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A Theoretical Framework for ElectroAcoustic Music

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 A Theoretical Framework for Electro-Acoustic Music
Mary H. Simoni ([email protected]), Benjamin Broening ([email protected]),
Christopher Rozell ([email protected]), Colin Meek ([email protected]), Gregory H. Wakefield ([email protected])
Center for Performing Arts & Technology, School of Music Ð College of Engineering
MusEn Project: http://musen.engin.umich.edu
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2085
USA

Abstract

Developing a theoretical framework for electro-acoustic music presents an array of problems not present in the analysis of
Western tonal and post-tonal music. We present a theoretical framework characterized by the interaction of a perceptual and
an analytic model. The perception of a composition is used to inform the analytic model. The analytic model examines
aspects of a composition ranging from macrostructures, such as form, to microstructures, such as the spectrum at a moment in
time. The theoretical framework is exercised through the study of Late August by Paul Lansky.

1. A Brief Discussion of Analytic Methodologies for In this paper, we offer suggestions to some of the
Western Tonal Music problems of analytic methodologies for electro-acoustic
While intellectual speculation on music can be traced music. We combine our understanding of music theory
to antiquity, music analysis, as we now understand it, with information gleaned from research in signal
emerged in the eighteenth century [Bent & Drabkin, processing to develop an analytic framework for the
1987]. Many of the central concerns of early theorists, analysis of electro-acoustic music. Through this marriage
including phrase structure and modeling of large formal of music theory and signal processing, we are able to
design, remain central concerns in the analysis of music enhance our understanding of electro-acoustic music.
today. Just as issues of pitch and rhythm were paramount
in the early days of music analysis, so too are they 2. The Perceptual Model
similarly privileged in the analysis of contemporary The analysis of music begins with the process of
music. Traditional analyses often organize elements of listening. Our perceptual model is centered upon the
pitch and rhythm hierarchically: motive, theme, phrase, experiences of a listener in an ideal stereophonic listening
phrase group, and section. Schenkerian approaches environment (Fig. 1). The listener auditions the
delineate foreground, middleground, and background composition and discerns the musical elements of the
levels. composition. The process of identifying the musical
Attempts to directly apply traditional analytic elements in an electro-acoustic composition is borrowed
methodologies to electro-acoustic music are problematic. from research in auditory scene analysis. Auditory scene
While electro-acoustic and acoustic music share many analysis is the process whereby all the auditory evidence
musical attributes, these attributes function differently in that comes over time, from a single environmental source,
each genre. How then are we to understand the formal is assembled by the listener as a perceptual unit
organization of electro-acoustic music? Consider a [Bregman, 1990].
musical phrase. As William Rothstein says, a phrase must Bregman observes that the auditory system
contain Òdirected motion in time from one tonal entity to apparently keeps an Ôopen slotÕ available for the return of
anotherÓ [Rothstein, 1989]. Since RothsteinÕs concept of a a sound. His observation may be extended to the
phrase is so deeply intertwined with tonal processes and perception of music as evidenced by our tendency to
thus not applicable to a great deal of electro-acoustic listen for the return of previously stated musical events. In
music, we instead think of a phrase as Roger Sessions put the case of auditory analysis of an electro-acoustic
it, Òthe portion of music that must be performed, so to composition, these auditory streams may be any musical
speak, without letting go, or figuratively, in a single event such as pitch clusters, a timbre, or a class of
breathÓ [Sessions, 1950]. Just as the notion of a musical timbres.
phrase changes throughout history, so too must our
understanding and analysis of musical structures.
 3. The Analytic Model
The listener in the perceptual model informs the
Right Channel
Left Channel
processes which take place in the analytic model (Fig. 3).
Musical events perceived by the listener in the perceptual
Surrogate Score
model are identified and classified. The classification
determines if knowledge of music theory or signal
processing should be employed to advance the analysis.
Listener Musical intelligence required by an analysis includes a
Events
Motives
well-developed ear for aural melodic and harmonic
Timbre Class analysis and a thorough understanding of music theory.
Form
Spatialization Signal processing techniques that assist in the
etc. investigation are spectrum analysis and pitch tracking.

Event
Fig. 1: The Perceptual Model Identification
and
Classification
The listener may be aided by a two-dimensional
monophonic time-frequency representation that displays
the entire composition. For purposes of data reduction, we
view a stereophonic composition as a monophonic signal. Musical Intelligence Signal Processing Tools
Melodic and Harmonic Auralization
In some cases, the listener will require a stereophonic Tonal Theory Spectrum Analysis
Post-Tonal Theory
time-frequency representation. The two-dimensional Set Theory
Pitch Tracking

time-frequency representation serves as a surrogate score Schenker

etc.
during the analysis. The surrogate score displays time on
the x axis and frequency on the y axis (Fig. 2). The Fig. 3: The Analytic Model
intensity of color at any point corresponds to the energy
The interaction of the perceptual and analytic models
present in a particular time and frequency region. In our
is best characterized as recursive. For example,
research, the surrogate score assists the listener in
information gleaned from the perceptual model informs
organizing auditory streams as a time-ordered series. The
the selection of techniques employed in the analytic
listener may mark salient musical events on the surrogate
model. Outcomes of the analytic model may suggest
score to assist in the analysis of the composition. These
additional listening to refine the processes of the analytic
marks indicate time slices that require further
model.
investigation in the analytic model.
3.1 Musical Intelligence
The skilled listener makes observations regarding
musical attributes such as phrases, timbre, tonal centers,
and form. These observations are marked on the surrogate
score and become identified with a particular time slice or
point in time. These markings assist in the identification
of motives, which may be timbres or classes of timbres,
phrases, and sections. The markings indicate which time
slices of a composition should be further investigated
using signal processing techniques such as time-frequency
analysis and pitch tracking.

3.2.1 Time-Frequency Analysis

We are interested in first-order trends in the time-
frequency representation of the signal and use a
spectrogram to these trends. To produce a spectrogram of
a time slice, the audio signal is split into overlapping
Fig. 2: An excerpt from the surrogate score of
segments that are windowed using a Hanning window.
Late August by Paul Lansky
The short-term, time-localized frequency content of the
(time = 0:00 Ð 1:00 minute)
audio signal is found by taking the discrete Fourier
transform of each segment. A three-dimensional mesh 4. Case Study: Late August by Paul Lansky
plot of the resulting data is produced showing the Paul LanskyÕs Late August [Lansky, 1990] is
frequency content of the signal as it changes over time. constructed from three timbre classes: processed speech; a
Specific parameters for the Fourier transform such as plucked, percussive timbre; and a sustained choral timbre.
window size, window overlap and viewable frequency The composition exhibits ten clearly defined tonal
range are adjusted depending on the resolution needed for centers. Since the most prominent sonic elements of the
the task at hand. composition are pitched, we draw on music theory
literature that deals with pitch, applying some of the set-
3.2.2 Pitch Tracking
theoretical concepts developed by Milton Babbitt and
Additional signal processing techniques may be
Allen Forte [Babbitt 1961, Forte 1973].
applied to sections of electro-acoustic music that are
The principal pitch-class set in Late August is set
comprised primarily of pitched events. The pitch class of
5-35 [02479] also known as a pentatonic collection
a note may be determined using pitch recognition
(Fig. 4). The two speakers whose conversation Lansky
software called PTrack [Wakefield & Pardo, 1999]. The
processed for Late August are Chinese, and Lansky chose
term pitch class [Forte, 1973] refers to the successive
the pentatonic collection because of its association with
numbering of pitches using integers. For the purposes of
the East [Lansky 1999].
this paper, we use [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t e] to represent 11
pitches [C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B]. The pitch 10
content of the audio signal is calculated in a manner 9
similar to the process described in 3.2.1. In each segment, 8

frequency components that have a strong presence in the 7

signal are separated into a series of twelve bins with each 6

bin corresponding to each pitch of the chromatic scale. 5

For example, a signal with frequency components at 110 4

Hz, 220 Hz, 440Hz would place all frequency 3

components in the ÒAÓ bin. Each pitch is investigated to 2

ascertain the degree of harmonically-related partials 1

present in the signal. The presence of harmonically- 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
related partials is assumed to be evidence of the existence Time (sec)

of that pitch class in the signal. The pitch class with the
Fig. 4: A chromagram of Late August by Paul Lansky
greatest evidence for existence is selected as the single-
clearly depicting the presence of set 5-35
pitch summary for that time segment. By assembling
these summaries, an approximation of the pitch classes
Figure 5 shows a summary of the ten distinct tonal
present in a given time slice may be obtained. A plot
regions of the 13Õ45Ócomposition and the corresponding
referred to as a chromagram displays time as the x-axis
set theory analysis.
and pitch class as the y-axis.
Section Start Time Pitch- Pitches Number of Tonal Transpos- Interval Number of
classes tones in Center ition Class of Occurrences
common with Trans- of Trans-
set 5-35 position position
1 0:00 {02479} C, D, E, G, A 5 C T0 0 3
2 3:01 {t0257} Bb, C, D, F, G 3 Bb Tt 2 3
3 4:00 {357t0} Eb, F, G, Bb, C 2 Eb T3 3 2
4 5:07 {02479} C, D, E, G, A 5 C T0 0 3
5 6:15 {t0257} Bb, C, D, F, G 3 Bb Tt 2 3
6 7:15 {57902} F, G, A, C, D 4 F T5 5 1
7 8:15 {357t0} Eb, F, G, Bb, C 2 Eb T3 3 2
8 9:15 {8t035} Ab, Bb, C, Eb, F 1 Ab T8 4 1
9 10:15 {t0257} Bb, C, D, F, G 3 Bb Tt 2 3
10 11:15 {02479} C, D, E, G, A 5 C T0 0 3
Fig. 5: An Overview of Late August by Paul Lansky
 The principal setÕs Interval Class Vector (ICV), 5. Summary and Considerations for Future Work
032140, offers a possible explanation for LanskyÕs choice We have described an analytic process characterized
of transpositions. Only a limited subset of the twelve by perceptual and analytic models that assist in our
possible transpositions is presented: T0, T3, T5, and Tt. understanding of Late August by Paul Lansky. The
These transpositions correspond to the intervals available visualization of musical signals augments, but certainly
from within the set. The exact level of transposition does not replace, what is perceived by the ear. As John
corresponds to the inversion of the principal set: Tyndall stated in 1875, Òin the width of perception the ear
exceedingly transcends the eyeÓ [Tyndall, 1877].
Principal set: 0 2 4 7 9 Similarly, we have observed that a well-trained ear should
Inversion: 0 t 8 5 3 guide the selection of signal processing techniques that
Inversion are applied to an analysis. Furthermore, a skillful
reordered: 0 3 5 8 t interpretation of that analysis is required to make
meaningful assertions about the music.
0 3 5 8 t Although visualization of musical signals is useful is
the analysis of electro-acoustic music, it has its
Section No. 1, 4, 10 3, 7 6 8 2, 5, 9 limitations. Ptrack is a single pitch estimator for a
where particular time segment and for that reason, is incapable
transposition of accurately representing segments where more than one
appears pitch is present. Future work will investigate extensions
of Ptrack, or the development of alternative approaches,
so that we can extract multiple simultaneous pitches.
The decision to dominate the pitch language with set
class 5-35 creates a sense of homogeneity that is further References
strengthened by LanskyÕs choice of transposition levels.
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Pitch class 0 is present in each section of the composition.
Determinant,Ó Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 5.
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Bent, Ian and Drabkin, William. (1987). Analysis.
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MacMillan Press, Houndsmills, Basingstoke,
high degree of continuity. Section eight is the point of
Hampshire.
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Bregman, Albert S. (1990). Auditory Scene Analysis: The
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Forte, Allen. (1973). The Structure of Atonal Music. Yale
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Fig. 6: A spectrogram showing the shift in tonal center Representations.Ó Proceedings of the SPIEÕ99. Denver.
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