mr.
Yamamoto to come (to his place) immediately.) The direct imperative
versions of (1) are something like (2). Notice that there is more than
one direct imperative form if the directive verb is iu.

(2) a. EB

lv'iJlJ*

Iv':. r-j- <.*-c < t=.

L'(*t

L' / *L')oJ c!::

a -:J t::.. o

Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni II Sugu kite kudasai (kinasai / koi).

II to itta. (Mr. Tanaka said to Mr. Yamamoto, U Please come (Come)
here right away.")
b. m

Iv 'i JlJ*

Iv ,:. r-j- <.*L 'oj c!:: 1frt t: t::.. o Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni II

Sugu koi." to me/jlta. (Mr. Tanaka ordered Mr. Yamamoto, U Come
here right away! ")

c. m

Iv 'i 111 *

Iv'Co r -j- <

* -c < f=.

L '0 J c!:: M Iv t!. 0 Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni II Sugu kite

kudasai." to tanonda. (Mr. Tanaka asked Mr. Yamamoto, U Please
come here right away.")

==

y=.=!

=
- yoni naru 559 -yoni n aru - J: ? , Q phr. """ hange takes place
gradually. !..-...".... ..... ? reach the point where -; come to -; it has
come to be that -; have finally become [REL. koto ni naru; - naku
naru; #w yoni SUTU] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Vinf. non
past .y '/ Iv ,:1 a*m tJ; 1t.Q J: ? :. tet. -:J t::.. / Jakuson-san wa
nihongo ga hanaseTU yoni na tta / - t.t !J "* L. t.:o narim ash ita. (Mr.
Jackson has reached the point where he can speak Japanese.) (B)
Topic (subject) Vinf. nonpast. neg * Iv fj: mi iX tl L \ J: ? :. t et. -:J t::.. /
t et. !J "* L. t.:o Hayashi-san wa sake 0 nomanai yoni natta /
narimashita. (Lit. Mr. Hayashi has reached the point where he does
not drink sake. (= Mr. Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.»
Formation Vinf. nonpast J:? :' t.t?J yoni naru { T / tet. \} J:? :' t.t?J
{hanasu / hanasanai} yoni naru {1t / 1t tet. \} J:? :' tet.?J {taberu I
tabenai} yoni naru (s.o. reaches the point where he talks / doesn't
talk) (s.o. reaches the point where he eats / doesn't eat) Examples
(a) . L. \ a *mtJ Mf J: ? tet. !J "* '- t::.. o Muzukashii nihongo ga
yomeru yoni narimashita. (I am finally able to read difficult
Japanese.) y = --

560 - yoni naru

(b)

':I "'i fL c!::

fet

\ J: ?

:. fet -:J t::.. o Patto wa watashi to hanasanai yoni natta. (Pat doesn't
talk with me any more.)
(c) b ?-r-<

t3b 1,0

iJ

7tip-'5J:? ':'fet!J :t-r-J: o Mo sugu omoshirosa ga wakaru yoni

narimasu yo. (You'll soon come to understand the fun of it, I tell you.)
(d)

q)}!Ui

iitL/et

\ J: ?

:. let -:J"'(

\ -'5 0 Kono michi wa ima torenai yoni natte iru. (Lit. This street has
reached the point where people cannot pass. ( = At present we
cannot use this street.»

CD

1. Although - yon; naru usually indicates a gradual change, when it is

pre- ceded by an affirmative verb the change may not take place
gradually. Thus, an adverb such as kyuni 'suddenly' can co-occur
with an affir- mative verb and - yoni naru, as seen in (1).

(1) ? tj q)-r';t
ili

r=

%t-r- -'5 J:? r=tl? t=: Iv

-r- J: 0 Uchi no ko wa saikin kyiini benkyosuru yani natta n desu yo.

(Lit. Recently our child has suddenly reached the point where he
studies. (= Recently our child suddenly started to study.» When -
yon; naru is preceded by a negative verb (as in KS(B», how- ever,
the change must take place gradually. If the change is not gradual, -
naku naru is used in place of -nai yon; naru. (See Related
Expression I I.)

2. Yoni natte ;ru emphasizes a current state that has come about
after a long process, as in Ex. (d). 3. There are two ways to negate
this construction, but the meanings are completely different. The
verb before yoni can be negated, as in (2a), or the verb naru can be
negated, as in (2b).

(2) a.

*iJ

:Jt It

tLtl L \ J: ?

:. fet -:J t::.. o Kanji ga oboerarenai yoni natta. (l've reached the point
where I can't memorize kanji.)

.Y=,=!
 ===-

b.

*iJ

:Jt It

tL -'5 J: ?

:. fet

tl tJ\? t=:o Kanji ga oboerareru yoni naranakatta. (I haven't reached

the point where I can memorize kanji.)

- yon; naru 561 (2a) means that the speaker can't memorize kanji
any more, and (2b) means that he is not yet able to memorize kanji.
4. Yoni by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase, along with main
verbs other than naru. (t:) yoni 1 ; yoni 2 )

(Related Expressions] I. Koto ni naru 'it has been decided that - ' and
- yoni naru are related expressions in that both of them indicate
some change, but they differ in that the former implies a passive
decision, while the latter suggests a change brought about by a long
process. Compare the following sentences:

[1] a. fL'j:*
J1JT -'5

Co r= / * J: ? r= f.t, !J "* l, t::.. o Watashi wa Osaka ni tenkinsuru koto

ni / *yoni narimashita. (It has been decided that I will transfer to
Osaka.) b. fL'j:

miJ

it -'5 J: ? r= / *

Co r= f.t, !J "* l, t::.. o Watash; wa eigo ga hanaseru yoni / *koto ni

narimashita. (I've reached the point where I can speak English.) I I.
When the verb before - yoni naru is negated, as in KS(B), this
construc- tion can be compared to the - naku naru construction.

[2] a. *

lv'imi

"*t

L\J:? r=t

?t.: o Hayashi-san wa sake 0 nomanai yoni natta. (= KS(B» (Mr.

Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.) b. *

Iv'imi

"* t

<t
? t.: o Hayashi-san wa sake 0 nomanaku natta. (Mr. Hayashi doesn't
drink sake any more.) The nai yoni natta version in [2a] implies a
more gradual change than the naku natta version in [2b]. Thus,
adverbs such as kyuni ' suddenly' or totsuzen 'suddenly' can co-
occur with [2b] but not with [2a].

=y===--

===:I

===

562 - yoni suru -yoni suru - J: ? r:.,. Q phr. i 5.0. causes some
circumstantial or j behavioral change to take place. \ ( do - in such a
way that -; see to it that -; make sure that -; bring it about that [REL. -
yon/ naru] . Key Sentence Vinf. nonpast fL ,:t a IJrt .Q J: ? :. T Q / L
:t T 0 Watashi wa mainichi undOSUTU yoni suru / shimasu . (I'll
make sure that I do exercises everyday.) Formation Vinf. nonpast J:?
,:. T Q yoni suru { T / t \t \ } J:? ,=. T Q {hanasu / hanasana/l yoni
suru {1t Q / 1t t \t\} J:? ,:. TQ {taberu / tabenai} yoni suru (s.o. makes
sure that he / s.o. else talks / doesn't talk) (s.o. makes sure that he /
s.o. else eats / doesn't eat) Examples (a) m*Q t.:.t a *m-C: T J: ? :.
L"'C \t\:t To Dekiru dake nihongo de hanasu yoni shite imasu. (I'm
making sure 1 speak in Japanese as much as possible.) (b) JlJ}IH:":t
bt \t\J:? ,:. Lt::.. o Yamakawa ni wa awanai yoni shita. (I've made
sure that I won't see Yamakawa.) (c) *tJ Gt \t\;:: C ':t96!:E'=-JI8< J:?
,:. L"'C\t\Qo Wakaranai koto wa sensei ni kiku yoni shite iru. (I make
a point of asking my teacher about things 1 don't understand.) (d)
WJJ\ ':'*Q J: ? :. L"'C < t.: \t'o Maiasa hachiji ni kuru yoni shite
kudasai. (Please make sure that you come at eight every morning.) y
-== (e) ? L0tJ G t J: < j!;tQ J:? ,=- L:t Lt::.. o Ushiro kara mo yoku
mieru yoni shimashita.

- yoni suru 563

(I've seen to it that people can see from the rear seats, too.)

(f) TiX:

tJ

J: < t,t Q J: ? ,:. '- t::.. o Seiseki ga yoku naru yoni shita. (I've made
sure that my grades will improve.)

em

1. - yon; shite iru expresses s.o.'s habitual act of making sure that he
or s.o. else will do (or will not do) s.t., as shown in Exs. (a) and (c). 2.
The subjects in the yoni clause and in the main clause mayor may
not be identical. In (1 a), the subjects are different, but in (1 b), they
are identical.

(1) a. .y 3

tt} 7 !J -tJ

tT.t Q J:? I:: L.t:: o Jon wa Mear; ga ikeru yoni shita. <J ohn has seen
to it that Mary can go there.) b. .y 3

'j:tT.t Q J: ? I:: L. t:: o Jon wa ikeru yoni shita. <J ohn has seen to it
that he (= John) can go there.) 3. There are two ways to negate this
construction, but the meaning changes according to the pattern. The
verb before yoni can be negated as in (2a), or the verb suru can be
negated as in (2b). (2) a. IJ,,} II tt JlJ*tJ
%U:H*t

L \ J: ? ,:. '- t::.. o Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo deki nai yoni

shita. (Ogawa made sure that Yamamoto couldn't study.) b.
IJ,,}IBj:JlJ*tJ

%U:H*Q J: ?

:. OJ:) ,-t

tJ\?t::o Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo dekiru yoni (wa) shinakatta.

(Ogawa didn't make sure that Yamamoto could study.) In (2a)
Ogawa is directly involved in preventing Yamamoto from study- ing,
but in (2b) Ogawa just didn't bother to assist Yamamoto's studying.
4. When an Adj (i / na) or N is used before yoni suru, the verb naru is
used as follows: ( i) Adj (i) stem < t,t

J:? ,:. -r Q ku naru yoni suru

{rRi< t,t 0 / rfiJ< t,t < t,t 0 } J: ? ,:. -r Q {takcku naru / takckunaku
naru} yoni suru

(make sure s.t. be- comes / won't be- come expensive)

y---

-=- ==
564 - yon; suru / yori l (ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} ,:. t,t Q J:? ,:. -r Q ni
naru yoni suru r;tJ o=- / -c: tt t,t < / 1:- t,t <} t,t Q J:? ,:. -r Q shizuka
{ni / de wa naku / janaku} naru yoni suru (make sure s.t. is / won't be
quiet) 96!:E 0:. / -c: 'i tct < / 1:- tct <} tct Q J:? ,:. -r Q sensei {ni / de
wa naku / janaku} naru yoni suru (make sure s.o. is / won't be a
teacher) (Related Expression] - yon; naru ' reach the point where' is
the intransitive counterpart of yoni suru. The former only indirectly
implies human efforts behind some change that will occur or has
occurred, but the latter straightforwardly indicates human efforts. For
example, in [la] the speaker can get up early in the morning almost
effortlessly, but in [lb] he has to make sure that he can get up early in
the morning. [1] a. WI.!f! < @ GtLQ J:? I::tl LJ * L. t=o Asa hayaku
okirareru yani naTimashita. (I am finally able to get up early in the
morning.) b. r.YJ.!f! < @ GtLQ J:? I:: L. -r L'*"9 0 Asa hayaku
okirareru yani shite imasu. (I am making sure that 1 can get up early
in the morning.) yorP J: prt. ) ./' a pa ticle. which indicate that S.t. I !
s.o. IS being compared with s.t. / s.o. ( -"\.".....,, /'/" /' .,........./'...,, .....
than; rather - than -; more - than - [RE L. ,.", ha ga ,.", YOTi] . Key
Sentences (A) y Topic (subject) Noun Predicate a*m ,:t A -1'=-,m J:
(t) to t '- 0lt\ / to t '- 0lt\"'t:-r 0 Nihongo wa supeingo yor; (mo)
omosh;roi / omosh;ro;desu. . (J apanese is more interesting than
Spanish.)

yori l 565

(B)

Subject Predicate Sentence2 Sentence I 1f[

ft< '1, tJ

1'\ A

17 < J:
(t)

\/

\1:1-0 KUTuma de iku h6 ga basu de iku yori (mo) yasui / yasuidesu.

(Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Predicate I Predicate2 fL 'i

179.Q J:

(t) ,'tj ,:.

\ t::..

\/

\ t::..

, 1: 1- 0 Watashi wa TyokosuTU yori (mo) uchi ni itai I itaidesu. . (I'd

rather stay at home than go on a trip.)

(D)

Noun / Sentence
tL J:

( '1 zp U:. ) ) jj

,:t t

\ / U>

:t -tt Ivo KOTe yori I (hoka (ni» h6h6 wa nai / arimasen. (There is no
other way than this.) 1'\ A

17< J:

('1 tJ\ (,:.)) f1:jj tJ

\ / U>

:t -tt /vo Basu de iku yori (hoka (ni» shikata ga nai / arimasen. (There
is no other way than to go by bus.)

Formation

(A) KS(A) / KS(D): N J:

yori

.::.
L J:

kore yori

(than this)

(B) KS(B) / KS(C) / KS(D): ( i) {V / Adj (i)} inf-nonpast J:

yori

= y = = ....

566 yori l

i"" J:

(than talking) hanasu yori fNjlt\ J:

(than being expensive) takai yori (ii) Adj (na) stem t,t J:

na yori

r;tJ\t,t J:

shizukana yori
(than being quiet)

(iii) N -c: (b Q J:

de aru yori

%!:E -c: (b Q J:

sensei de aru yori

(than being a teacher)

Examples

(a)

*'iO G tJ;t,t J:

jI '- \1\0 Kanji wa hiragana yori muzukashi;. (Kanji is more difficult

than hiragana.)

:y=.=!

(b) #

lv'ifLJ:
<

tLQo Hayashi-san wa watashi yor; hayaku hashireru. (Mr. Hayashi

can run faster than I can.) (c) -m'i A 7- -

J:

flJJJYjj tJ; fjf t! t!. 0 Boku wa sutek; yori sakana no h6 ga sukida. (I

prefer fish to steak.) (d)

.ti1-c:

%ii"" Q 1itJ; ? tj -c:

%ii"" Q J:

J: < m*Qo Toshokan de benky6suru h6 ga uchi de benky6suru yori

yoku dekiru. (Studying at the library is more productive than studying
at home.) (e) -t tL'i

? J:

'='ilitJ

-:J t::.. o Sore wa aka to iu yori chairo ni chikakatta. (That was closer
to brown than to red (lit. rather than saying it was red).) (f) a *m

%i '- t::.. tJ

-:J t::.. G, 7:)

11 Q)

-c:

%ii"" Q J:

a*

tT t! t

\1\0 Nihongo 0 benky6shitakattara, Amerika no gakk6 de

benky6suru yori Nihon e ikinasai. (If you want to study Japanese, go
to Japan rather than studying at a school in America.)

yo,;1/ YOf/"2 567

em

1. Either a noun phrase or a sentence precedes yorio When verbs

precede yori, they are usually nonpast. However, there are a few
cases where past tense verbs are used, as in (1).

(1) :t Q)

'i,
.. -:J t::.. J:

L. tJ

-:J t::.. o Sono shiken wa omotta yori yasashikatta. (The exam was
easier than I thought.) 2. In KS(A), KS(B) and KS(C), mo is optional
after yori and does not change the meaning of the sentence.

yori Z J:

prt.

.......

,,- j a particle which indicates a set point

. f . ? In terms 0 space or time ?

In - of; inside; outside; be- fore; after [REL. karat]

. Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (location / time) Noun (location / time) j.

::J - 'i
ii J:

t Mekishiko wa sekido yori kits Predicate

:. &?Q / &?

*-ro ni aru / arimasu. (Mexico is located north of the equator.)

Examples

(a) :: Q)

J:

{PJH:'A -:J -C 'i \I\.t :t -tt Ivo Kono sen yori uchigawa ni haitte wa
ikemasen. (You must not get inside this line.)

(b) =:

J:

wH:.*-C < t=.

\1\0 Sanji yori mae ni kite kudasai. (Please come before three
o'clock.)

=y==-----
i

568 yori 2

(c) :: tL J:

96 'i.l{ A tJ

(b

:t -tt No Kore yori saki wa basu ga arimasen. (There's no bus service

from here (lit. beyond this point).)

CD

The use of yori as a marker indicating a set point in terms of location

can be extended to more abstract locations, as in (1).

(1) J\+

J: LJ l:'iitm-c:t"o Hachijutten YOTi ue wa g6kaku desu. (Lit. Eighty

point up is a pass. (= The passing mark is eighty.»

(Related Expression] Kara can be used In place of yori 2 when kara

indicates a set point in space, as in [1]. (t:)kSTS t ) [1] :: Q)
fJ\; / J: LJ rJ'i{p'tH:'A -:J -C 'i \I,.t :t -tt Iv o Kono sen kSTS / YOTi
uchigawa ni haitte wa ikemasen. (You must not get inside this line.)
When yori indicates a point in time, however, kara can replace it only
if it indicates a starting time. Thus, kara in [2a] is grammatical, but
kara in [2b] is not. [2] a. :='

J:LJ /fJ\;

:'*-C<t.:

\I'o Sanji YOTi / kSTS ato ni kite kudasai. (Please come after three
o'clock.) b. :='

J: LJ / *fJ\; wH:.*-C < t!.

\1'0 Sanji YOTi / *kSTS mae ni kite kudasai. (Please come before
three o'clock.) It is also noted that yori 2 implies a comparison of two
things, while kara has no such implication.

y == !!

== ===-=-

- yo to omou 569 -yo to omou - J: ? c ,1[1, ? phr. 1 { s.t. . - think - will

[REL. tsumoTi] . Key Sentences (A) Topic (subject) Vinf.vol fA ,:t a* t-
C I "? / I ..lt\*-ro i7i: ? - Watashi wa Nihonrek;shi 0 yomo to omou /
omo;masu. . (I think 1 will read Japanese history (books).) (B) Topic
(subject) Vinf.nonpast fL ,:t b? ?5 !Xc :t It\ C I "? / I ..lt \ :t -r 0 Watashi
wa mo sake 0 nomu mai to omou / omo;masu. (I think 1 will not drink
alcohol any longer.) Formation KS(A) : Vinf.vol C I "oj to omou :t:. 1...
m iia:l \.? c::. Ie...? hanaso to omou (I think 1 will talk.) 1t J: oj C I "?
tabeyo to omou (I think 1 will eat.) KS(B) : Vinf. nonpast :t It\ C I " oj
ma; to omou a5-r:t It\ C I "? (I think 1 will not talk.) hanasuma; to
omou 1t Q * It\ C I "? (I think 1 will not eat.) taberuma; to omou = y =
= - !!!! ...............

570 - yo to omou

Examples

(a) If*;1j. ,:. a *7 IV

i:.

0?C,

,\t\:t -r 0 Natsuyasumi ni Nihon Arupusu ni noboro to omoimasu. (I

think I will climb the Japan Alps during summer vacation.) (b)

lv'i9-

P (= 9-

p -e

-)
to? c,

,-:J-C\t\*To Mori-san wa wapuro (= wado purosessa) 0 kao to omotte

imasu. (Mr. Mori is thinking of buying a word processor.) (c) -t'Ui UJ
Q) A c 'i t ?

-r * \t \ C ,

, ? 0 Boku wa ano hito to wa mo hanasumai to omou. (I think I won't

talk to that person any more.)

em

1. When the subject is not the first person, as in Ex. (b), the nonpast
form of omou cannot be used. Thus, the following sentence is
unacceptable.

(1) *

Iv'i 9 -

to ? c ,

,? / ,

, L \ *"9 0 *Mori-san wa wapuro 0 kao to omou /omoimasu. The

reason why (1) is unacceptable is that omou represents an internal
feeling of the speaker alone. Therefore, when the subject is the third
person, omou has to be replaced by the stative omotte iru which
means 'he (= the third person subject) has indicated that he feels -,
in such a way that the speaker can see and / or hear what he feels'.
Observe the following sentence. (2) fA / *:X: / * LIft"

Ai 'i -t Q)1I.*:00i

J! J: ? c ,

, \t\:t -r 0 Watashi / *Chichi / *Yamashita-san wa sono eiga 0 miyo to

omoimasu. (I / My father / Mr. Yamashita think(s) I / he will see that
movie.) It is also to be noted that - yo to omou cannot be used as a
question. (3) ??UJQ)*

t? c,

,\t\:t-rtJ

o ?? Ano hon 0 yomo to omoimasu ka. (Do you think you will read
that book?) 2. The negative version of -yo to omou is Vinf.nonpast -
mai to omou, as seen in KS(B) and Ex. (c). ====- 3. The verb that
precedes yo must be a verb that represents something con- i Y i
trollable by human volition. Thus, the following sentences are all un-
=-==- grammatical, because the verbs are noncontrollable.

- yo to omou 571

(4) a. *"

AXJ:? cJ[',?o *Kuruma 0 kaeyo to omou. (I think I can buy a car.)

Cpo ..
A X.Q c h!!, ? 0 Kuruma 0 kaeTU to omou. (I think 1 can buy a car.)
b. *to

t G -:J t::.. Gglt? c J[',? 0 *Q-kane 0 morattara YOTokobo to omou. (I

think I'll be happy if 1 get money.) Cpo to

t G -:J t::.. G -g.;;.. t.:. 7::> ? C J

I, ? 0 Q -kane 0 morattara yorokobu dar6 to omou. (I think I will

probably rejoice if I receive money.) c . * ffi ,:.

; tL J: ? c J[', ? 0 *Ame ni fUTaTeyo to omou. (I think I will be caught

in the rain.) Cpo m':.

GtLG c J[',? 0 Ame n; furareru to omou. (I think 1 will be caught in

the rain.) A passive verb can be used with - yo to omou, however, if
the speaker perceives the passive situation as somehow
controllable, as in (5).

(5) t::..:t ':'fj:96!:E':'I

;tLJ:? C/F[',? 0 Tama ni wa sense; ni homeTaTeyo to omou. (Lit. 1

think I will do my best to be praised by my teacher once in a while.)

y ii

!!
572 zutsu zutsu 9-=> prt. r icl d ;;ua l bution of quantity l by; at a time
. Key Sentence Topic (subject) Direct Quantifier Object fL 'j: * 4ijf3
1i.-::> f-'J jt;tQ /jt;t To . Watashi wa kanji 0 mainichi itsutsu zutsu
oboeru / oboemasu. (I memorize five kanji every day.) Examples (a)
4ij,ij mtf-'J* -:J -C 1,-' To Maitsuki sansatsu zutsu hon 0 katte imasu.
(I'm buying three books per month.) (b) ::f Iv 7 tJ l, f -'J J:. ,:. tct -:J -C
* t::.. o Gorufu ga sukoshi zutsu' jozuni natte kita. (I have become a
better golfer bit by bit.) (c) fL'i-r#tii':.* =mt-r-'J -:J t::.. o Watashi wa
kodomotachi ni hon 0 nisatsu zutsu yatta. (I gave two books to each
of the children.) (d) )! (/) 7 A':' b *-r$!:EtJ AA f-'J 1,-' t::.. o Dono
kurasu ni mo joshigakusei ga rokunin zutsu ita. (There were six girl
students in each class.) CD ZI ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 1. The particle zutsu is used
only after a quantifier (= an expression of quantity). 2. A sentence
without zutsu can express virtually the same fact. Compare KS and
Ex. (a) with (la) and (lb), respectively. (1) a. fL'i * 4ij f31i-::>jt;t Qo
Watashi wa kanji 0 mainichi itsutsu oboeru. (I memorize five kanji
every day.)

zutsu 573

b. 4ij,ij

fl&*

-:J -C

, * To Maitsuki sansatsu hon 0 katte imasu. (I'm buying three books

every month.) A sentence with zutsu focuses on equal distribution of
quantity, but a sentence without zutsu doesn't.

== z = - -
=

576 Appendixes Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations formal, inf., in f.,

neg., nonpas t nonpast condi- voli- te-form nonpast (masu -
(dictionary tional tional form)2 form) Group 1 verbs 1 . < (write) flb\t,t
"" ffi!"t-t :Jf< .,t It fl ? jiL\"t' kaku kakanai kakimasu kaku kakeba kako
kaite ff < (go) ffb\t,t "" ffi!"t-t ff< ff It It ff ? ff "';)"t'l iku ikanai ikimasu iku
ikeba iko itte !-t (talk) ! tot "" a!l,"t-t i!"t i!1t It i!t- ? i! l, "t' hanasu
hanasa- hanashi- hanasu hanaseba hanaso hanashite nai masu .'f":)
(wait) f-jt=. t,t "" t-!i -S "t -t t "J ffl-c It t.1 ? "';)"t' matsu ma t anai mach
i- matsu mateba mato ma tte masu JEt.). (die) JEt tot "" JEI= "t -t nlf
JE(1)? JEN shinu shinanai shin i- shin u shineba shino sh in de
masu UEtr (read) t,t"" h"t-t t; t) It =t,? N yomu yomanai yom i- yomu
yomeba yomo yon de masu .'5 (ride) * ; tot "" 1,) "t-t *.Q *nlf * ?
*"';)"'(' noru nOTanai nOTi- nOTU nOTeba nOTO notte masu NJ.'5
(exist) t,t ""I N> 1,) "t-t &).Q NJ n If (NJ ?)4 NJ"';)"t' aru nai aTimasu
aTU aTeba (aTO) atte R? (buy) Rbt,t"" L\"t-t R:; R If Rt3? R"';)"t' kau
kawanai kaimasu kau kaeba kao katte i* < (swim) i'Ao'J( t,t "" i* i -t i*
<. 1'* It If i'71< ? i* L \ '"t: oyogu oyoganai oyogi- oyogu oyogeba
oyogo oyoide masu P'¥ (call) P'¥I: tot "" P'¥L'"1-t '* ,5 P'¥" If P'¥ It ?
P'¥N yobu yobanai yobi - yobu yobeba yobo yon de masu jO 1.... .'5
(say jO 1.... jO 1.... L\ jO 1.... .Q jO 1.... n (jO 1.... jO 1.... "';)
(Honorific») ; tot "" "t-t:i It ?)4 "t' ossharu osshaTa- osshai- osshaTU
osshaTe- (ossha- osshatte nai masu ba TO)

APPENDIXES 577

in f., past inf., neg., passi ve 6 causative 6 potential 6 l!11pera- past

tlve =- I, \ t.: . tJ\ t.l tJ

"? t.: . tJ\h.'!> .tJ\it .'!> :a= It .'!> .It kaita kakanakatta kakareru
kakaseru kakeru kake ff -:> t.: S ff tJ\ t.l tJ
"? t.: fftJ\h.'!> ff tJ\ it .'!> ff It .'!> fflt itta ikanakatta ikareru ikaseru
ikeru ike Z! l,

t.l tJ

"? t.: Z!

h.'!> Z!

it .'!>

!1t .'!>

!1t hanashita hanasana- hanasareru hanasaseru hanaseru hanase

katta

1i -:> t.:

'!i t=. t.l tJ

"? t.: fflt=.h.'!> t!f t=. it .'!>

!i-C .'!>

!j -C matta matana- matareru mataseru materu mate ka tta JEN t!.

JEt

t.l tJ

"? t.: JEt

h.'!> JEt

it.'!> JEn.'!> JEn shinda shin ana- shinareru shinaseru shineru shine
katta
Nt! iJr. a:. t.l tJ

"? t.: MCa:.h.'!> iJr.a:.it.'!> iJr.;').'!>

;') yonda yomana- yomareru yomaseru yomeru yome katta

-:> t.: *; t.l tJ

"? t::.

;h.'!>

;it.'!> *n.'!>

n notta nOTana- nOTareru nOTaseru nOTeru nOTe ka tta 'NJ -:> t.: t.l
tJ

"? t.: S ('NJn)4 atta nakatta (aTe)

-:> t.: 'i( b t.l tJ

"? t.: J(bh.'!>

bit.'!> R

.'!> R

ka tta kawana- kawareru kawaseru kaeru kae ka tta 1*1, \ t!. f* tJ(
t.l tJ

"? t.: 1*tJ<h.'!> i* tJ< it 0 1* It .'!> 1* It oyoida oyogana - oyogareru

oyogaseru oyogeru oyoge katta P

Nt!. II'fl:t.ltJ

"? t.: P

I:h.'!> Pflfit .'!> Pt" .'!> Pf" yonda yobana - yobareru yobaseru yoberu
yobe katta jO "? L.
-:> t.: jO "? L.

; t.l (jO,,? L.

;h (jO"?L.

; jO"?L.

n.'!> jO "? L. J{:J tJ

"? t.: .'!»4 it .'!> )4 I, \4 osshatta osshaTana- (osshaTa- (osshaTa-

osshaTeru osshai katta reru) seru)

578 APPENDIXES

formal, in f., inf., neg., nonpast nonpast condi- volitional te-form

nonpas t (masu- (dictionary tional form) form) Group 2 verbs 1
J!.'5(see) J!tot \-' J!"tT Jt.'5 Jthli J!J:; J!-r miru minai mimasu miru
mireba miyo mite

.'5(go to

tot \-'

"tT }i.'5

h It

J:;

-r neru bed) nenai nemasu neru nereba neyo nete Irregular verbs
T.'5(do) L tot \-' L"tT T.'5 T hit LJ: ; L-r suru shinai shimasu suru
sureba shiyo shite *.'5(come) .:.tot\-'

"tT <.'5 < hit .:.J:;

-r kuru konai kimasu kuru kureba koyo kite

1 Group 1 verbs are those whose negative, informal stems end with
the [a] sound. Group 2 verbs are those whose negative, informal
stems end with [i] or [e]. 2 The complete conjugations of formal
forms are as follow:

nonpast (.

T (kakJ)masu neg., nonpast (.

1tN (kakJ)masen past (.

Lt= (kakJ)mashita neg., past (.

1tN"t! Lt= (kakJ)masendeshita volitional (.

LJ::; (kakJ)masho

3 Irregular conjugation. 4 This form is usually not used. 5 Some

honorific verbs (irassharu C go; come; be', nasaru C do', gozaru ' be
') are irregular in the masu-form and the imperative form. 6 Passive
verbs, causative verbs and potential verbs are all Group 2 verbs. 7
There are also imperative forms like Miyo 'See' and Seyo C Do.'
These are used only in written Japanese.

APPENDIXES 579

inf., past inf., neg., passive 6 causative 6 potential 6 i mperati ve past

J!ft. J! t ot;!}11 "? t:. J!

nQ J!

-ttQ J!

nQ J!0 7 mita minakatta mirareru misaseru mirareru miro

t:.

tot ;!}11 "? t:.

nQ

-ttQ

nQ

0 neta nenakatta nerareru nesaseru nerareru nero Lt:. L tot ;!}11 "?
t:.

nQ
-ttQ

Q L0 7 sh ita shinakatta sareru saseru dekiru shiro

ft. =- tot ,/p "? t:. =-

nQ =-

-ttQ =-

nQ =- "" kita konaka tta korareru kosaseru korareru koi

580 APPENDIXES

in f., inf., neg., inf., past inf., neg., condition nonpas t nonpast past i-
Adjectives 8 *

""e *

L\ *

< tot "', *

'/J\

t::.. *

< tottp

Itnf:f (big) t::.. okii okii okikunai okikatta okikunakat- okikeTeba ta ""
",,10 """" J: < tot '" , J: tJ,,"') t::.. J: < tot tJ,,"') t::.. J: Jthf:f (good) ii ii
yokunai yokatta yokunakatta yokereba 8 Auxiliary adjectives -tai
(want to), -rashii (seem), -yasui (easy to), -nikui (hard to), -nai (not)
are i-adjectives. 9 Okii (big) and chisai (small) can be either i-
adjectives or na-adjectives. When they are used as na-adjectives,
they are rather emotive. 10 Ii is an irregular i-adjective. Ii is usually
used as the inf., nonpast form. na- Adjectives 11 rfttJ"t! frt tJ" t!. rft
tJ"""t: fj: tot "" rfttJ"t!.

t::.. r; tJ"""t: fj: tot tJ" frttJ"tot

.J Of) (quiet) "') t::.. shizukada shizukada shizuka - shizuka - shizuka

- shizuka - dewanai datta dewanakat- nara(ba) ta frt tJ" t:.

tot rft tJ" t:.

tot tJ" rfttJ"""t: tbhff ",,12

t::..12 shizukajanai shizukaja - shizukade- nakatta areba Copula t!. t!

""t: fj: tot '" ' t! "') t::.. ""t: 'J. tot tJ \ "') t::.. tot ty ('

f) (be) da da dewanai datta dewanakat- nara(ba) ta t:.

tot '" ,12 t:.

tot tJ" "') ""t: tbh':f t::.. 12 janai janakatta deareba

11 Borrowed adjectives (including Chinese-origin adjectives) and

such auxiliary adjectives as -yoda (look like), -mitaida (look like), -
soda (look) are all na- adjecti ves.

APPENDIXES 581
adverbial prenoml- formal, formal, formal, formal, te-form nal nonpast
neg., past neg., nonpas t past *

<-r *

<*

L\ *

L\

t" *

<N>

tJ\

t::.. *

<N>t) i: -tt A}S

t" i:-ttIv

1.... t::.. 13 6kikute okiku okii oki idesu oki kuari- okikatta okikuari -
masen desu masen - deshita *

< tot"" *

< tottp

t"IS

t::..

t"13 okikunai- okikuna - desu kattadesu J:<-r .1:< """" """"

t" J:<;t;,
i: J: tp

t::..

J:<N>

i: -tt Iv 13 t" -tt Iv

1....t::.. 13 yokute yoku /I iidesu yokuari - yokatta- yokuari - masen

desu masende- shita .t < tot""

.t < tot 'IJ

t"13 t::..

t"IS yokunai- yoku- desu nakatta- desu r;'IJ

r; 'IJ

,;: 1ft 'IJ

tot r;'IJ

t" r;'IJ

'i

r; 'IJ

1.... t::.. r; 'IJ

tt N>

i:-ttlv t)i:-ttlv

1....t::.. shizuka - shizukani shizukana shizuka- shizuka - shizuka-

shizuka- de desu dewaari- deshita dewaari- masen masen - deshi ta
r; 'IJ

1:

N> r; 'IJ

1:

N>

i: -tt Iv 12 t)i:-ttlv

1.... t::.. 12 shizukaja - shizukaja - arimasen 8rimasen - deshita

- (J)/

t"

'i

i:

1....t::..

tt N> t) i: -ttlv -tt Iv

1....t::.. de - no / dearu desu dewaari- deshita dewaari- masen
l11asen - deshita 1:

N>

i: 1:

i: -tt Iv 12 -tt Iv

1....t::.. 12 jaarima - jaarima- sen sendeshita

12 Ja is the colloquial form of dewa. 13 -naidesu / -nakattadesu

expresses a stronger feeling of negation than -arimasen / -
arimasendeshita.

582 APPENDIXES Appendix 2 Semantic Classification of Verbs and

Adjectives A. Stative verbs: A stative verb usually does not appear
with the auxiliary verb iru. (b 0 ((of an inanimate thing) exist); aru -c.*
0 (can do); dekiru (All the potential verbs are stative. ""0 ((of an
animate thing) exist); iru "" 0 (need) iru (e.g., 0 (can drink)) nomeru
B. Continual verbs: A continual verb with the auxiliary verb iru
expresses the progressive aspect. ft"o (eat); tr (drink); taberu nomu
1k? (sing); i* < (swim); utau oyogu Uttr (read); :ff< (write); yomu kaku
,Jt-tto (show); ? (use); miseru tsukau t!A T 0 (study); 1R (fly);
benkyosuru tobu tJ;; < (walk); * 0 (run); ijfi 0 (dance); aruku hashiru
odoru t.j':) (wait); T (talk); rIf1 < (hear); matsu hanasu kiku o (see); m
< (cry); ;t 0 (teach); miru naku oshieru 1'fo (make); ? (laugh); 1*tr
(rest); tsukuru warau. yasumu -n;to (think); ? (meet); tttr (live);
kangaeru au sumu C. Stative-continual verbs: A stative-continual
verb can be either a stative verb or a continual verb. ;to (be visible);
rIf1 ;to (be audible); 7ti1 0 (understand); iI? mieru kikoeru wakaru
chigau (differ); P.1 ? (become; be suitable) niau D. Punctual verbs: A
punctual verb with the auxiliary verb iru expresses a repeated action
or a state after an action was taken or something took place. o (get
to know); JE (die); ;gtLo (forget); iiT (lend); shiru shinu wasureru
kasu (borrow); m (jump); ty':) (hit); tHo (get out); tobu utsu deru flf o
kariru Ao (enter); hairu

APPENDIXES 583

ft

(stand); JM.'5 (sit down);

.'5 (get up);

T.'5 (marry); tatsu suwaru okiru kekkonsuru ff< (go); *.'5 (come); fflI.'5
(return); 13; (say); ibJ:f.'5 (give); iku kuru kaeru iu ageru b

; (get); 1&:tL.'5 (get tired); m.'5 (get into trouble); *.'5 (get on); morau
tsukareru komaru noru Mr"!.'5 (begin (v.i.»;

b.'5 (end (v.i.»; 00 < (open (v.i.»; M *-.'5 (close hajimaru owaru aku
shimaru (v.i.»; f,t.'5 (become); tt< (arrive); IfNtL.'5 (clear up); jt;t.'5
naru tsuku hareru oboeru (remember);

.'5 (go to bed); 11:*-.'5 (stop (v.i.» Jt.'5 (kick); ft< neru tomaru keru
tsuku (be attached); it; (match); 11:

.'5 (stop (v.t.» au yameru

E. Continual-punctual verbs: A continual-punctual verb can be either
a continual verb or a punctual verb.

#.'5 (wear); 1&.'5 (take);

b.'5 (change (v.i.»; ltXT.'5 (order) kiru toru kaw8ru chtJmonsuru

F. N on-volitional verbs: A non-volitional verb usually does not take

the volitional form, the im- perative form and the potential form. Non-
volitional verbs are classified into emotive verbs and non-emotive
verbs.

F -1. Non-volitional-emotive verbs: Most of the non-volitional-emotive

verbs can take an NP-o. (

04)

J: ;s;:

(be pleased);

L- tJ (be sad);

.'5 (be angry);

; yorokobu kanashimu okoru kirau (hate);

ftJ (like); m.'5 (get into trouble); =5 L- tJ (suffer) konomu komaru

kurushimu (Komaru and kurushimu do not take an NP-o. They take
either an NP-de or an NP-ni.) F -2. Non-volitional-non-emotive verbs:

-C-

.'5 (can do); \t'.'5 (need);

.'5 (get to know);

;t.'5 (be visible); dekiru iru shiru mieru rJf1;: ;t.'5 (be audible); 7ti1

.'5 (understand); i!!; (differ); P-1ft; kikoeru wakaru chigau niau

584 APPENDIXES

(become, be suitable); 1l£tLQ (get tired) tsukareru

G. Reciprocal verbs: A reciprocal verb takes the particle to for the

direct object.

t"Q (marry); It Atn\TQ (fight); kekkonsuru kenkasuru

"":)n\Q (bump into); m

t"Q (consult) butsukaru sodansuru

...? au
(meet);

? au

(match) ;

H. Movement verbs: A movement verb can take V masu ni to

express a purpose.

fT < (go); * Q (come); Iku kuru (ft

Q (stop by) (tachi)yoru

Q (return); A Q (enter); kaeru haffU

l:H Q (get out); deru

APPENDIXES 585 Appendix 3 Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive

Verbs Intransitive Verb Transitive Verb At. -eru -+ -asu tHo (get out)
tH-r (take out) deru dasu f-5 (run away) T (let run away) nigeru
nigasu ffi. t -5 (dissolve) m \T (dissolve) tokeru tokasu #i.tt-5 (wither)
t.5GT (let wither) k areru karasu A 2. -eru -+ -yasu ;to (get cold) -r
(make cold) hieru hiyasu !£;to (grow) !£ -r (grow) haeru hayasu B. -
iru -+ -osu -5 (get / wake up) ;:T (get / wake up) okiru okosu 0 (get
off) 0-r (take / bring down) oriru orosu -;t.'t?-5 (drop) l c-r (drop)
ochiru otosu J/EJ 0 (elapse) J/EJ::::-r (spend) sugiru sugosu c. -u -+
-eru 00< (open) 00 It 0 (open) aku akeru Jai< (reach) Jai It 0 (deliver)
todoku todokeru u (shrink) o (shrink) chijlmu chijimeru ff (grow) ff-ro
(raise) soda tsu soda teru ft (stand) ft-ro (stand) tatsu tateru

586 APPENDIXES

D. -ru --+ -seru

o (get on)

-tto (put on) noru noseru *0 (approach) ;tfito (let come near) yoru
yoseru E. -ru --+ -su

)o (return)

)T (return) kaeru kaesu iifio (pass) ilfi-r (pass) toru tosu @]o (turn)
@]-r (turn) mawaru mawasu if{o (be fixed) iti-r (fix) naoru naosu F. -
reru --+ -su

tLo (be detached)

-r (detach) hanareru hanasu fftJtLo (fall down) ffIJ-r (push / knock

down) taoreru taosu "":)

tLo (crush) "":)

-r (crush) tsubureru tsubusu J:

.tLo (get dirty) J:

T (make dirty) yogoreru yogosu m(

)tLo (appear) m(

)-r (represent) arawareru arawasu

btLo (break)

b-r (break) kowareru kowasu G1. -aru --+ -eru J:

o (rise) J: If 0 (raise) agaru ageru

*-o (be decided)

6f)0 (decide) kimaru kimeru rlJ *- 0 (close) M

.:, (close) shimaru shimeru t!*-o (gather) .600 (gather) atsumaru

atsumeru

a*-o (begin)

a 60 0 (begin) hajimaru hajimeru

APPENDIXES 587

itIi"1o (heighten) itIi

o (heighten) takamaru taka m eru

*o (harden)
o (harden) katamaru katameru

':)

o (be found)

':) It 0 (find) mitsukaru mitsukeru

o (hang)

It 0 (hang) kakaru kakeru Jlh

o (be saved) Jlh It 0 (save) tasukaru tasukeru G 2. -waru -+ -eru

(f'\;) b 0 (change)

(f'\;) ;t 0 (change) kawaru kaeru

bo (convey)

;to (convey) tsutawaru tsutaeru :bUbo G oi n) :bU;to (add) kuwawaru

kuwaeru H. --eru -+ -u

Ito (burn)

< (burn) yakeru yaku xtLo (sell) ,t.o (sell) ureru uru J&tLo (come off)
J&o (take) toreru toru mtLo (cut) mo (cut) kireru kiru

tLo (tear) ilio (tear) yabureru yaburu mtLo (break) mo (break) oreru
oru t1JtL 0 (break) ttJo (break) wareru waru
Ito (come out)

< (pull out) nukeru nuku 11 e It 0 (be untied) lIe < (untie) hodokeru
hodoku 1Btlf 0 (come off) 1Bt <

(take off) nugeru nugu

588 APPENDIXES

I. Others jl;t.'5 (be visible) jl.'5 (see) mieru miru afl.:.;t.'5 (be audible)
afl< (hear) kikoeru kiku 1J:!j;t.'5 (be extinguished) '1J:!j-r (extinguish)
kieru kesu A.'5 (enter) An.'5 (put in) hairu ireru 7tn\n.'5 (get
separated) 7} ,t .'5 (separate) wakareru wakeru f.'fb .'5 (end) *

;t.'5 / *

b.'5 (end) owaru oeru / owaru

Notes (I} The" -u --+ -asu" pattern is not included in this list because
this pattern applies to all intransitive Gr. 1 verbs, changing them into
the causative form (i.e., the transitive form). (2) Suru' do' vs. naru
'become' and korosu 'kill' vs. shinu 'die' make pairs of transitive and
intransitive verbs, though the two in each pair have no phonological
element in common.

APPENDIXES 589 Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important

Expressions A. Vneg+ (Gr. 2: Vstem+ (without doing -) ) - tet '" , -c,; -
nai de - {tet fttL i / tet < -C Ij: / bJj'} tet tet "" - {nakereba / naku te wa /
neba} naranai - {tet < -C Ij: / tet It tL i / tet "" c!::} "" ft tet \t' (must do -
(Obligation» - {nakute wa / nakereba / naito} ikenai - tet < -C t """"
(do not have to do -) - nakutemo ii - tet < tet Q - naku naru - f ,=- - zu
ni (do not do - anymore) (without doing -) B. Vmasu+ -HiT - dasu -
ali) Q - hajimeru -jj - ka ta -*'L-J:; - masho - tet tJ; - nagara - tet "" -
nasal - ,=- (fT < ) - ni (iku) - ,=- < "" - nikui jO - ,=- tet Q o - ni naru jO-
TQ o - suru -* bQ - owaru (begin to do -) (begin to do -) (how to do -;
way of doing -) (Let's do -; I (We) will do -) (while doing -) (Do -
(Polite imperative» «go) to do -) (hard to do -) (do - (Honorific» (do -
(Humble) (finish doing -)

590 APPENDIXES

-:t oj t!. - soda --r€.'5 - sugiru - t::.. " \ - tai -

-r"\ - yasui

(It looks like - will do -)

(do - excessively)

(want to do -)

(easy to do -)

-11 oj

;,,\,,\ - ho ga ii -
t L-tLtet" \ - kamoshirenai -

L- t J /

tet 'OJ (-, I wonder) - kashira / - kana - IttL c t t (although) - keredomo

-

c!:: Ii t - kOlO wa -1J. t::.. " \ t!. - mitaida - (Q» tet

t - (no) nara -

't?

;,,\tet"\ - ni chigainai - (Q) / At} t!. -{no/n} da - Q)-c,;t - node - Q)

t - noni

c. Vinf + -rp' O

)t - aida (ni) - t!. It - dake - t=. 0 oj - daro -lif - hazu

(while)

(j us t)
(probably)

(It is expected that -)

(had better do -; I s ugges t - do -)

(might)

(indeed - (but»

(It appears that -)

(if)

(must (Certainty»

(It is that -; The fact is that is that -) (since; because)

The explanation
-.,

(in spite of the fact that -)

-Q)li-t!. (It is - that -) - no wa - da

L-

' - rashii - L-t - shi -.:t ? t!. - soda -

t - toki - b It t!. - wake da - J: ? t!. - yoda - J: ? ,=. t - yon; t The formal

form can also be used in very polite speech. t The formal form can
also be used in rather polite speech.

APPENDIXES 591

(It seems that -)

(- and)

(I heard that -)
(when)

(No wonder -; It means that -: That's why -)

(It appears that -)

(in such a way that -; as - do -)

D. Vinf. nonpast + -;:: c!::

ib Q (There are times when) - koto ga aru -;:: c!::

-c.*

Q (can do -) - koto ga dekiru - ;:: c!:: ,=. tet Q (It's been decided that
-) - koto ni naru -;:: c!:: ,=.tet"'? -C

'Q (It is a rule that -; be supposed to do -) - koto ni natte ;ru -;:: c!:: ,:.
t" Q (decide that -) - koto ni suru - ;:: c!:: ,=. L- -C "" Q (make it a rule
to do -) - koto ni shite iru - *- -c.*t (till) - made - *- -c.* ,=. t (by the
time when) - made ni -wH=.t (before) - mae ni

- b Q) t!. - mono da -tet - na

- Q),=.t - no ni

(should do -)

(Don't do -)

(in order to do -)

592 APPENDIXES - t::.

(in order to do -; because) - tame -<!:t (if; when) - to - <!: =- 0 t!. (be
about to do -) - tokoro da --0 t

t!. (intend to do -) - tsumori da - ? t:J

::.. t (while) - uchi ni - J: ?

::.. tct Q (come to do -) - yoni naru - J: ?

T Q (try to do -) - yoni suru

t The formal, nonpast form can also be used in very polite speech.

E. Vinf. past +
-d.><!:

- ato de - =- <!: n

d.> Q - koto ga aru - t (f) t!. - mono da -

- ra

(after)

(have done - (Experience»

(used to do -)

(if; when)

- t'J C ?

Tn\ (Why don't you do -?; How about doing -?) - ra dodesu ka -

T Q (do things like doing - and doing -) - ri - ri suru

- t::.

t - tame

--?"'(

- tte - <!: =- 0 t!. - tokoro da - -0 t

t!. - tsumori da

(because)

(even if)

(have just done -; just did -)

(mean; believe)

t The formal, past form can also be used in rather polite speech.

APPENDIXES 593
F. V te + -u.,tfQ - ageru -u.,Q - aru -Ill.,

' - hoshii -

, < - iku

- iru

- tp.

- kara - < t!.

, - kudasai -<nQ - kureru -<Q - kuru -J..}.Q - miru -t

- mo - t

, - mo /I -t

? - morau -:.t3< - oku - 1..,"1 ? - shimau -Ii

' '1 tct

, - wa ikenai
(do - for s.o.)

(have been done)

(want s.o. to do -)

(do - and go; keep doing - from now on)

(be doing -; have done -)

(after)

(Please do -)

(s.o. does - for me)

(do - and come; come to do -)

(do - and see; try to do -)

(even if; even though)

(may (Permission»

(have s.o. do - for me)

(do - in advance)

(have done -; finish -)

(must not do -)

G. Vcond+ - If J: n\

- ba yokatta

(Gr. 2: Vstem+re+ (I wish - had done -)

)
H. Vvol +

- J: ? <!: ,"c!, ? - yo to omou -J:;<!:TQ - yo to suru

(- think - will do -)

(try to do -)

594- APPENDIXES I. Adj(!)inf + - rJt' 0;:) (while) - aida (n!) - t!. ft

(just) - dake

- t!. 0 ? (probabl y) - dar6 - f'if (It is expected that -) - hazu -IJ

t Lhtct

\ (might) - kamo shirenai -IJ

I -1J

tct

(-, I wonder) - kashira I - kana - fth

t t (although) - keredomo -;:

f'i- (indeed (but» - kOlO wa - - (q) tct

(if) - (no) nara - J;: 't:> IJ

\tct

\ (must (Certainty» - ni chigainai - (Q) IIv t.:} (It is that -; The fact is
that -; The explanation - (no I n}da is that -) - Q)

t (since; because) - node - Q) J;: t (in spite of the fact that -)

- noni - Q) f'i - t.: (It is - that -) - no wa - da -

\ (It seems that -) - rash,.,. -Lt (and) - shi - -t' ? t.: (I heard that -) -
soda -"k'iJ (because) - tame -Ittj (when) - toki ---:>t

(believe) - tsumori

APPENDIXES 595

(N 0 wonder -; That's why -)

- b't t.: - wake da - J: ? t!. - y6da t The formal form can also be used
in very polite speech. t The formal form can also be used in rather
polite speech.

(It appears that -)

J. Adj(i)inf · nonpast +

- .:. <!: n;tb Q - kOlO ga aru -c - to

- ? 't:>

::.. - uchi ni

(There are times when)

(when, if)

(while)

K. Adj(i)inf. past +

- .:. <!: n;tb Q - koto ga aru -

- ra

(There were times when)

(if; when)

TQ (- is sometimes - and sometimes -) - ri - ri suru -

"'C (even if) - tte

L. Adj(i)te + -t

(even if; even though)

- mo - t

, - mo /I - t=.

tct

' - tamaranai

(It is all right if -)

(unbearably)

M. Adj(i)stem+

-n;Q - garu -J..}.

- ml

(show the sign of)

[Noun form of Adj(i)]

596 APPENDIXES

[Noun form of Adj(i)]

- sa
-.:t ? t.!. - soda --r

Q - sugiru

(look)

(excessively)

N. Adj(na)stem + {

:tta} + -rI'110:.) (while) - aida (ni) - t.: ,t (only) - dake -lif (It is expected
that -) - hazu

- ::. <!: Ii -

(indeed - (but»

- kOlO wa - ((f) I Iv) t.: - {no I n}da -(f)

- node

(It is that -; The fact is that -; The explanation is that -) (since;

because)
- (f)

:. - noni

(in spite of the fact that -)

-(f)li-t.: (It is - that -) - no wa - da - t:. 'i) (because) - tame -P!t (when) -

toki --0 t

(mean; believe) - tsumori -b'tt.: (No wonder -; That's why -) - wake da

- J: ? t!. (It appears that -) - yoda

o { Adj(na )stem } + { da } + . N datta -fth

tt (although) - keredomo - l..,t (and) - shi

APPENDIXES 597

(I heard that -)

-.:t ? t.=. - soda t The formal form of da I datta (i.e., desu I deshita)
can also be used In rather polite speech.
P.

{ Adj(na)stem } + { 0 } + N da tta - t!. 0 ? (probabl y) - daro - n

t l..,htct

' (might) - kamoshirenai - n

l..,

/-n

tct OJ (-, I wonder) - kashira I - kana - tct

(if) - nara

::.. t:>n

'tct

, - ni chigainai -

l..,

' - rashl'i

(must (Certainty»
(It seems -)

Q. {Adj(n

stem} +da+ - <!: t (when; if) - to t The formal form of da (i.e., desu)
can also be used in very polite speech.

R. Adj(na)stem+na+

- .:. <!: n

(b Q - koto ga aru - ? t:>

::.. - uchi ni

(There are ti mes when -)

(while)

s. {Adj(nN)stem} +datta+ -.:. <!: n

OJ Q (There were times when -) - koto ga aru -

t (if; when)

- ra
-

TQ - ri - ri suru

(- is someti mes - and someti mes -)

598 APPENDIXES

---:>-C

(even if)

- tte t The formal form of datta (i.e., deshita) can also be used in
rather polite speech.

T. {Adj(n

)stem} +de + - t (even if; even though)

- mo - t

,
, - mo ii

(It is all right if -)

u. Adj(na)stem + -

[Noun form of Adj(na)]

- sa

- f: ? t!. (look) - soda -T

Q (excessively) - sugiru

v. N + {

tta} + -rJt' 0:.) (during; while) - aida (ni) - fif (It is expected that -) -
hazu - t::. 'i) (for; because of; because) - tame -P!i (at the time of;
when) - toki ---:>t

(mean; believe) - tsumori - J: ? t!. (It appears that -; look) - yoda

w. N + {d:tta} + - ((f) I Iv} t!. - {no I n)da -(f)

 - node

(I t is that -; The fact is that is that -) (since; because)

-.,

The explanation

APPENDIXES 599

- (f) Ie. - noni - (/) Ii - t!. - no wa

(in spite of the fact that -)

(I t is - that -)

da

x. N +no+ - ; 't:> Ie. - uchi ni

(while)

600 APPENDIXES Appendix 5 Ko-so-a-do Non-Modifier What is

being Demonstrati ve Direction Location talked about is Pronoun
nonpolite close to the speaker 1'L - .... "?'t:> '- '-- kore koko kotchi
(this) (here) (this way) close to the hearer -fen -fe;: -fe"?'t:> sore
soko sotchi (that) (there) (that way) removed from both n .:t;: "?'t:>
the speaker and the are asoko atchi hearer (that over there) (over
there) (that way over there) being questioned cn c.. c"?'t:> dore doko
dotchi (Which?) (Where?) (Which way?) Notes 1. Ko-so-a-do of
direction can be used to refer to persons as well as things, places
and directions, as in: (1) a . 1:» Ii I1J fI) Iv"'f To KochiTa wa Yamada-
san desu. (This is Mr. Yamada.) b. ? 1:» (fYJi t; 1<'" J:. 0 K 0 tchi no
ho ga yasui yo. (This one is cheaper, you know.) c. j3-¥iSt"'I'j: 1:»
"'fTo O-tearai wa kochiTa desu. (The toilet is this way.) d. ? 1:» t;
mQ).t.:o Kotchi ga boku no kuruma da. (This one is my car.)

APPENDIXES 601

Modifier Demonstrative Kinds Manner polite Adjective

t:>

(f)

Ivt.t

? kochira kono konna ko (this way) (this -) (this kind of) (like this) -fe

-fe(f) -felv t.t -fe? sochira so no sonna so (that way) (that -) (that kind
of) (like that)
t:>

(f)

Iv t.t

d.> achira ano anna a (that way over (that - over there) (that kind of)
(like that) there)

t:>G

(f)

Iv t.t

? dochira dona donna do (Which way?) (Which -?) (What kind of?)
(How?)

2. The so-series can be used to direct attention to a referent

removed from both the speaker and the hearer if information about
the referent has been given to the hearer, as in: (2) A:

(f) ;.

I:.ff"':)-c*t:.J:o Kino kuruma de mizuumi ni itte kita yo. (Yesterday I

went to a lake by car.) B : -t'O)mH:'f'j:

i1

't:.n
'? Sono mizuumi ni wa sakana ga ita kai? (Were there fish in the
lake?) 3. The speaker feels most empathetic with an item referred to
by the ko- series, because the item is closest to him. On the other
hand, the speaker feels least empathetic with an item referred to by
the a-series, because the item is removed from him and his hearer.

602 APPENDIXES Appendix 6 Numerals and Counters A. Numerals

N ati ve Japanese Sino-Japanese Numerals 1 - ( "':) ) 1 - 11 + - 21
=+- hito( -tsu) ichi ju-ichi ni-ju-ichi 2 - ( "':) ) 2 - 12 + - 22 =+= - - -
futa( -tsu) ni ju-ni ni-ju-ni 3 =: ("':) ) 3 - 13 + - 30 - + - mit( -tsu) san ju-
san san-ju 4 IlY ("':) ) 4- pg 14 + IlY 40 IlY + yot( -tsu) {yon . - {yon
yon} .- shi JU- h' h. -JU s , s , 5 3i. ("':) 5 3i. 15 + 3i. 50 3i. + itsu( -
tsu) go ju-go go-ju 6 ....1- ( "':) ) 6 ....14 16 + ...L. 60 ...L. + /'\ /'\ /'\ /,
mut( -tsu) roku ju-roku roku -ju 7 -t; ( "':) ) 7 -t; 17 + -t; 70 -t; + nana( -
tsu) shichi JU- {ShiChi ShiCh'} .- nana nana -JU 8 1\ ("':) 8 1\ 18 + J\
80 1\ + yat( -tsu) hachi ju-hachi hachi-Ju 9 jL ( "':) ) 9 JL 19 + :JL 90
:JL + kokono( -tsu) {kYU . - {kYU kyu-ju ku JU- ku 10 + 10 + 20 - +
100 a - t6 ju ni-ju hyaku Notes 1. The native Japanese numeral
system is used from 1 to 10 only. For numbers greater than 10 the
Sino-J apanese numeral system is used. The parenthesized - tsu is
a counter for things. 2. 1,000 is usually read as sen, not as is-sen. 3.
Telephone numbers are given in Sino-Japanese numerals. For
example,

APPENDIXES 603

Numerals 126 TI=+* 1,352 T

+= 100,000 + 7i hyaku-ni- sen -san- ju-man ju-roku byaku-go- ju-ni

200 - B 2,000 - T 1,000,000 a 7i - - ni -h yaku ni-sen hyaku- man 300
- a 3,000 - T 10,000,000 -Tn san-byaku san-zen is-sen- man 400 IlY
a- 4,000 IlY T 100,000,000 - 11 yon -h yaku yon-sen iehi-oku 500

a 5,000

T 1,000,000,000 +

go-hyaku go -sen ju-oku 600

a- 6,000

T 10,000,000,000 a . /, /, rop-pyaku roku-sen hyaku- oku 700

a 7,000

T 100,000,000,000 (-) T1I nana- Shiehi} -sen (is- )sen- hyaku nana
oku 800 1\ a- 8,000 1\ T 1,000,000,000,000 -

t hap-pyaku has-sen it - eh 6 900 it A 9,000 it T kyu-hvaku kyu -sen

1,000 T 10,000 - 7i sen iehi-man

389-2681 is read as " san-haehi-kyu-no, ni-roku-haehi-iehi".

However, 4 and 7 are often read as yon and nana, respectively. 4.
The year according to the Western calendar is given in Sino-}
apanese numerals followed by nen, the counter for year. Thus, 1984
is read as " sen-kyuhyaku-haehiju-yo(n)nen".

604 APPEND I XES

B. Counters (The following chart lists some commonly-used

counters.)
Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E tt * U! ffit J{ -mai -hon -ka -
satsu -peji (thin (long (lesson) (volume) (page) object: object: paper,
pencil, ticket stick, etc. ) etc. ) 1 - tt -* -U! -ffit - Ji iehi-mai ip-pon ik-ka
is-satsu i P } -.. iehi -peJI 2 =tt =* =U! =ffit =J{ ni-mai ni-hon ni-ka ni-
satsu ni-peji 3 - tt - * - U! - ffit - J{ - - - - san-mai san-bon san -ka san-
satsu san-peji 4 IlY tt IlY * IlY U! IlY ffit IlY J{ yo(n)-mai yon-hon yon-
ka yon-satsu yon-peji 5 3i. tt 3i. * 3i. U! 3i. ffit 3i. J{ go -mai go-hon
go-ka go-satsu go-peji 6

tt

U!

ffit

J{ /, /, /, /, /, roku-mai rop-pon rok-ka roku-satsu rOkU} -" rop -pejl 7 -

t; tt -t; * -t: U! -t: ffit -t; J{ nana } . na'}a .} -hon nana } nana } nana} --.
shieh; -mal shiehi -ka h' h. -satsu h. h' -pejl shlehl s Ie I s Ie I 8 1\ tt
1\ * 1\ iiI 1\ ffit 1\ :ri haehi-mai haehi-hon

/} -ka has-satsu haeh;} -peji hap-pon hap 9 :fL tt :fL * :fL U! :fL ffit :fL
J{ kyu-mai kyu-hon kyu-ka kyu-satsu kyu-peji 10 +tt + * + U! + ffit +
J{ ju-mai jup-pon juk-ka jus-satsu jup-peji

APPENDIXES 60S

Type F Irregular Types IiJi A t] f3 I!$f -to -nin -ka -nieh; -ban (head of
(people) (day of (day) (night) cattle) the month) - Iij - A - f3 - f3 - I!$f
it-to hi tori tsuitaehi iehi-niehi hito-ban =

Ji - A - rJ - EI - I!$f - - - - n i-to fu tar; futsu-ka futsu-ka futa-ban -

Ji - A - J] - EI I!$f - - - - - san-to san-nin mik -ka mik-ka mi -ban (lY

Ji IlY A IlY EI IlY a IlY I!$f yon-to yo-nin yok-ka yok-ka yo-ban Ji.

Ji 11. A 3i. a 11. fJ Ji. I!$f go-to go-nin itsu-ka itsu-ka go-ban go-niehi

1lJ{ ....I

fJ ....1- f3 ....1- I!$f /, /, /, /, /, roku - to roku-nin mui-ka mui-ka roku-

ban roku-niehi -t;

-t; A -t; n -t; f3 -t; I!$f nana} - nana} . nano-ka nano-ka nana-ban
shiehi -to h. h. -nln shiehi -niehi s Ie I 1\

Ji 1\ A 1\ fI 1\ fI 1\ I!$f hat-to haehi-nin yo-ka yo-ka haehi-ban haehi-

niehi 11 :UJi 11 A :it J=f jL f3 :JL I!$f kyu-to Z

u} -nin kokono-ka kokono-ka kyu-ban ku-niehi + l1Jt + A + f3 + n

+I!$f jut-to ju-nin to-ka to-ka ju-ban

606 APPENDIXES

Notes ]. Depending on the initial sound of a counter, the

pronunCiation of the number and / or the counter changes. Counters
are classified according to the phonetic modifications they undergo.
Type A counters are straight- foward cases of Sino-Japanese
Number+Counter, with no phonetic modi- fications. The following is a
chart of phonetic modifications for Type B through Type F. If there is
no entry for a given number it indicates that there is no phonetic
modification for that particular number. As for the remaining irregular
types, you have to memorize them piecemeal.
Type B Type C Type D Type E Type F Numbers h- k- s- p- t- 1 [ipp- ]
[ikk- ] [iss- ] [ipp- ] [itt-] 3 [sanb- ] 6 [ropp- ] [rokk- ] ([ropp- ]) 8 ([happ-
]) ([hakk- ]) [hass- ] ([happ- D [hatt- ] 10 [jupp- ] [jukk - ] [juss- ] [jupp]
[jutt- ]

([ ]) indicates that [] is optional. 2. The 20th day of the month and 20

days are not nijunichi but hatsuka. 'Twenty years old' is referred to as
hatachi. 3. The following is a list of other examples of each type:
Type A: f(f -bai ' time' 1ft: -ban 'ordinal number'

-do ' frequency ,

-j6 ' tatami mat' 1m -bu 'part' ffii -men 'newspaper page' Type A':
(Exactly the same as Type A except that number 4 is pro- nounced
yo not yon.)

-ji ' o'clock '

rp' -jikan 'hour'

-nen 'year' Type A": (Exactly the same as Type A except that
numbers 4, 7 and 9 are pronounced shi, shichi and ku, respectively.)
JJ -gatsu 'name of the month' Type A''': (Exactly the same as Type A
except that the initial sound of the counter with number 3 changes
from wa to ba.) 3PJ -wa 'bird' Type B:

-hai 'cup of' m; -hiki ' animal' Type B': (Exactly the same as Type B
except that the initial sound of the counter with number 3 is not b-
but p-.)

Type C:

Type C':
Type D: Type D':

Type E: Type F:

APPENDIXES 607

re -haku 'stay (overnight)' :$t -hun 'minute' ipJJ -ka getsu ' month' @]
-kai ' frequency'

-kan 'volume' 1\1 -ko 'piece' (Exactly the same as Type C except that
the initial sound of the counter with number 3 can be either k- or g-.)
P.f -kai ' floor' iJ. -sai '-year old '

-so 'boat' (Exactly the same as Type D except that the initial sound of
the counter with number 3 is z- not s-.)

-soku 'foot gear'

t: - pondo 'pound'

-to' class, grade'

-ton' ton' iifi - tsu 'letter'

608 APPENDIXES Appendix 7 Compound Words A compound is a
word that consists of two or more independent words with a meaning
which cannot be predicted from the combination of the constituent
elements. For example, hana 0 miru means' to see flowers', but the
compound version hana-mi means specifically' the viewing of cherry
blossoms '. The following is a list of basic nominal, verbal and
adjectival compounds and their formation. Formation (A) Nominal
Compounds (a) Noun+ V masu (intransitive) (b) Noun+ V masu
(transitive) (c) Vmasu (intransitive)+ Noun (d) V masu (transitive) +
Noun Examples 7kiHa (dabbling in water) mizu-asobi (Lit. water-
play) !! (siesta) hiru-ne (Lit. noon-sleep) 11J (mountain climbing)
yama -nobori (Li t. mountain-climb) -m.J! (the viewing of cherry
blossoms) hana-mi (Lit. flower-view) A L- (manslaughter) hito-
goroshi (Lit. man-kill) ¥1t.7j.i1 (shoe polishing; shoeblack) kutsu-
migaki (Lit. shoe-polish) * (vehicle) nori-mono (Li t. ride-thing) ill (exit)
de-guchi (Lit. leave-mouth) }iift (nightcap) ne-zake (Lit. sleep-sake)
tx.7j.7k (drinking water) nomi-mizu (Lit. drink-water)

(e) V masu (intransitive) + V masu (intransitive)

(f) Adj(i)stem + Noun

(g) Adj(na)stem + Noun

(h) Noun+Noun

APPENDIXES 609

1tt
4o/J ( food) tabe-mono (Lit. eat-thing) flr

4o/J (borrowed thing) kari-mono (Lit. borrow-thing)

1:

(ascending and descending) nobori - ori (Lit. go up-go down) iliA

(going in and out) de-hairi (Lit. leave-enter) ff

(going and coming back) iki-kaeri (Lit. go-return)

i1* (secondhand book) furu -hon (Lit. old-book) J

U''J (black ship that came to kuro-fune Japan from America and
Europe during the Edo period) (Lit. black-boat) .o

f (a blue beard) ao-hige (Lit. blue-beard) :ti:

f&* (safety zone) anzen-chitai (Lit. safe-zone) 1ttlJfftJh (health food)

kenko-shokuhin (Lit. healthy-food) *

f*ti (calisthenics) jtJnan-tais6 (Lit. flexible-exercise)

)"

(freshwater fish) kawa-zakana (Lit. river-fish) k=f

1:. (co-ed) joshi-gakusei (Lit. female-student)

610 APPENDIXES

(0 Adj(l)stem + V masu

(B) Verbal Compounds

Vmasu+ Vinf · nonpast

(c) Adjectival Compounds (a) Adj(l)stem + Adj(i)

JRJj(*

(the University of Tokyo) Toky6-Daigaku (Lit. Tokyo-University) !f.:$tip

(quick understanding) haya-wakari (Li t. quick-understand) !f.

(early rising; early riser) haya-oki (Lit. early-get up)

a! (long talk) naga-banashi (Lit. long-talk)

bQ (walk around) aruki-mawaru (Lit. walk-go round) a!LipftQ (speak

to) hanashi-kakeru (Lit. talk-hang)

Lft? (discuss with) hanashi

au (Lit. talk-fit)

.7j.

ft Q (continue to read) yomi-tsuzukeru (Lit. read-continue) 1tA.Mii.>

Q (begin to eat) tabe-hajimeru (Lit. eat-begin) =-

b Q (finish writing) kaki -owaru (Lit. write-finish)

.Pf

\ (dim) usu-gurai (Lit. thin-dark) .J3

' (pale) ao-jiroi (Lit. blue-white) m

L \-' (formal) kata -kurushii (Lit. hard-painful)

APPENDIXES 611

(b) Noun + Adj(i)

Jt'%i

' (feel secure) kokoro-zuyoi (Lit. heart-strong)

HL

\ (hard to please) ki-muzukashii (Lit. spirit-difficult) 4t}]!

, (grateful) giri-gatai (Lit. obligation-hard)

Notes I n compound words, the initial voiceless consonant (i.e.,

plosives such as k-, t-; fricatives such as S-, h -, f-; affricates such as
ts-, ch-) of the second element of the compound tends to become
voiced as shown below: e.g. hito' man' + koroshi 'kill' -+ hitogoroshi '
manslaughter' ami ' net' + to 'door' -+ amido 'screcn door' ne 'sleep'
+sake 'rice wine' -+ nezake 'nightcap' naga 'long' +hanashi 'talk' -+
nagabanashi ' long talk' ki ' tree' + fune 'boat' -+ kibune 'wooden
vessel' kokoro 'heart' + tsuyoi 'strong' -+ kokorozuyoi 'feel secure'
hana 'nose' + chi ' blood' -+ hanaji ' nosebleed' Voicing, however,
does not normally take place if one of the following con- ditions is
met. 1. The second element is a borrowed word whose 'foreignness'
is still strongly felt. e.g. kyoiku' education' + terebi ' television' -+
kyoiku {

e d rebl b . . 'educational television' ere I kateiyo 'home use' +

konpyuta 'computer' -+ kateiyo { konpy

'home computer' *gonpyuta But if a borrowed word is free from'

foreignness', then voicing tends to take place. e.g. ame' rain' +
kappa ' Portuguese capa' -+ amagappa 'raincoat' iroha ' Japanese
alphabet' + karuta 'Portuguese carta' -+ iroha- garuta 'Japanese
alphabet cards' 2. The consonant of the second syllable of the
second element is voiced. e.g. hi' sun' +kage 'shade' -+ { h

kage 'shade' *hlgage l/shiro 'back' +sugata 'appearance' -+ {

ushi!osugata *ushlrozugata 'appearance from the back'

612 APPENDIXES Appendix 8 Improving Reading Skill by

Identifying an · Extended Sentential Unit' In Japanese, the most
important principle of word order is that the modifier precedes what
is being modified. (t:) Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 1. Word
Order) The typical modifier modified \vord order in Japanese can be
summarized as follows: MODIFIER + MODIFIED MEANING Adjecti
ve + Noun :Jot L;S\--' A C an interesting omoshiroi hito person'
(interesting) (person) Adverb + Adjecti ve c!:-ct * \--\ ' very big'
totemo okii (very) (big) Adverb + Verb < < 'walk fast' ha yaku aruku
(quickly) (walk) Noun + Particle -=ffft tJ C a child (subject)' kodomo
ga (child) (subject) 96!:E ,.:. 'to a teacher' sensei ni (teacher) (to) .
Sentence + Conjunction * M? tJ t:J ' because I buy hon 0 kau kara
books ' «I) buy books) (because) m tJ; "? t=. It tL E t ' although it
rained' ame ga futta keredomo (it rained) (although)

APPENDIXES 613

Sentence + Nominalizer

OOi

Jlo Q)I::..

' to see a movie' eiga 0 miru no / koto (see a movie) (to; -ing) .
Sentence + Modal lb L t::. filfNtL 0 J:. ? t!. 'It looks like it will Ashita
wa hareru y6da clear up tomorrow' (It will clear up (it appears)
tomorrow) f£< fi

\--\ Iv t!. ' It is that I am Boku wa wakai n da young' (I am young) (It is

that)

Let's call the cohesive unit of modifier + modified an Extended

Sentential Unit (= ES U). 1 f all ES Us started at the beginning of the
sentence, students would have no trouble identifying them. But in
reality an ES U often comes some- where between the beginning
and the end of a sentence. Moreover, in written Japanese an ESU is
quite frequently embedded \vithin another ESU. The ability to identify
each ESU in a complex sentence is a must for reading com-
prehension.

The following examples will serve to illustrate this point. (1) a. fLfi I

.I

* t!.it"'? -C \--' 0 0 Watashi wa Ijishol 0 mada tsukatte iru. (I'm still

using the dictionary.) b. fLfi/j\

t,;. 1

.I

* t!.it "'? -C \--\ 0 0 Watashi wa chisana Ijisho I 0 mada tsukatte iru.

(I'm still using the small dictionary.) c. fLfi:X:tJ<ji-:>"'C <tLt:;,j\

t,;. I

.1

'1t!.it"'?-c\--\oo Watashi wa chichi ga katte kUTeta chisana I jisho I 0

mada tsukatte iru. (I'm still using the small dictionary which my father
bought for me.) d. fLfiq:a

f=A. -:> t:;

f=:X:tJ<ji -:>"'C < tLt:;,j\

t,;. 1

.I

* t!.it"'? -C \--\0 0 Watashi wa ch iigaku ni haitta toki ni chichi ga katte

kUTeta chis ana I jisho I 0 mada tsukatte iru. (I'm still using the
dictionary which my father bought for me when 1 entered junior high
school.)
614 APPENDIXES

If we choose jisho ' dictionary' as the modified word, where does its
modifier start in each sentence of example (I)? In other words,
exactly what part of each sentence is the ESU? Since (Ia) obviously
doesn't have any modifier, there is no ESU. How about in (Ib)? The
modifier is a simple adjective chisana 'small'. In (Ic) the modifier is
the entire relative clause which starts with chichi ga C father
(subject) '. Notice that the sentence-initial noun phrase watashi wa ' I
(subject / topic)' is not a part of the ES U in question, because
watashi wa is the subject of the main verb tsukatte iru ' am using '.
Sentence (ld) is the most complex sentence of the four. Where does
the ESU for jisho start in (ld)? It starts from chtJgaku 'junior high
school', because the clause chtJgaku ni haitta toki ni C when (I)
entered junior high school' modi- fies the verb katte kureta '(he)
bought for me '. A quick and accurate identification of an ES U is a
prerequisite for reading comprehension. The following is a list of
guidelines which will help students to identify ESUs in written
Japanese. Guideline I A modified element (= m.e.) is typically a
noun, a head noun of a relative clause, a nominalizer no or koto, a
coordinate or a subordinate conjunction (such as ga 'but', kara
'because', keredomo 'although '), a modal (such as hazu da C it is
expected that -', no da 'it is that -', yoda C it appears that -', soda 'I
hear that - '), an adjective, a verb or a particle, as shown in the
MODIFIER+MODIFIED chart. Guideline II If an element preceding
an m.e. modifies some element that comes after the m.e., that
element is outside the ES U. Thus, if kyo C today' in (2) is judged to
modify itta ' said', an element that comes after the m.e. to 'quote
marker', kyo is outside the ESU. But, if the same adverb is judged to
modify nai 'there isn't', then the adverb is a part of the ESU. (2)

fj:
8 ttatJ<fl L \ [I] -g "? t::. o Jon wa kyo jugyo ga nai [!Q] itta. (Today
John said that there wasn't any class. / John said that there isn't
class today.) Guideline I I I A sentence-initial topic phrase Noun
Phrase + wa(,) is very often considered outside an ES U, especially
when the topic phrase is the main subject of the sentence. The same
is true of a Noun Phrase+mo(,).

APPENDIXES 615

Some more examples follow: (3) a. fLfi I tTmtJ(

t=":)t:: It.J

l fjftt

t.J

"?t

o Watashi wa / mo kodomo ga byoki datta Ikara I ikenakatta. (I

couldn't go there (either), because my child was ill.) b. fLfi I tit*

NtJ<ntJ'[email protected]

\('o Watashi wa / mo Suzuki-san ga ikanakeTe lba I ikanai. (I won't

go there (either) if Mr. Suzuki won't go there.) c. IlJ*fi I t IITtJ<fSti L.
t:: I.::

I
t

\('0 Yamamoto wa / mo Y ukiko ga kekkonshita I koto I 0 shiranai.

(Yamamoto doesn't know (either) that Yukiko got married.) d.

C1)? f;t

f= 6;":) t::

t.J;

a fi t

\('0 Kino wa koko ni atta Ihonl ga ky6 wa nai. (The book which was
here yesterday is not here today.) In (3a) through (3c), wa and mo
phrases are outside the ES U of the boxed m.e.'s, but in (3d) wa is
inside the ES U of the m.e. hon 'book', because wa is used in this
sentence as a contrast marker, not as a topic marker. Guideline IV
When two sentences are combined by the conjunction ga(.) 'but', the
first sentence is very often outside the ESU of the m.t. contained in
the second sentence.

For example, in (4) the first sentence is outside the ESU of the
respective m.e.'s.

(4) a. mmiJ;t.: <

1v'bJ "? t

iJ;, fin -C L \ t:: I q)

I T <.

-r L. "t "? t

o Shukudai ga takusan atta ga, tsukaTete ita Inodel sugu nete shi-
matta. (I had a lot of homework to do but 1 went to sleep right away
be- cause 1 was tired.) b. r

..J

MftJ-? t

t!. "? 1:t.J

, 7' v I:

Jlt.: I t.J

I MftJq)

1:0 " Sh6gun" 0 yomu tsumori datta ga, teTebi de mita Ikara I yomu
no 0 yameta. (I intended to read Shogun, but 1 quit because 1 had
seen it on TV.) When two sentences are combined by the te-form of
a verb / adjective, the first sentence is either inside or outside the
ESU depending on the context, as illustrated by (5). (5) a. fF-
=ffiiltJ<JiI < -Cft:ntJ<flL\ rn

"? 1:0 Y6ko wa atama ga itakute shikata ga nai [!Q] itta. (Y oko said
that she had a terrible headache.)

616 APPENDIXES
b. i'$-=ffiJi(mH::..ff"'? -c, iiiIjJ''; HtJ ? c!: ,'i!l":) -c", t= I.

R "'? t

o Yoko wa Kyoto ni itte, mae kaTa kao to omotte ita I kimono I 0

katta. (Yoko went to Kyoto, and bought the kimono which she had
been thinking of buying for some time.) In (Sa) the ESU includes the
first sentence, whereas in (Sb) it doesn't. Guideline V When an m.e.
is a modal, its ESU normally extends to the beginning of the
sentence, including wa / mo phrase.

(6) a. 'J-ftr;t*

8*"'n< 1 t:> 1..,\('1 0 Risa wa Tainen Nihon e iku I rashii I . (It seems
that Lisa is g oing to Japan next year.) b. *7"r::r;t 8 *I!r;tll L."t

.Q I J: oj t.: 1 0 Bobu ni wa nihongo wa muzukashisugiTu I yoda I . (It

appears that Japanese is too difficult for Bob.) c. 6;NtlPJir::r;tn

t= < tl'" Ilvt.=\ o Anna tOkOTO ni wa ikitakunai In da I . (Lit. It is that I

don 't wan t to go to such a place.) d. 7

-r;t*

.Q I

oj t.:\ o Nanshi wa daigaku 0 yameTu I soda I . (I heard that Nancy is

going to quit college.) Guideline VI When an m.e. is the quote
marker to, Guideline I I I is overridden, because a quote is supposed
to follow the original source as closely as possible; if wa is in the
original sentence, that wa has to be quoted. Examples follow: (7) a.
Ara' r;t

.Q i L t=. [I] .I

A tJ Iv t,)

-g "'? t::. o Ningen wa kangaeTu ashi da [!Q] Pasukaru ga itta.

(Pascal said that a human is a thinking reed.) b . *,

""

t- r;t;g A r:: " , " , [I] . \( '-C lb "'? t::. 0 Hon ni petto wa Tojin ni ii [!Q]
kaite atta. (It was written in a book that pets are good for elderly
people.) Guideline VII Some m.e.'s allow their ESU to extend beyond
the sentence boundary. This is especially true with sentence-initial
conjunctions such as shikashi 'but', shitagatte 'therefore', sunawachi '
namely', tadashi 'but', tokoro ga 'but' and da kara 'so' and the modal
no da ' it is that -'.

APPENDIXES 617

(8) a. *

Wt=o I Ln

L I tt*'it
n

"? t

o Sachiko wa daigaku 0 deta. IShikashi! shigoto wa nakatta.

(Sachiko graduated from college . But she didn't get a job.) b.
8f=JttJ<1!i L. < fJ. ":) t=IvT:-t 0 I t!.n

f='ff

* Lt

o Kyiini mune ga kUTushiku natta n desu. IDa karal byoin ni

ikimashita. (Suddenly I had a pain in my chest, so I went to the
hospital.) c. 6; L.t=f

tJJ1i

f=

-to 1i

=FC1)$

U=

.Q IIv
Tl o Ashita wa asa goji ni okimasu. Gojihan no kisha ni nOTU In
desul . (I'll get up at five o'clock tomorrow morning. It's because I'm
going to catch the 5: 30 train.) So far, seven basic guidelines which
can be used to identify ESU have been presented. The student
should read Japanese carefully, searching for ES Us, especially for
the following four ES Us that create enormous difficulties. ( i)
Sentence + Conjunction (ii) Relative Clause +Noun (iii) Sentence +
N ominalizer (no / koto) (iv) Sentence + Modal For your practice, a
short, simple passage containing 10 bo

ed m.e.'s is pro- vided below. Underline the ESUs for each m.e. The
answers are given below the passage. Practice Passage t()if=.m

:tt.:r

Iv

f=';tJl

tJi(W *

ff "? -C * * L t

o 1£ < Ii .I'.{ tj ;r. -

7t: Q [

J Ii
}J bf) -C t.: "? t

1 Q)

13

L*Lt

o .t tL

t -1J

' <*

\t'

fi L -C \t' Q [

t A to-

f=' t t

tL -C L * \t"

l-=t ? l :if=.t
* Lt

o Jj(ifB '1

f='JL

<* "J \t'-t- t* A .:r. !J 7 f ='}.. "? -C ::J - t -

Jj. * L t

o 1£ < Ii

f=' '* "? -C \t,t

I:tt-=f

Iv 1 6

\t'0 \t'0

LIt

tJ; G 1 7ft "? t

1 tJ\ G l 8Jj(ifB t -=t Ivt

f=.}j <

t * it Iv

Lt

o :: Ivt
L \t'n

ff l t

G19t?-

L-C Jj.t

\t'ml0J

, \t''1To T omodachi ni karita I kuruma I I de Hanako-san to isshoni

sensh u Ky oto made itte kimashita. Boku wa haiwe 0 hashiru Inol 2
wa hajimete datta I node 1 3 sukoshi kinchoshimashita. Keredomo
ichijikan gurai untenshite iru

4 supido ni mo nareteshimai, tokidoki nemuri lsol 5 ni narimashita.

Kyoto made ni go do gurai sabisueria ni haitte koh i 0 nom imashita.
Boku wa tonari ni suwatte ita IHanako- san 1 6 to iroiro hanashi
lnagara 1 7 itta Ikara 1 8 Kyoto mo sonna ni toku kanjimasen-
deshita. Konna tanoshii ryoko Jnara 1 9 mo ichido shite mitai

Ioomoimasu. (Last week I went to Kyoto with Hanako in a car I

borrowed from my friend. I was a little nervous because it was the
first time that I had driven on the

618 APPENDIXES

highway. But after having driven about an hour I became used to the
speed, and every now and then I almost fell asleep. Before we
reached Kyoto, I stopped at service areas about five times and drank
coffee. Because I drove while talking a lot with Hanako sitting next to
me, I didn't feel that Kyoto was that far. If the trip is this pleasant, I
would like to make it again.)
euuo>/ euuo>/ peUOl peUOl peUOl

""I-= .01

""I-= .6 i'J .8 i'J .l i'J .9 pnwau ue>/!!!l/:J!

M!el/

M!el/ !l/:Jepowol Ci

.S (rJ:!;d-.t - x (a }",.I'.£ - X (a }",.I' .Z i!

.1 .s{1S:il

n.p )0 SpJOM JSJY aqJ aJuJ!pu! MOI

q uaA!8 SpJOM aqL : SJaMSUV

619 GRAMMAR INDEX Note: X <Y> indicates that X is found under

Y. adverb amari, do, ich;ban, mada, mo, sekkaku, yahari auxiliary
daro, masho, soda 1 auxiliary adjective hoshi;?, mitai- da <yoda>,
nikui, rashii, soda 2 , tai, yasui, yoda, yoni 2 auxiliary verb ageru 2 ,
aru 2 , dasu, garu, hajimeru, iku 2 , iru 2 , kudasai, ku- reru 2 , kuru 2
, miru, morau 2 , nasai, oku, owaru, rareru 1 ,2, shimau, sugiru
causati ve saseru, sasu <saseru> causative passive saserareru
<rare- rul> cause des, karas, node, tame (ni), te eleCt sentence - no
wa - da command imperative comparison ho ga - yori, yori
conditional ba, nara, tara, t0 4 conjecture daro, rashii, soda 2 , yoda
conjunction ato de, ba, ga 2 , kara 2 ,s, keredo (mo), mae ni, nagara,
nara, node, noni l ,2, shi, sore de, sore de wa, sore kara, sore nara,
soretomo, so- shite, suru to, tara, tatte, te mo, to4, toka, uchi ni, va,
yoni l contrastive wa 1 , jibun 2 coordinate conjunction ga 2 copula
da dependent noun noun direct object marker 0 1 ellipsis
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 3 empathy viewpoint
exhaustive listing gal, to existence aru 1 , iru l experience koto ga
arul gerund te giving and receiving verb ageru l ,2, kureru 1 ,2,
morau l ,2 honorific expression 0 - ni naru honorifics 0-,0 - ni naru, 0
- suru, Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 6 humble expression
0-, 0 - suru imperative na, nasai, Appendix 1 indefinite pronoun n0 2
inexhaustive listing - tari - tari suru, ya infix -shi- nominalizer kot0 2 ,
nos noun hazu, koto l , mama, mono (da), tame (ni), toki, tsumori
particle bakari, dai, dake, de 1 ,2,S,4, demo, e, gal, goto ni, hodo, ka
l ,2, ka (do ka), kai, kara 1 , kashira, kurai, made, made ni, mo l ,2,
na, nado, nanka <nado), ne, ni l ,2,S,4,5,&,7, ni shite wa, no l ,4,
01,2,S,4, shika, to 1 ,2,S, to shite, to shite wa, tte l ,2, wa 1 ,2, yo,
yo,,"1,2, zutsu passi ve rareru l , Characteristics of Japanese
Grammar 5 phrase aida (ni), ba yokatta, dake de (wa) naku - (mo),
ho ga ii, ho ga - yori, kawari ni, koto ga aru l ,2, koto ga dekiru, koto
ni naru, koto ni suru, koto wa, nai de, nakereba nara- nai, naku naru,
nakute, ni chigainai,

620 GRAMMAR INDEX

n; suru, no da, 0 - n; naru, 0 suru, tara do desu ka, tamarana;, tar; -

tar; suru, te mo ;;, to ;eba, to ;u, tokoro da 1 ,2, wa ;kena;, wake da,
yon; ;u, yon; naru, yon; suru, yo to omou, zu n; <na; de> plural -tach;
polite expression

honorifics possessi ve n0 1 potential kikoeru, koto ga dekiru, m;eru,

rareru 2 prefix go- <0->, ma;-, 0- pronoun jibun 1 ,2, n0 2 purpose ni
5 , non;2, tame n; quotation t0 3 , tte 2 question marker dai, ka 2 ,
ka; reason de 3 , kara 3 , node, tame (n;), te relative clause Relative
Clause request kudasai Semantic Derivations De, Ni, To sentence-
final particle da;, ka 2 , ka;, kashira, na, ne, n0 4 , wa 2 , yo, Charac-
teristics of Japanese Grammar 7

structure
- mo - mo, - no wa -

da, - wa - da, - wa - ga subject marker gal subordinate conjunction

aida (n,), ato de, ba, kara 2 ,3, keredo (mo), mae n;, nagara, nara,
node, noni l ,2, tame (ni), tara, tatte, te mo, t0 4 , tok;, uch; n;, yon;t
suffix -chan < -sama>, -goro, -kata, -kun, -sa, -sama, -san < -sama>
-tach;, -ya superlative ;chiban tag question ne fe-Corm te topic to
;eba, to ;ttara (to ieba), to kitara (to ;eba), ttara (to ;eba), tte l , wa 1 ,
Characteristics of Japanese Gram- mar 2 viewpoint ageru l ,2, iku 1
,2, j;bun 1 , kureru 1 ,2, kuru 1 ,2, morau l ,2, passive, ta;,
Characteristics of Japanese Gram- mar 9 volitional masho

621 ENGLISH INDEX Note: X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y.

A gal bakari, -goro, gurai <kurai>, a(n) about kura; across 0 2 after
ato de, kara 2 after all kekkyoku < yahari), yahar; after that sore kara
almost did s.t. tokoro da 2 along 0 2 a lot of oi, ozei <0;>, takusan
<0;> already mo also mol, yahar; although keredomo, non"', te rho
and de 3 , ni <to>, soshite, te, to 1 , to- ka, ya and so on nado and
the like nado and then sore kara and what is more shi any m0 2
appear soda 2 , yoda approximately bakari, gurai <kurai>, hodo,
kura; around goro as to sh;te, yoni 2 as expected yahar;, yappari
<yahar;> as far as made as for wa 1 as it is mama as many I much I
long as m0 2 at de 1 ,4, ni 1 ,6 at the time when audible kikoeru toki
B be aru 1 , iru 1 be -able rareru 2 be able to koto ga dek;ru, rareru 2
be about to do s.t. tokoro da 2 because kara 3 , mono (da), node
because - not - nakute because of de 3 , tame (ni) be done aru 2 be
-ed rareru 1 before mae ni, uch; ni begin to dasu, hajimeru, kuru 2 be
in a place where it takes - to get to tokoro da 1 be -ing iru 2 be in the
midst of doing s.t. tokoro da 2 be like yoda be ready to do s.t. bakar;
both - and - mo - mo but daga <ga 2 >, dakedo <ga 2 >, demo <ga 2
>, ga 2 , keredomo, shikashi <ga 2 > by de 2 , made ni, ni 3 by (the
time when) made n; c called to iu can do s.t. koto ga dekiru, rareru 2
can hear kikoeru cannot do s.t. wa ikenai
622 ENGLISH INDEX

can see mieru come kuru I come about kuru 2 come to kuru 2
continue iku 2 considering that ni shite wa cost suru.

D decide on ni suru decide to do s.t. koto ni kimeru <koto ni suru>,

koto ni suru despite the fact that noni 1 difficult to do s.t. nikui dislike
kiraida do suru l do in such a way that yonl suru do me or s.o. a favor
by doing s.t. kureru 2 do not do - and - nai de Don't do s.t. na, wa
ikenai do s.o. a favor by doing s.t. ageru 2 do s.t. and see miru do s.
t. for s.o. ageru 2 do s.t. in advance oku do

.t. too much sugiru do things like - and - tari - tari suru due to de 3
during (the time when) aida (ni), chO (nl) <uchi ni>, uchi ni

easy to yasui either mol either - or - soretomo even demo, made, m0

2 even if tatte, te mo

even though noni l every goto ni, mai -, oki ni <goto ni> exist aru l ,
iru l

F
feel suru 3 feel like soda 2 few sukunai, wazuka <sukunai> finish
doing s.t. -owaru, shimau for de 2 , ni 2 , ni shite wa, to shite wa - for
example nado for the purpose of - noni 2 , tame (ni) for the sake of -
tame (ni) from de 2 , karal, ni 3

get morau l get -ed rareru 1 get s.o. to do s.t. saseru get to know
shiru gi ve ageru l , kureru l go iku l go ahead and do s.t. oku go on -
ing iku 2 grow kuru 2

H had better do s.t. h6 ga ii hard to do s.t. nikui have aru l , suru 2 , -

wa - ga have been done aru 2 have done s.t. iru 2 , koto ga aru l ,
shi- mau have just done s.t. bakari, tokoro da 2 have s.o. I s.t. do s.t.
morau 2 , saseru have s.t. done by s.o. morau 2 have to nai to ikenai
<nakereba nara-

nai>, nakereba ;kena; <nakereba nara- na;>, nakereba narana;.

nakute wa ;ke- na; <nakereba naranai>, nakute wa na- rana;
<nakereba narana;>, neba narana; <nakereba narana;> hear suru 8
how d6 How could -! mono da how to h6h6, -kata

I I expect that - hazu if ba, ka 2 , nara, tara, to. if it is the case that -
nara if it is true that - nara if (or not) ka (d6 ka) I hear I heard that
s6da l I tell you yo in del,., n;I,6, 0 2 indeed - (but -) - koto wa (- ga)
indeed s.o. does s.t. alright (but -) - koto wa (- ga) in front of mae n; -
ing kot0 2 , n0 8 , te in order to do s.t. non;2, tame n; in place of
kawar; n; in spite of the Cact that - non;1 in such a way that y6n;1
instead of kawar; n; intend to tsumor; da, y6 to omou in (hat case
sore nara in the process of doing s.t. non;2 isn't it? / is it? / etc. ne it
is all right if - te mo ;; it is expected that - hazu it is natural that - hazu
it is that - - no da

ENGLISH INDEX 623

it is - that - - no wa - da it will be decided that koto n;

naru I wonder

kash;ra

J just bakar;, dake

leave oku leave as it is mama Let's do s. t. mash6 let s.o. I s.t. do s.t.
like suk;da, y6n;2 little sukuna;, wazuka look s6da 2 look as if look
like

saseru
<sukuna;>

y6da rash;;, s6da 2 , y6da

M make it n; suru make s.o. I s.t. do s.t. manner of -kata many 6;,
6ze; <6i>, takusan <6;> may te mo ;; might kamosh;rena; more -
than - h6 ga yor; most ;ch;ban Mr. I Mrs. I Miss I Ms. -sama, -san

saseru

< -sama> much 6;, takusan <6;> must be n; ch;gainai must do s.t.
nakereba naranai (c::> have to) must not do s.t. wa ikena;

need iru 3

624 ENGLISH INDEX

neither - nor - nal) -ness -mi < -sa>, -sa no - but shika no matter wh-
demo
- mo - mo (-

(not) any m0 2 (not) any longer m6 (not) - any more m6 (nai), (nai)
y6ni naru, naku naru (not) as - as hodo (not) - either mol (not) even
(one) m0 2 not only - but also - dake de (wa) naku - mo (not) very
(much) amari, anmari

<amari> (not) yet mada no wonder wake da now m6 0 of nol on de l

,2,4, ni 1 ,4,e one n0 2

only bakari, dake, shika onto ni 4 out of karal or ka l , soretomo over

0 2 owing to tame (ni) own jibun 1 ,2

per mai- play suru l Please do s.t. kudasai probably dar6

R rather - than yori reach the point where - y6ni naru recei ve morau
1

s
's nol seem rashii, y6da -self jibun l ,2 Shall I I we do s.t.? mash6
should hazu, mono(da), - h6 ga ii should like to - - tai should not do
s.t. wa ikenai show signs of - -garu since kara 2 ,3, node smell suru
3 so kara 3 , node, sore de sometimes - and sometimes

- tari - tari suru so that yonl Speaking of - start to do s.t. stay iru l still
mada, yahari

to ieba, tte l , wa dasu, kuru 2

store - ya

T take the trouble of doing s.t. sek- kaku, wazawaza <sekkaku>

Talking about to ieba, tte l , wa l tell to do s.t. y6ni iu than yori that
kot0 2 , n0 3 , t0 3 , to iu, tte 2 that's all dake the wa l then sore de
wa, sore kara, sore nara, suru to

there are times when - aru 2 there was a time when - arut therefore
sore de thing kotol, mono <koto> things like nado think - will y6 to
omou though keredomo through 0 2 , made till made to (infinitive)
kot0 2 , n0 3 to e, ni 2 ,7 to do s.t. ni 5 , tame ni, non;2 to make up
for kawari ni to the extent that hodo too mol, sugiru towards e, nP try
to do s. t. miru, y6 to suru <miru>

koto ga
koto ga

U unbearably tamaranai unchanged mama understand wakaru until

made up to made, made de used to mono da using de 2

visible

mieru

ENGLISH INDEX 625

W want 5.0. to do s.t. hoshii 2 want s.t. hoshii l want to do s.t. -tai
way of -kata what koto l What about doing s.t.? - tara d6 desu ka
when tara, t0 4 , toki whether ka 2 whether or not ka d6 ka while aida
(ni), nagara, uchi (ni) Why don't you do s.t.? - tara d6 desu ka (I I
We) will do s.t. mash6 (I) wish - had done s.t. -ba yokatta with de 2 ,
t0 2 with effort sekkaku, wazawaza <sek- kaku> without doing s.t.
nai de, zu ni <nai de> would nara would like to do s.t. -tai

y
yet mada, m6 you know ne, yo

626 JAPANESE INDEX Note: X <Y) indicates that X is found under

Y. A ageru l I s.o. gives s. t. to s.o.'......... 63 ageru 2 , s.o. gives s.o.
a faver by do- in g s. t.' .................................... 6S aida (ni) ......
.............................. 67 a mari . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 72 anmari <amari) ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... 72 aru l I exist' ...
... ......... .................. 73 aru 2 I s.t. has been done' ............ 76 ato de
....................................... 78 B ba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ba kari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .. 84 bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) <dake de (wa) naku - (mo»
............... 97 ba yokatta ... ............................... 87 C -chan < -sama)
........................... 384 chau <shimau) ........................... 405 chimau
<shimau) ............... ......... 405 chittomo <amari> ........................ 72
chtJ (nil (uchi ni> ........................ 512 D da <- wa -
da)........................ 521 daga <ga 2 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 120
dai ............... ... ... ... ..................... 90 da kara <sore de)
........................ 413 dake .......................................... 93 dake de (wa)
naku - (mo) ......... 97 dakedo <ga 2 ) ... ........................... 120 -dara
<-tara> ...........................455 dar6 .................. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
100 - dasu ....................................... 102 -datte < -
tatte).............................. 462 de <-te)....................................... 464-
del [location] .............................. 105 de 2
[instrument]........................... 106 de 3 [te-form of desu] ..................
107 de 4 [time].................................... lW de ageru <ageru 2
)........................ 65 de aru <aru 2 ) .............................. 76 de hoshii
<hoshil'2) ...... ...... ......... 146 de iru <iru 2 ) ..............................155
de itadaku <morau 2 ) .................. 263 de kara <kara 2 )
........................... 177 de kudasai < - kudasai) ... ... ... ...... 2ff) de
kudasaru <kureru 2 > .................. 216 de kureru <kureru 2 )
..................... 216 de miru <miru) ........................... 246 demo 'even'
.............................. 111 demo (ga 2 >................................. 120 de mo
<te mo) I even if - ' ......... 468 de mo ii <-te mo ii> .................. 471 de
moraitai <hoshil'2) ... ... ... ... ... ... 146 de morau <morau 2 )
............... ... ... 263 de oku <oku) ..................... ......... 358 de
sashiageru <ageru 2 ) ... ... ... ... ... 65 de shikata ga nai <tamaranai>
...... 447 de shimau <shimau>..................... 403 desh6 <dar6)
.................. ............ 100 desu <-wa -da)........................ 521 de
tamaranai <tamaranai> ............ 446

de wa ikenai < - wa ikenai) ............ 528 de wa naranai <-wa ikenai)

...... 528 de yaru <ageru 2 ) ........................ 67 do ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 -domo (-tachi)
........................... 440 E e [direction] eru <rareru 2 ) 116 370 G gal
[subject marker] ..................... 118 ga 2 'but' ....................................
120 - garu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 -
gata <-tach i) ... ...... ............... ...... 440 go- (0-)
.................................... 343 goro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 goto ni ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 128
gurai <kurai) ..............................213 H -hajimeru
................................. 131 hazu ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
133 hodo .......................................... 135 hoho (-kata)
.............................. 183 ho ga ii .................................... 138 - ho ga -
yori ........................... 140 hoshii 1 'want s.t.' ........................ 144-
hoshii 2 'want s.o. to do s. t.' ......... 146 I ichiban ...... ...... ... ......
............ ...... 148 ikaga <do) ................................. 11... i k u I 'go'
.................................... 149 iku 2 'go on -ing' ........................ 151 iru l
'exist' ................................. 153 iru 2 'be -ing' .............................. 155
iru 8 'need' ................................. 157 JAP ANESE INDEX 627
itadaku <morau l ) ........................ 262 J jau <shimau)
.............................. 405 jibun 1 [empathy marker] ............... 159 jibun
2 [contrast marker] ............... 161 jimau <shimau) ...........................
405 K k a i ' or' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1M ka 2
[question marker] .................. 166 ka (do ka) .................................
168 k a i ............................................. 170 kamoshirenai
.............................. 173 kana <kashira) ........................... 182 ka ne
<ne) ................................. 288 kara 1 'from' ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
176 kara 2 'after doing s.t. '.................. 177 kara 3 'because'
........................... 179 kara ne <ne) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 288
kashira ....................................... 181 -kata
.......................................... 183 ka wari ni .................................... 184
kedo <keredomo) ........................ 188 kedomo <keredomo)
.................. 188 kekkyoku < yahari) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 538 keredo
<keredomo) ..................... 188 keredomo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
187 kesshite <amari)........................... 72 kikeru <kikoeru)
........................ 188 ki koeru ....................................... 188 kiraida ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... ... 190 koto l 'thing' ..............................
191 kot0 2 [nominalizer]........................ 193 koto ga aru 1 , there was
a time when 196 koto ga aru 2 'there are times when - '
.............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

628 JAP ANESE INDEX koto ga dekiru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 200
koto l1i kimeru <koto ni suru> ...... 2()4. koto ni naru
.............................. 202 koto ni natte iru <koto ni naru> ...... 202 koto
ni shite iru <koto ni suru> ... 2()4. koto ni suru ..............................
204 koto wa I indeed - but' ...... ...... 206 - kudasai ... ... ... ... ... . .. ...
... ... ... ... ... 2W kudasaru < - kudasai, kureru l ,2>...... ... . .. ... . .. ...
... ... ... ... ... ...... 210, 215, 218 -kun .......................................... 211
kurai ...... ......... ......... ... ... ...... ... ... 212 kureru l I s.o. gives s.t. to
me' ...... 213 kureru 2 I s.o. gives me a favor by do- ing s.t.'... ...... ...
... ...... ... ...... ...... 216 kuru I 'come' .............................. 219 kuru 2
'begin to, come to' ............ 221 M mada ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224 made... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
225 made de <made ni> ... ... ......... ... ... 228 made ni ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... 228 mae ni ....................................... 231 mai - . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 ma ma . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 236 masaka <yahari>... ............
...... ...... 538 - mash6 .................................... 240 mettani <amari>
........................... 72 -mi <-sa> ..................................... 381 mi eru . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 mirareru
<mieru> ........................ 243 miru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
246 mitaida <y6da> ........................... .550 mol' also'
................................. 247 m0 2 'even' ................................. 250 m 6
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 -mo -mo
................................. 255 mon <mono (da» ........................ 260
mono (da).................................... 257 mono <koto l >
.............................. 191 morau 1 'receive' ........................ 261 morau
2 'receive a favor of doing s. t. ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .. 263 motte iru <aru l > ........................ 73 N na ..... . . ..
. .. .. . ... . .. . .. ... . .. ... . .. . .. ... ... 266 n ado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267 nagara ................................. ... ...
269 - nai de ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 271 - nai de < - kudasai>
... ... ... ... ...... 2ff) - nai to ikenai < - nakereba nara- nai> ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 274 -nakereba naranai ..................... 274 -
naku(t)cha < - nakereba naranai> . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . ... . ... . . 276 - naku naru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 277 -
na ku te .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 - nakute
wa ikenai < - nakereba naranai> ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 274 -
nakute wa naranai < - nakereba naranai> ................................. 274
nanka <nado>.............................. 267 nara ........................... ......
......... 281 naru <0 - ni naru> ..................... 358 -nasai
....................................... 284 ne ............................................. 286 -
neba naranai < - nakereba naranai> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274 n da <no da> .............................. 325
n desu <no da> ... ..................... ... 325 nil [point of time]
..................... 289 ni 2 [indirect object marker] ......... 291 ni 3 [agent I
source marker] ............ 292 ni 4 [direct contact] ..................... 295

ni 5 [purpose] ... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... 297 n,"6 [location (existence)]
............... 299 nP [direction] .............................. 302 ni I and' <to l
).............................. 473 ni chigainai ..............................304- ni
kimeru <-ni suru) .................. 310 - ni ku i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 -ni shite wa .............................. 309 -ni
suru ... ...... ......... ... ... ...... ... ... 310 nol [possessive marker]
...............312 n0 2 'one (pronoun)'..................... 315 n0 3
[nominalizer] .................. ...... 318 no. [sentence-final particle] .........
322 no da ....................................... 325 node
.......................................... 328 no desu <no da) ........................ 325
no h6 ga <-h6 ga - yori) ...... ... 140 non;1 I even thoug h' ... ... ... ......
... 331 noni 2 'in the process of doing -' 335 no wa - da
.............................. 337 o 0- ............................................. 343 0 1
[direct object marker]............... 347 0 2 [space marker] ..... . . .. . . . ..
. . .. . . . . .. 349 0 3 [a point of detachment]............ 351 o. [emotive
marker] ..................... 352 6i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 oki ni <goto ni)........................... 128 oku ... ... .
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . .. . ... 357 o - ni naru ..............................
358 o - suru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36() 6 to omou
< - y6 to omou)............ 569 o tsukatte <de 2 ) ...... ... ...... ...... ... ...
106 - 0 waru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 362 6zei
<6i) .................................... 354 JAPANESE INDEX 629 R -ra <-
tachi) ................................. 440 rareru 1 [passive] ...........................
364 rareru 2 'can (potential)'.................. 370 rashii ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... 373 Relati ve Clause ........................... 376 reru
<rareru l ) .............................. 364 s - sa ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 - sama ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 384 -san <-sama) .............................. 384 sappari <amari)
........................... 72 saserareru <saseru l ) ..................... 392 saseru
... ... ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 387 sashiageru<ageru l )...... ......
... ... ...... 64 sasuga (ni) < yahari) ..................... 538 sekkaku ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 392 seru <saseru) .............................. 387 shi
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 395 - sh i -
.......................................... 397 shika .......................................... 398
shikashi <ga 2 , kawari ni) .........120,184 shikata ga nai
<tamaranai)............ 445 shi mau ....................................... 403 shiru
.......................................... 406 s6da 1 [hearsay]
...........................407 -s6da 2 'looks' ........................... 410 sore de ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 i 3 sore de wa .................................
414 sore kara ....................................416 sore nara
.................................... 419 soretomo .................................... 421
soshite ....................................... 422 sugiru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... 423 sukida ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 426 sukoshimo
<amari> ..................... 72

630 JAPANESE INDEX sukunai ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 427
suru l 'do, play'........................... 428 suru 2 'have'
.............................. 434 suru 3 [sensation]........................... 435 suru.
'cost I lapse ' ..................... 436 suru <0 - suru (humble»............ 360
suru to ....................................... 437 T - tach i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440 - tai... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . ..
... ... ... 441 takusan <6i) ..............................354 tamaranai ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... 445 tame (ni) ............ ........................ 447 - tara. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 -tara d6 desu
ka........................ 457 - tari - tari suru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 458 - ta tte
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 461 - te
............................................. 464- - te < - kudasai) .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . ..
.. . .. . . .. 2ff) te ageru <ageru 2 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... 65 te aru <aru 2
) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... 76 te hoshii <hoshii 2 )........................ 146
te iru <iru 2 )................................. 155 te itadaku <morau 2 )
..................... 265 te kara <kara 2 ) ........................... 177 te kudasai
< - kudasai) ............... 2ff) te kudasaru <kureru 2 ) .................. 218 te
kureru <kureru 2 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 216 te miru <miru)
........................... 246 te mo....................................... 468 -te mo
ii..................................... 471 te morai tai <hoshil"2) ... ... ... ... ... ...
147 te morau <morau 2 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 263 te ne <ne)
................................. 288 te oku <oku) .............................. 357 te
sashiageru <ageru 2 ) ............... 67 te shikata ga nai <tamaranai)
...... 447 te shimau <shimau) ... ... ... ... ...... ... 403 te tamaranai
<tamaranai) ... ... ... ... 446 te wa ikenai <-wa ikenai) ......... 528 te wa
naranai <-wa ikenai)......... 528 te yaru <ageru 2 ) ........................ 67
te yokatta <ba yokatta) ............... 89 tol 'and' ....................................
473 t0 2 'with' ................................. 476 t0 3 [quote marker]...... ...
...... ... ...... 478 to. 'if, when '.............................. 480 - to ieba
.................................... 484 to ittara <-to ieba) ..................... 485 -to
iu ....................................... 486 toka ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 488 toki . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490 to
kitara < - to ieba)..................... 485 tokoro da l 'place'...... ..................
495 tokoro da 2 ' moment' .................. 496 toku <oku)
................................. 358 -to shite.................................... 501 - to
shite wa.............................. 502 t su m ori .......................................
503 ttara <-to ieba) ........................ 484 -tte l 'speaking of'
..................... 507 -tte 2 [quote marker] ..................... 510 U uchi ni ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 512 ushiro ni <mae ni> .....................
231 W wa l [theme] .............................. 516 wa 2 [female speech
marker] ......... 520 -wa -da ................................. 521 -wa -desu <-wa
-da> ............ 521 - wa - ga ......... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 525 - wa
ikenai................................. 528 wakaru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... 529

wake da ........................... ......... 531 -wa naranai (-wa ikenai> .........

528 wazawaza <sekkaku> .................. 392 wazuka
<sukunai>........................ 427 y - ya 's tore' ................................. 535
ya 'and' .................................... 536 yahari ............... ... ... ...... ...
......... 538 yappari <yahari> ........................ 539 yaru <ageru l , suru
1 ) ..................64,428 -yasui ....................................... 541 yo
............................................. 543 y6da ..........................................
547 yo ne (ne> ................................. 288 JAPANESE INDEX 631
y6ni l 'so that ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 553 y6nl'2 'like'
................................. 554 - y6ni iu ...... ... ...... ...... ............ ... 556 -
y6ni naru................................. 559 -y6ni suru .................................
562 yori 1 'than'................................. 564- yori 2 'side' ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... 567 -y6 to omou.............................. 569 -y6 to suru
(miru> ..................... 246 z zenzen <amari> ........................... 72 -zu
ni <-nai de> ..................... 271 zu tsu .......................................... 572

632 REFERENCES Alfonso, Anthony (1966) Japanese Language

Patterns-a structural approach, Volume I & II, Sophia University L.L.
Center of Applied Linguistics, Tokyo. Asano, Tsuruko, et al. (eds.)
(1971) Gaikokujin no Tame no Kihongo YureiJiten (Dictionary of
Basic Japanese Usage for Foreigners), Bunkacho, Tokyo. Butler,
Kenneth D., et al. (eds.) (1975) Basic Japanese-A Review Text,
Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, Tokyo.
Endo, Mutsuko Simon (1984) A Practical Guide for Teachers of
Elementary Japanese, Center for Japanese Studies, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Hinds, John and Irwin Howard (eds.)
(1978) Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics, Kaitakusha,
Tokyo. Inoue, Kazuko (1976) Henkei Bunpij to Nihongo
(Transformational Grammar and the Japanese Language),
Taishukan, Tokyo. Inoue, Kazuko (1978) Nihongo no Bunpo Kisoku
(Japanese Grammatical Rules), Taishukan, Tokyo. Jorden, Eleanor
Harz (1963) Beginning Japanese, Part 1 & 2, Yale University Press,
New Haven, Connecticut. Kitagawa, Chisato (1983) " On the Two
Forms of Negative Gerund in Japanese," A paper read on March 27,
1983 at the Annual Convention of the Association of Asian Studies,
San Francisco. Kubota, Tomio and Ikeo, Sumi (1971) Taigiihyogen
(Polite Expressions), Bunkacho, Tokyo. Kuno, Susumu (1973) The
Structure of the Japanese Language, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts. Kuno, Susumu (1973) NiltOllbunpo Kellkyii (A Study
of Japanese Grammar), Taishukan, Tokyo. Kuno, Susumu (1978)
Dan'U.'a ,to Bunpo (Discourse Grammar), Taishukan, 1'okyo. Kuno,
Susumu (1983) Shin Nihonbunpu Kenkyii (New Study of Japanese
Grammar), Taishukan, Tokyo. Makino, Seiichi (1978) Kotoba to
Kiikan (Language and Space), Tokai University Press, Tokyo.
Makino, Seiichi (ed.) (1981) Papers from the Middlebury Symposium
on Japanese Discourse Analysis, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois. Makino, Seiichi (1983) " Speaker / Listener-Orientation and
Formality Marking in Japa- nese," Gengo Kenkyu-the Journal of the
Linguistic Society of Japan, 84, 126-145, Taishukan, Tokyo.

REFERENCES 633

Martin, Samuel (1975) A Reference Grammar of Japanese, Yale

University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. McClain, Yoko Matsuoka
(1981) l/andbook of Modern Japanese Grammar, Hokuseido, Tokyo.
McGloin, Naomi Hanaoka (1980) "Some Observations Concerning
No Desu," Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese, 15: 2,
117-149. l\likami, Akira (1960) Zo wa hana ga nagai (An elephant
has a long trunk), Kuroshio Shuppan, Tokyo. Mikami, Akira (1970)
Bunpo Shoron Shii. (Papers on Grammar), Kuroshio Shuppan,
Tokyo. Mikami, Akira (1972) Gendai Goho Josetsu (Introduction to
Modern Japanese Usage), Kuroshio Shuppan, Tokyo. Miura, Akira
(1983) Japanese Words and Their Uses, Tuttle, Rutland, Vermont.
Monane, Tazuko Ajiro (1981) Review of McClain (1981), Journal of
Association of Teachers of Japanese, 16: 2, 200-207. Morita,
Yoshiyuki (1977, 1980, 1984) Kiso Nihongo (Basic Japanese
Words), 1, 2 & 3, Kadokawa Shoten, Tokyo. Morita, Yoshiyuki (1981)
Nihongo no Hasso (Meanings of Japanese Words), Tojusha, Tokyo.
Nagara, Susumu (1975), " Teaching Basic Sentence Constructions
in Japanese: the transi- tion from fundamental grammatical drills to
intermediate reading," Journal of the As- sociati01Z of Teachers of
Japanese, 10: 2-3, 131-143. Ogawa, Yoshio, et al. (eds.) (1982)
Nihongo Kyoiku Jiten (Dictionary of Pedagogy of Japanese),
Taishukan, Tokyo. Okutsu, Keiichiro (1978) C Boku wa unagi da' no
Bunpo (Grammar of C Boku wa unagl da '), Kuroshio Shuppan,
Tokyo. Ono, Susumu, et al. (eds.) (1974) ]wa,w11li Kogo Jiten (I
wanami's Dictionary of Old Japa- nese), I wanami Shoten, Tokyo.
Ono, Susumu, et al. (eds.) (1981) Kadokawa Ruigo Shin Jiten
(Kadokawa's New Dictionary of Synonyms), Kadokawa Shoten,
Tokyo. Sakuma, Katsuhiko and Motofuji, Frank T. (1980) Advanced
Spoken Japanese: Tonari 1W S/zibafu, Institute of East Asian
Studies, University of California, Berkeley, California. Shibatani,
Masayoshi (ed.) (1976) Syntax and Semantics 5: Japanese
Generative Grammar, Academic Press, New York and San
Francisco. Shibatani, Masayoshi (1978) Nihongo no Bunseki
(Analyses of Japanese), Taishukan, Tokyo. Soga, Matsuo and
Matsumoto, Noriko (1978) Foundations of Japanese Language,
Taishukan, Tokyo. Soga, Matsuo (1983) Tense and Aspect in Modern
Colloquial Japanese, University of British Columbia Press,
Vancouver, Canada.

634 REFERENCES

Suleski, Ronald and Masada, Hiroko (1982) Affective Expressions in

Japanese, Hokuseido, Tokyo. Suzuki, Shinobu (1978) KyoshiyiJ
Nihongo Kyoiku Handobukku 3, Bunpo 1, Joshi no Sho- mondai (A
Handbook for Japanese Language Teachers 3, Grammar 1,
Problems of Particles), The Japan Foundation, Tokyo. Tsutsui,
Michio (1981) " Ellipsis of wa in Japanese,H In Makino (1981), 295-
319. Tsutsui, Michio (1984) U Particle Ellipses in Japanese,H
unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign. Yoshikawa, Taketoki, et al. (1983) KyiJkasho Kaidai
(Bibliography of Japanese Textbooks), KyoshiyiJ Nihongo Kyoiku
Handobukku Bessatsu (Special Issue for a series of Handbooks for
Japanese Language Teachers), The Japan Foundation, Tokyo.