KINETIC ENERGY

Simply, it is the energy (ability to do work) associated with the velocity (v) of an object.

A B

Displacement (d)

There is an energy associated with the velocity of the ball, since it does work to displace the yellow ball from point A to point B.
KINETIC ENERGY

The kinetic energy (translation) of a particle of mass (m) moving with velocity (𝑣)
⃗ is defined as

m
𝑣⃗ m !
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣⃗ " [translational kinetic energy]
"

The kinetic energy (rotation) of an object with moment of Inertia (𝐼) moving with angular velocity (𝜔) is defined as

I I 𝜔 !
𝐾 = " 𝐼𝜔" [rotational kinetic energy]

𝑲𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑲𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝑲𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍

MOMENTUM
Simply, it can be thought of as “inertia of motion”.

The linear momentum (𝑝)

⃗ of a particle of mass (𝑚) that is moving with velocity (𝑣) is defined as

𝑣⃗ 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
m m

The angular momentum (𝐿) of a particle of linear momentum (𝑝)

⃗ that is a distance 𝑟 from the origin is defined as

𝑳=𝒓𝒙𝒑
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (MECHANICAL ENERGY)

The total energy (E) of an isolated system (one where no external forces act) remains constant.

E = Potential Energy (U) + Kinetic Energy (K)

𝒅𝑬
=𝟎
𝒅𝒕

OR

𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝑬𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍
RELATING NEWTON’S 2ND LAW AND LINEAR MOMENTUM

Question: Is there a net force (∑F or F,-. ) acting on the mass (m)?

𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗
m m m m

Answer: There is no net force or ∑F = 0 / F,-. = 0 since the mass is moving at a constant velocity (thus, it has no acceleration).

NEWTON’S 2ND LAW OF MOTION

𝑣⃗ 𝑉
m 𝐹 m

𝑣⃗ 𝑉
m
𝐹 m

The acceleration (a) of a particle is directly proportional to the net force (∑F) and inversely proportional to the particle’s mass.
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

A B From Newton’s 3rd Law:

In a closed system, the force that body A applies on body B (𝐹/ 12 3 ) is equal in magnitude
to the force applied by B on A (𝐹3 12 / ), but in opposite directions.

KL⃗ KL⃗
∑𝐹 = KM
, since ∑𝐹 = 0 ⟹ KM
= 0.

∴ 𝑑𝑝⃗ = 0 𝑝⃗ is constant
 8
A helium atom (m4 = 6.6465 x 105"6 kg) moving at a speed of v4 = 1.518 X 107 collides with an atom of Nitrogen (m: =
9
; 8
2.3253 x 105"7 kg) at rest. After the collision, the helium atom is found to be moving with a velocity of v4 = 1.199 x 107 at an
9
angle of 78.75° relative to the direction of the original motion of the helium atom.

a. Find the velocity (magnitude and direction) of the nitrogen atom after the collision?
b. Compare the kinetic energy before the collision with the total kinetic energy of the atoms after the collision.

H N

ANSWER:
a. −3.3613 x 10< m/s, 42.48° below the horizontal.
b. K = 7.658 x 105!< J and it the the same before and after collision (since it is an elastic collision)
CLASSICAL ADDITION OF VELOCITY

Classically, velocities add like ordinary numbers in one-dimensional motion.

In this illustration, the girl throws a snowball forward and then backward
from a sled. The velocity of the sled relative to the Earth is v = 1.0 m/s.
The velocity of the snowball relative to the sled is u′, while its velocity
relative to the Earth is u.

Classically, u = v + u′.
ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric field from a point charge modifies the space around it, such that a test
charge (𝐪𝟎 ) experiences a force when it is within the vicinity of the field.

1 𝑄
𝐸 = where ϵ> is the permitivitty of free space.
4𝜋𝜖> 𝑟 "

𝐹>
𝐸 = where q > is the “test charge”.
𝑞1
Visualization of the electric field of various charges.
 ELECTRIC FORCE

𝑞!
The electric force can be thought of as the “response” of an introduced charge
into an electric field.

r 𝐹⃗ =
1 𝑄 𝑞1
where ϵ> is the permitivitty of free space.
4𝜋𝜖> 𝑟 "

𝐹> = 𝐸 𝑞1 where q > is the “test charge”.

! :C8 "
Most references use k = ?@A!
= 8.988 x 10B D" .

Electric field of a positive charge.

 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

𝑞! The electric potential energy (𝑼𝑬 ) can be thought of as the energy required to
move a charge across an electric field.
𝑞!

𝑑𝑈
r
𝑞!
𝐹=−
𝑑𝑟
1 𝑄 𝑞1
𝑈= where ϵ> is the permitivitty of free space.
4𝜋𝜖> 𝑟

Electric field of a positive charge.

Electron-volts (eV) as a common measure of change in potential difference

When a charge moves through a potential difference ∆𝑉 , the change in its

electric potential difference (∆𝑈) is

∆𝑈 = 𝑞∆𝑉

1 eV is the work done in moving an electron e = 1.602 x 10!"# C across a potential difference of 1 Volt.

1V
1 𝑒𝑉 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑞∆𝑉

1 eV = 1.602 x 10!"# C 1 Volt = 1.602 x 10!"# J

Effect of an external magnetic field (𝑩𝒆𝒙𝒕 ) to the magnetic moment (𝝁).

Recall that whenever an electric charge is in motion, a magnetic field is generated. (Ampere’s Law)

A circular current loop of radius (r) produces a magnetic field B at its center.

𝜇> 𝐼
𝐵 = where 𝜇> is the permeability of free space and I is the current.
2𝑟
Effect of an external magnetic field (𝑩𝒆𝒙𝒕 ) to the magnetic moment (𝝁).

Magnetic moment (𝝁𝟎 ) is simply the magnitude of the magnetic field, and its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the
current loop.

𝜇⃗ = 𝐼𝐴 where A is the area enclosed by the loop and I is the current.

Effect of an external magnetic field (𝑩𝒆𝒙𝒕 ) to the magnetic moment (𝝁).

An important observation is that when an external magnetic field (𝐵"#$ ) passes through the current loop, it generates a
torque (rotation) to the magnetic moment.

Minimum energy happens when the magnetic moment (𝜇) and external magnetic field (𝐵"#$ ) are parallel.

Thus, the direction of the magnetic moment tends to align with the direction of the magnetic field.

𝜇⃗
Ideal Gas (Equation of State)

N = number of molecules
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 K = Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute Temperature (K)

When does this equation holds true?

1. For gases at relatively low pressure. (low density)

2. For gases at sufficiently high temperatures. (low density)

Ideal Gas (Equation of State)
N = number of molecules
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 K = 1.381 𝑥 10!$% 𝐽/𝐾 (Boltzmann constant)
T = Absolute Temperature (K)

The equation above can also be expressed in the more familiar form:

n = number of moles
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 &
R = 8.315 '()*+ (Universal Gas Constant)
T = Absolute Temperature (K)

Question:
How many atoms does a 1 mole of Hydrogen have?

Answer:
1 mole of Hydrogen has exactly 6.022 𝑥 10"F atoms. We call the quantity (𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 ) as the Avogadro’s number (𝑵𝑨 ).
Ideal Gas (Equation of State)
N = number of molecules
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 K = 1.381 𝑥 10!$% 𝐽/𝐾 (Boltzmann constant)
T = Absolute Temperature (K)

The equation above can also be expressed in the more familiar form:

n = number of moles
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 &
R = 8.315 '()*+ (Universal Gas Constant)
T = Absolute Temperature (K)

Some important relations:

𝑁 = 𝑛𝑁„ The number of molecules is simply the number of moles multiplied by the Avogadro’s number.

𝑅 = 𝑘𝑁„ The gas constant (R) is directly proportional to the Avogadro’s number.
Ideal Gas (Equation of State)

One important thing to note in the kinetic theory is, all the energy of the gas is simply kinetic energy.

Moreover, the average kinetic energy depends only on the temperature.

In fact, what we measure as temperature is just the average kinetic energy (translational) of a gas.

A. K JK- per molecule of gas.

3
𝐾…†‡ = 𝑘𝑇
2
B. K JK- per mole of gas.

! L1MN (2)
K JK- per mole = K JK- of a molecule x
,Q8R-S TU 8TV-WQV-9(:#)

3
𝐾…†‡ = 𝑅𝑇
2
PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

Suppose, you (Observer 1) and your friend (Observer 2) are both observing the same phenomenon: the production and decay of a pion.
You (Observer 1) are at rest in the lab, and your friend (Observer 2) moves with the same speed as the pion.

Your task is to determine the lifetime of this particle. Will you get the same measurement?

Observer 2

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1
PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

A. The lifetime of pion according to observer 1.

Observer 2

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 1 sees the pion to move relative to the laboratory at 2.737 x 10X m/s. He measured the lifetime to be 𝟔𝟑. 𝟕 𝐱 𝟏𝟎5𝟗 𝐬.
PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

B. The lifetime of pion according to observer 2 .

Observer 2

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 2 sees the pion to be at rest relative to himself and noticed that it moves relative to the laboratory at 2.737 𝑥 10X 𝑚/𝑠.
He measured the lifetime to be 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎5𝟗 𝐬.
 Observer 2 The pion has a lifetime
of 26.0 ns.
The pion has a lifetime
of 63.7 ns.

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 2 measures a smaller lifetime of the pion than observer 1.

This is NOT POSSIBLE in classical physics since time is the same for all
observers. Thus, our concept of time needs to be generalized.
PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

Suppose, you (Observer 1) and your friend (Observer 2) are both observing the same phenomenon: the production and decay of a pion.
You (Observer 1) are at rest in the lab, and your friend (Observer 2) moves with the same speed as the pion.

Your task is to determine the distance travelled by the pion from its production to decay. Will you get the same measurement?

Observer 2

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1
PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

A. The distance travelled by the pion according to observer 1 .

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠, d = 17.4 m

𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 1 sees the pion to move 17.4 m.

PRODUCTION AND DECAY OF PI MESON OR PION
In an experiment, pion moves at at a speed of 2.737 x 10!m/s.

A. The distance travelled by the pion according to observer 2 .

Observer 2

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠, d = 7.11 m

𝜋 𝜋

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠, d = 17.4 m

𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 2 sees the pion to move 7.11 m.

 The pion moved a
distance of 7.11 m.

The pion moved a

distance of 17.4 m. 𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠, d = 7.11 m
𝜋 𝜋

𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠, d = 17.4 m

𝜋 𝜋

Observer 1

Observer 2 measures a smaller distance travelled by the pion than

observer 1.

This is NOT POSSIBLE in classical physics since space is the same for all
observers. Thus, our concept of space needs to be generalized.
From classical kinematics, when an object with a specific acceleration continually moves
(𝒕 increases to infinity), it will create a velocity that is very large.

This means that velocity has no bound and thus can increase to infinity.
Think of the pion (𝜋) we discussed earlier. At a certain time, it will decay into another particle, the muon (𝜇).

u
𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝑣# = 0.813 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠 relative to the pion
𝜋 𝜋 𝜇 𝜇
v u'

Observer 1

According to the classical addition of velocity, observer 1 must measure a velocity of:

𝑢 = 𝑣 + 𝑢;

𝑚 𝑚
𝑢 = 2.737 𝑥 10X + 0.813 𝑥 10X
𝑠 𝑠
𝒎
𝒖 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝒔
 The velocity of the muon is
#
3.550 𝑥 10" $

u
𝑣! = 2.737 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠
𝑣# = 0.813 𝑥 10"𝑚/𝑠 relative to the pion
𝜋 𝜋 𝜇 𝜇
v u'

Observer 1

L
However, the experimental or observed velocity of the muon (𝜇) is 2.846 𝑥 10X \
.

Thus, velocity addition must be generalized.

 The Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution function for one mole of gas at room temperature (300 K).

Distribution function is a mathematical expression that describes the PROBABILITY that system will take a specific value.
Equipartition Theorem of Energy

When the number of particles in a system is large and Newtonian mechanics is obeyed, each molecular degree of freedom
𝟏
corresponds to an average energy of 𝐤𝐓.
𝟐

A. MONATOMIC GASES

Degrees of freedom (df) : Three (3) (translation)

1
𝐸]^N = 𝑑𝑓 𝑘𝑇
2
1
𝐸]^N = 3 𝑘𝑇
2
𝟑
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝑻
𝟐
Equipartition Theorem of Energy

When the number of particles in a system is large and Newtonian mechanics is obeyed, each molecular degree
𝟏
of freedom corresponds to an average energy of 𝐤𝐓.
𝟐

B. DIATOMIC GASES

Degrees of freedom (df) : Five (5) (translation + rotation)

1
𝐸]^N = 𝑑𝑓 𝑘𝑇
2
1
𝐸]^N = 5 𝑘𝑇
2
𝟓
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝑻
𝟐
Equipartition Theorem of Energy

When the number of particles in a system is large and Newtonian mechanics is obeyed, each molecular degree
𝟏
of freedom corresponds to an average energy of 𝐤𝐓.
𝟐

B. DIATOMIC GASES

Degrees of freedom (df) : Five (7) (translation + rotation+ vibration)

1
𝐸]^N = 𝑑𝑓 𝑘𝑇
2
1
𝐸]^N = 7 𝑘𝑇
2
𝟕
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝑻
𝟐
TOTAL ENERGY (INTERNAL) OF A GAS

𝐸•–M = 𝑁 𝐸…†‡ where N = number of molecules.

Gas type Average Energy (Kinetic) Internal Energy (Kinetic)

3 monatomic 3 3 3
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2 2 2

2 Diatomic (no vibration) 5 5 5

𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2 2 2

1 Diatomic (with vibration) 7 7 7

𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2 2 2
HEAT CAPACITIES OF AN IDEAL GAS

Heat capacity – is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance (i.e.,
gas) by 1 °𝐶 or 1 K.

Heat goes into the container of gas, and it is not allowed to expand (constant volume process).

Δ𝐸()$
3 𝐶' =
𝑛 Δ𝑇
Heat Heat
Gas type Internal Energy Molar Heat Capacity
(Kinetic)
2
monatomic 3 3 3
𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, = 𝑅
2 2 2
1 Diatomic (no vibration) 5 5 5
𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, = 𝑅
2 2 2

Diatomic (with 7 7 7
𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, = 𝑅
Heat vibration) 2 2 2
HEAT CAPACITIES OF AN IDEAL GAS

Classical physics demands that the molar heat capacity at constant volume (𝐶› ) should be
constant, INDEPENDENT of the type of gas or the temperature.

Gas type Internal Energy (Kinetic) Molar Heat Capacity

monatomic 3 3 3
𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, = 𝑅
2 2 2 Δ𝐸=>?
𝐶< =
Diatomic (no vibration) 5 5
𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, =
5
𝑅
𝑛 Δ𝑇
2 2 2

Diatomic (with vibration) 7 7 7

𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐶, = 𝑅
2 2 2
HEAT CAPACITIES OF AN IDEAL GAS

Independent of the temperature, a molecular

Hydrogen (diatomic) should only have
𝟑 L1M
𝐂𝐕 = 𝐑 or 20.8 𝐽 Ÿ .
𝟐 b

Heat capacity of molecular Hydrogen (diatomic) at different temperatures.

The data diverges from the classical prediction.