EXOGENIC PROCESS

Exogenic processes occurring on the earth’s surface and that generally reduce relief. These processes
include weathering and the erosion, transport, and deposition of soil and rocks; the primary geomorphic agents
driving exogenic processes are water, ice and wind. Gravity and gradients are the two things that make agents
mobile. All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients – from
higher levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure etc.

Exogenic processes can be understood by the study of geomorphology. Geomorphology is the science
concerned with the form of earth’s surface and the processes that create it.
Geo = earth; morphos = form; ology = science

The forces which derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or originate within the earth’s
atmosphere are called as exogenic forces or external forces. The action of exogenic forces results in wearing
down and hence, they are considered as land wearing forces. Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition
are the main exogenic processes. All the exogenic processes are covered under a general term – denudation,
which mean strip off or uncovers.
The exogenic forces derive their energy from the atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from
the sun and also the gradient created by tectonic factors. Slopes on the earth surface are mainly created by
tectonic factors or earth movements due to endogenic forces. The force applied per unit area is called stress.
Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. The gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a
sloping surface and tends to produce movement of matter in the down-slope direction. This creates stress and
induces deformation to the particles.

• WEATHERING
Weathering is the action of elements of weather and climate over earth material. It can be
defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the actions of various
elements of weather and climate.
When rocks undergo weathering, some minerals are removed through chemical/physical leaching
by groundwater and thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable) minerals increase.

o Physical/Mechanical Weathering
Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces. The applied forces
could be:
i. gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load, and shearing stress.
ii. expansion force due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity
iii. water pressure controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
Most of the physical weathering are caused by thermal expansion and pressure.
A. Unloading and Expansion
Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical
pressure release. Thus, the upper layers of the remaining rock expand to produce
disintegration of rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground
surface. In areas of curved ground surfaces, arched fractures tend to produce
massive sheets or exfoliated slabs. Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking
off of more or less curved sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrocks results ion
smooth and rounded surfaces. So, unloading and expansion create largely, smooth
rounded domes called exfoliation domes.

B. Temperature Changes and Expansion

With rising in temperature, every mineral expands and pushers against its
neighbor and as the temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.
Due to differential heating and the resulting expansion and contraction of surface
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from the surface results in smooth rounded
surfaces in rocks. In rock like granites, smooth-surfaced and rounded small to big
boulders called tors form due to such exfoliation.

C. Freezing, Thawing, and Frost Wedging

Cycles of freezing and thawing (the weather becomes warmer and causes snow
and ice to melt) cause frost wedging. It is most effective at high elevations in mid-
latitude where freezing and melting is often repeated. Rapid freezing of water
causes its sudden expansion and high pressure. The resulting expansion affects
joints, cracks, and small intergranular fractures to become wider and wider till the
rock breaks apart.
 D. Salt Weathering
Slats in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallization. Many
salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and barium have a tendency to
expand. The expansion depends on temperature and thermal properties. High
temperature ranges between 30-50oC of surface temperature in desert favors such
salt expansions. Salt crystallization is the most effective of all slat weathering
processes. It is favored in areas of alternative wetting and drying conditions.

o Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering can be due to solution, carbonation, hydration or oxidation/ reduction.

A. Solution
When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with
dissolved content is called a solution. This process involves the removal of
solids in solution and depends upon the solubility of a mineral in water or
weak acids. When coming into contact with water, many solids disintegrate
and mix up as a suspension in water. Soluble rock-forming minerals like
nitrates, sulfates, potassium, etc. are affected by this process. This kind of
weathering mainly occurs in a rainy condition. Minerals like calcium
 carbonate and magnesium bicarbonate present in limestone are soluble in
water containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide
in water) and are carried away in the water as a solution. Common salt is
also a rock-forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of solution.
B. Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals
and is a common process helping to break down feldspar and carbonate
minerals. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil, air is absorbed by
water to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates
and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed
in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
C. Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and
expand; this expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material
itself or rock. The process is reversible and long, continued repetition of
this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
E.g., Calcium sulfate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more
unstable than calcium sulfate.
D. Oxidation and Reduction
In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to
form oxides or hydroxides. Minerals commonly involved in this are iron,
manganese, sulfur, etc. The red color of the iron upon oxidation turns to
brown and yellow. In this process of oxidation, rock breakdown occurs due
to the disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen. When oxidized
minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction
takes place.
o Biological Weathering
This kind of weathering is caused by several biological activities like the growth or movements of
organisms. They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering. Grazing of animals,
ploughing by human beings etc. are examples of biological weathering.
• MASS MOVEMENTS
These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slope under the direct influence of gravity.
Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over unweather slopes. Usual
geographic agents like running water, glacier, wind, waves, etc. do not have much role to play in mass
movements, and gravity is the main driving force for this movement.
Mas movements are classified into slow movements and rapid movements.

o Slow Movements:
A. Creep
It occurs on moderately steep, soil-covered slopes (doesn’t need to be lubricated
with water as in solifluction). The movement is extremely slow and imperceptible
except through extended observation. We might notice that some of the electric
posts in our region which are posted in sloppy areas deviated from horizontal
linearity. This is an effect of creep.

B. Solifluction
It is the process of slow downslope flowing of soil mass or fine-grained rock debris
saturated or lubricated with water. It can be said as a type of creep with lubricated
water influences the movement. It mainly occurs in permafrost regions as the
layers of groundwater are occupied in between permanently frozen soil and rocks.
o Rapid Movements

A. Earthflow
The movement of water-saturated clay or silty earth materials down low angle
terraces or hillside is called earthflow.
B. Mudflow
In the absence of vegetation and cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of
weathered materials get saturated with water and either slow or rapidly flow
down along definite channels is called as a mudflow.
C. Debris Avalanche
It is more in humid regions with or without vegetation. It occurs in narrow tracks
on steep slopes and is similar to snow avalanche.
D. Landslide

In landslide, the materials involved are relatively dry irrespective of the above said
rapid mass movements. Landslides can be classified into a slump, debris slide,
rockslide, etc.
▪ Slump: It is a type of landslide in which the slipping of several units of rock
debris occurs with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over
which the movement takes place.
▪ Debris Slide: In this type of landslide, there is no backward rotation. The
fall is almost vertical.
▪ Rockslide: It is nothing but the slide of individual rock masses.
• EROSION AND DEPOSITION
Erosion is the acquisition and transportation of rock debris by geomorphic agents like running water, the
wind, waves, etc. Though weathering aids erosion, it is not a pre-condition for erosion to takes place.
(i.e., erosion can take place in unweather conditions). The deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
erosional agents lose their velocity and energy on gentle slopes and materials carried by them start to
settle themselves. Deposition is not the work of any agents. It is just the end result of erosion.