Control Systems Engineering

ECNG - 4010

Lecture-5
Control System Components

Goitom Tadesse
Defence Engineering College

Nov. 2023
 Objective
At the end of this lecture you are expected to understand
the following:
Potentiometers
DC and AC Servomotors
Tachometers
Amplidyne
Encoder

2
 Control System Components
A feedback control system usually consists of several
components in addition to the actual process.
They can be classified in three kinds
→ Sensors
→ Differencing and amplification
→ Actuators
Sensors
• low power transducers
• controlled variable
• employed for position, velocity, measurement etc.

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 Control System Components …

Differencing and amplification

• to get error signal and amplification to suitable level
• OPAMP is used for differencing input and feedback
signals.
• SCR is used for different power stages
Actuators
• It is a device whose output is mechanical motion
• It performs variety of tasks to manipulate the
controlled process or plant.
For example open/close a valve in a plant.

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 Control System Components …
Actuators are classified as:

Electric actuators have inherent flexibility in electrical

power transmission and have linear speed-torque
characteristics which is desired.
Hence among all the actuators, electric actuators are
widely used.
For low speed and high torque applications, hydraulic
actuators are used. 5
 Potentiometers
These devices are used commonly as feedback elements or
error detectors.
This is a highly reliable device used for measuring linear
motion or angular motion.
Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Input displacement can either be linear or rotational.
A potentiometer is a resistance with three terminals.
Three terminal device: two fixed where voltage is applied,
third is variable with the movable shaft to provide a
voltage (with respect to ground) proportional to the
displacement.

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 Potentiometers …
Rotary type available for single and multi-turn rotational
motion.

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 Potentiometers …
The voltage between a movable terminals and one of the
fixed terminals is an indication of the linear or
angular displacement of the movable terminal.
The total resistance of the potentiometer is uniformly
distributed linearly for translatory motion or in helical
form for rotatory motion.
The output voltage is linearly related to the position of
the movable arm as long as this voltage is connected
to a device with high input resistance.
Potentiometer as an error detector
Two resistors connected in parallel and supplied from a
reference voltage with two movable terminals can be
used as an error detector. 8
 Potentiometers …

One variable arm is used for setting the reference position or

desired position.
The second variable arm is connected to the load.
When the position of the load is same as the reference
position the voltage applied to the amplifier is zero.
If the position of the load changes, the voltage between the
two movable terminals will be non zero and this will be
applied to the amplifier.
Either positive or negative errors can be detected. 9
 AC and DC Servomotors
The commonly used power devices in electrical control
systems are AC and DC servomotors.
AC Servomotor
AC servomotors are ideally suited for Low Power
application.
They are rugged, light in weight and
have no brush contacts.
AC servomotor is basically two phase
induction motor.
The stator windings are oriented 90° apart.
Hence this results into magnetic field of
constant magnitude rotating at
synchronous speed.
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 Servomotors …
The direction of rotation depends upon phase
relationship of voltages V1 and V2.
Because of magnetic field, voltage is induced resulting
into a current in the rotor.
This current produces torque in the rotor. The torque is
proportional to applied voltage.
It’s Laplace is

1111
 Servomotors …
The load has J and B components

As Motor drives this load

The transfer function is the

 (s) Km

E ( s ) s (1  s m )
1212
 Servomotors …
DC Servomotor
These are constructed with permanent magnets which
results into higher torque / inertia ratio and also
higher operating frequency.
Therefore they have a faster dynamic response.
The DC servomotors can be again classified into 3 types
1. The dc servomotors in which magnetic field is produced by
permanent magnet then magnetic flux is constant and it is
called as permanent magnetic DC Servomotor.
2. The dc servomotors in which output is controlled by armature
current is called as armature controlled DC servomotor.
3. The dc servomotors in which armature current is maintained
constant and field is controlled by armature current is called as
field controlled DC servomotor.
1313
 Servomotors …
But providing a constant current source is more difficult
than providing constant voltage source.
A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load.
It is usually a DC motor of low power rating.
As no field winding is used, the field copper losses are
zero and hence, the overall efficiency of the motor is
high.
The speed torque characteristic of this motor is flat over
a wide range, as the armature reaction is negligible.
Moreover speed is directly proportional to the armature
voltage for a given torque.
Armature of a DC servo motor is specially designed to
have low inertia. 1414
 Servomotors …
Three types of construction employed in Permanent magnet
DC servomotors are shown below
Slotted armature type: armature is slotted with DC winding
placed inside these slots (first figure).
Surface wound armature: winding placed on armature to
reduce high inertia accounted in first figure.
winding placed on a non magnetic cylinder which rotates in
annular space between PM stator and stationary rotor.

1515
 Servomotors …
Armature controlled dc servomotor (Example):
The torque is directly proportional to product of
armature current and flux in air gap ( ψ )
Also flux is directly proportional to field current.
The differential equation for armature
circuit is,

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 Servomotors …
The torque equation can be given as

By taking the Laplace transform of above equations and

then block diagram can be constructed as shown below.
It reveals :
• Armature controlled
dc servomotor is a
feedback system.
• Effect of back emf is
the feedback system.
• Back emf increases
with effective
damping of system.
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 Servomotors …

For small size motors field control is advantageous

because only a low power servo amplifier is
required while the armature current which is not
large can be supplied from an inexpensive constant
current amplifier.
For large size motors it is on the whole cheaper to use
armature control scheme.
Further in armature controlled motor, back emf
contributes additional damping over and above that
of provided by load friction.

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 Servomotors …
A typical DC position Control applied to servo
stabilizer
The secondary winding variable tap position is driven by
dc servomotor.
The feedback potentiometer wiper is similarly rotated by
same θ as variable tapping.
Suppose Reference voltage is higher than feedback
voltage.
This drives the motor in one direction.
This causes wiper mounted on servomotor shaft to
move, and output voltage increases.
This causes wiper mounted on servomotor shaft to
move, and output voltage increases. 19
 Servomotors …
Simultaneously feedback voltage also rises as potentiometer
turns moves in the direction towards reference value.
The error decreases and will be zero when both these
voltages are equal.
At this moment, the motor stops rotating and further
corrections are stopped.
Thus the motor is driven by error voltage. The direction
depends on the polarity of error.

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 Tachometers
Tachometer is also known as Tacho-generator.
It is an another method for improving the performance
of the servo system.
The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity
into an electrical voltage.

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 Tachometers …
AC Tachometer:
For an AC tachometer, a sinusoidal voltage of rated value is
applied to the primary winding which is also known as
reference winding.
An ac tacho-generator consists of two coils on the stator
displaced by 900.
The rotor is a thin aluminum cup that rotates in the air gap in
the magnetic flux produced by one of the stator coils
called as reference coil.
This coil is supplied with a sinusoidal voltage, 𝑉𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡,
where 𝜔𝑐 is called the carrier frequency.
The aluminum cup has low inertia and high conductivity and
acts as a short circuited rotor.
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 Tachometers …
Because of the special construction of the rotor, this
generator is also known as drag cup generator.
The voltage applied to the reference winding produces a
main flux of 𝜙𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡.
As per Ferrari's principle, this alternating flux can be
considered as equivalent to two rotating fluxes 𝜙𝑓
and 𝜙𝑏 .

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 Tachometers …
These two fluxes are equal in magnitude but rotating in
opposite directions with synchronous speed of 𝜔𝑠 .
If the rotor is stationary, these two fluxes induce equal
and opposite voltages in the quadrature winding on
the stator and therefore the voltage across this
winding is zero.

Ferrari's principle
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 Tachometers …
The two fluxes also produce induced currents in the
drag cup which in tum produce reaction fluxes
opposing the corresponding main fluxes, resulting in
the net fluxes 𝜙𝑓 and 𝜙𝑏 .
Now let the rotor rotate with a speed 𝜃ሶ in the direction
of the forward flux 𝜙𝑓 . Since the relative speed of
rotor conductors decreases, the induced currents
decrease and therefore the main forward flux 𝜙𝑓
increases.
The relative speed of rotor conductors increases with respect
to backward flux 𝜙𝑏 and the induced current in the rotor
due to this flux increases.
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 Tachometers …
This increases the reaction flux thereby decreasing
backward flux 𝜙𝑏 .
This imbalance in the fields, produces a voltage across the
quadrature coil. This voltage will be in phase quadrature
with the reference voltage and its amplitude is
proportional to the speed of the rotor.
If the rotor rotates in the opposite direction, reverse action
takes place.
Thus the voltage across the quadrature coil is given by,
𝑉𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔ሶ 𝑐 𝑡.
The magnitude of this voltage is given by,
ሶ
𝑉𝑡 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡 𝜃(𝑡)
where 𝐾𝑡 is called the tachometer constant.
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 Tachometers …
DC Tachometer:
A DC tacho-generator is used to feedback a voltage
proportional to the speed in a DC control system.
The construction of a DC tacho-generator in similar to a DC
permanent magnet generator.
The power rating of such a generator is very small and is
designed to have low inertia.
• The DC Tachometer provides visual speed readout of a
rotating shaft.
• Such tachometers are directly connected to a voltmeter
which is calibrated in r.p.m.
• Permanent magnet tachometers are compact, efficient and
reliable but have high inertia. To reduce inertia of rotors
ironless rotors can be used. 27
 Tachometers …
• Permanent magnet units are compensated with temperature
sensitive magnetic shunts that divert portion of pole flux
according to temperature variation to maintain linear
relationship between speed and the generated voltages.
Used in velocity indicators, velocity feedback control and
stabilization.
Mathematical model:

The transfer function is:

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 Amplidyne
An Amplidyne is a high-powered amplifier constructed as a
combination of a three-phase motor and a modified AC
voltage generator.
With an Amplidyne, large loads could be moved remote-
controlled.
The output power of an Amplidyne can be up to several 10
kilowatts with a power amplification of 104 to 105.
It works as a regulated converter.
A powerful motor as a three-phase synchronous machine is
rigidly connected to a modified AC generator.
The motor rotates at a constant speed.
The generator is equipped with DC-controlled field
excitation.
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 Amplidyne …
If the excitation voltage for the magnetic field in the
generator is zero, no output voltage is generated at the
generator, despite the fact that the motor operates at full
speed.
With just a few watts of power for the exciter field, the
generator generates an output voltage that is designed for
a high current load.
The load is usually a big electric motor.
It consists of a compensating winding that is connected in
series with the power output brush terminals.
The compensating winding cancels out the d axis MMF,
which opposes the control field MMF.
The compensating winding is located in the direct (d) axis
on the stator.
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 Amplidyne …
This compensating winding carries the load current id.
The winding produces a flux
which opposes the flux
produced by the direct
axis armature current.
The effect of the negative
feedback of the load
current is minimized. The
d axis flux now depends
on the field winding
current.
With the availability of semiconductor components that can
also switch power in the range of several kilowatts,
Amplidynes have completely lost their significance. 31
 Encoders
An encoder is a device that is used in many industries to
provide feedback.
An encoder is a device or process that converts data from
one format to another.
In position sensing, an encoder is a device which can detect
and convert mechanical motion to an analog or digital
coded output signal.
More specifically, it measures position, while velocity,
acceleration and direction can be derivate from position in
either linear or rotary movement.
In the most basic terms, an encoder, regardless of the type,
senses position, direction, speed, or counts.
Encoders will use motion, under a variety of technologies,
and translate it into an electrical signal. 32
 Encoders …
That signal is then sent back to a controlling device, such as
a PLC, and is interpreted, meaning scaled, to represent a
value that will then be used within the program.
Encoder Types and Technologies
Some of the technologies involved in encoders are:
– Magnetic
– Mechanical
– Resistive
– Optical
Optical is the most widely used encoder motion translating
technology.
There are different types of encoders such as Absolute and
Incremental.
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 Encoders …
Working Principle
An incremental, optical type encoder uses a beam of light
that passes through a disk that has opaque lines in a
specific pattern, somewhat like the spokes of a wheel.
On the other side of the disk is a photo sensing device that
will interpret the light, based on the pattern on the disk,
picture a shutter, blocking and unblocking the light.
The pulses of light are
then converted to an
electrical signal to be
sent back to the
processor, through the
encoder’s output.
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Encoders …

Encoders have
a wide range of
applications.

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Encoders …

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