UNIT-1

Introduction to Statistics
Data
Data consists of information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses.

Data sets can consist of two types of data 1) Qualitative Data 2) Quantitative Data.

Qualitative Data: Qualitative Data Consists of attributes, labels, or non-numerical entries.

Eg: The boys have brown, black, blonde, and red hair.

Quantitative Data: Quantitative Data Consists of numerical measurements or counts.

Eg: Height, your shoe size, and the length of your fingernails

Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make
decisions.

(or)

Statistics is a science that deals with the study of how to collect, classify, summarize, organize, analyze,
interpret, and present data.

Objective of Statistics

1.Provides Methods for processing & analyzing numbers.

2.Provides Methods for helping reduce the uncertainty inherent in decision making.

3.Statistics helps in collecting an appropriate quantitative data.

4.Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a suitable tabular, diagrammatic, and graphic form for an
easy and clear comprehension of the data.

5.Draw conclusions about large groups of individuals or items, using information collected from subsets
of the individuals or items.

6.Improve business processes

Applications of Statistics

1.Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the understanding of astronomical
data.

2.Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of
statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics
3.Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods to the empirical study of
economic theories and relationships.

4.Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods to environmental science. Weather,

climate, air and water quality are included, as are studies of plant and animal populations.

5.Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for
dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles
or objects when subjected to a force.

6.Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and uses methods of probability
theory in solving physical problems.

Population and Sample

A population is the collection of all outcomes, responses, measurement, or counts that are of interest.

A sample is a subset of a population.

Note: Population size is denoted by ‘N’ and sample size is denoted by ‘n’

Unbiased and Biased Samples

Unbiased sample: An unbiased sample is selected at random and is large enough to provide accurate
data.

Biased sample: A sample drawn in such a way that one or more parts of the population are favored over
others.

Types of Statistics

The study of statistics has two major branches: Descriptive statistics and Inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics: Involves the organization, summarization, and display of data.

Descriptive statistics is that part of statistics which quantitatively describes the characteristics of a
particular data set under study, with the help of brief summary about the sample.

Tools: Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of variation (range, variation,
standard deviation, Max, and min variable).

Inferential statistics: Involves using a sample to draw conclusions about a population.

Inferential statistics is one of the type of statistics in which a random sample is drawn from the large
population, to make deduction about the population, from which the sample is taken.

Tools: Hypothesis test, ANOVA, Confidence interval, Margin of error

 Data collection
Data collection is a term used to describe a process of Systematic gathering of data for a particular
purpose from various sources, that has been systematically observed, recorded, organized.

Sources of data are divided in to two categories.

Internal Sources: Obtain from Internal reports of an organization.

External Sources: Collected from outside agencies.

When information is collected from outside agencies is called external sources of data. Such types of
data are either primary or secondary.

Primary Data

 Primary data are firsthand information.

 These information is collected directly from the source by means of field studies.
 Primary data are original and are like raw materials. It is the most crude form of information.
 The investigator himself collects primary data or supervises its collection. It may be collected on
a sample or census basis or from case studies.

Secondary data

 Secondary data are the Secondhand information.

 The data which have already been collected and processed by some agency or persons and are
not used for the first time are termed as secondary data.
 According to M. M. Blair, “Secondary data are those already in existence and which have been
collected for some other purpose.”
 Secondary data may be abstracted from existing records, published sources or unpublished
sources.

Primary Vs Secondary

Sources of Primary Data:

1. Direct personal Interview/In person Interviewing

2. Indirect personal Interview/Telephonic/Online

3. Mailed Questionnaires

4. Schedule

5. Focus Groups

1.Direct personal interview:

In this method, the information will be collected by the investigator through personal interviews from
the informants.
 The reliability of collected data depends upon the training and attitude of the investigator and
supporting attitude of the respondent.

This method is most suitable for a type of investigation.

i) The investigation is confidential and

ii) The process of investigation is so complex that it requires

personal attention of the investigator.

Merits:

1. It is possible to collect original, accurate and exact data.

2. The doubts of informants can be checked and clarified.

3. Informants doubts can be cleared in the language most suitable to him

Demerits:

1. Skilled enumerators are required to collect the data

2. Consumes like time and money

2. Indirect Personal Interview

 This method is used when the informants are reluctant to provide information directly. When
the field of investigation is very large, the information about a large number of respondents can
indirectly be obtained from one person who may be head of an institution or community.

Merits:

(i) If the area of investigation is very large, then this method of data collection is most suitable or
when the respondents are reluctant to give the information directly.

(ii) If a person is not interested to reveal his habits of drinking, smoking, gambling, etc. By
applying this method, the information can be collected from third party.

Demerits:

(i) In the absence of direct contact between investigator and informant, it may happen that many
important points remain unnoticed.

(ii) The information may be biased as it is provided by the third party.

(iii) The information collected from different persons may not be same and comparable.

3. Information through Local Agencies (or) Correspondents

In this method, local agents or correspondents are appointed in different parts of the area under
investigation.

These agents sent the required information at regular interview of time.

 This method is often adopted by newspapers.

Merits:

(i) It is economical in terms of time money and labour.

(ii) This method is very useful when periodic information is required at regular intervals and area
of investigation is large.

Demerits:

(i) The information lacks originality.

(ii) The bias of the correspondent affects the information

4. Mailed Questionnaire Method

In this method, a set of questions is sent by mail to the informants.

They are expected to answer the questions and mail them back to the investigator.
It is very useful when the informants are educated and when the area of investigation is very
wide.

Merits:

(i) It is costly and time-consuming.

(ii) Collected information is free from the bias of the enumerators.

Demerits:

(i) It is applicable only to educated informants.

(ii) All informants may not back the questionnaire.

(iii) Some of the informants may send incomplete questionnaires.

5. Focus Groups:

A focus group is a group interview involving a small number of demographically similar people.

6.Schedule:

Schedule is the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondents while interview is
conducted.

Schedule contains questions, statements and blank spaces/tables for filling up the respondents.

The features of schedules are :

 The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are
noted down by him.
 The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be attractive.
 The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
The main purposes of schedule are threefold :

 To provide a standardized tool for observation or interview in order to attain objectivity.

 To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis.

Sources of Secondary Data

1. Published Sources

For the sake of public, information is published and made available to all interested parties.

The sources of published data are:

(i) Governments Publications: State and central governments publish reports of various committees
and commissions and official publications like Gazettes, Vital Statistics, etc.

(ii) International Publications: Various foreign governments and international agencies like UNO,
World Bank and International Monetary Fund regularly publish reports on the data collected by
them on various aspects.

(iii) Semi-official Publications: Various local bodies such as District Boards, Municipal Corporations, etc.
publish periodicals providing information about vital factors like health, births, deaths, etc.

2. Private Publications

The following private publications may also be enlisted as the source of secondary data.

i. Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, etc.

ii. Publications of professional bodies like Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), ICAR, NCERT, ICMR and
CSIR.

iii. Annual reports of banks and joint stock companies, stock exchanges, etc.

iv. Information published in newspapers, books, magazines, etc.

3.Unpublished Sources

 All the information need not be in published form.

 Information can also be taken from unpublished sources like diaries, letters, unpublished bio
graphics and auto biographic.
 Unpublished data may also be available with scholars, research workers, trade associations and
individuals.