DC Circuits/Electricity

Section – 1

Terminologies
Q ne
Current I = t = t

Drift velocity (I = nAvq)

Potential difference
Ohms law
Section – 2
V
Resistance R = I

& Resistivity
Section – 3
Simple Circuit equation
E = V T + VL

Or E = IR + Ir

Or E = I (R + r)
Section – 4
Resistor Networking
Section – 5
Electrical Equipment’s
Section – 6
Potentiometer
Section – 7
Kirchhoff’s laws
1. ∑ I’sentering = ∑ I’sleaving
2. ∑ emf’s = ∑ p.d’s
Section
–8
Power
 2
V
P = VI = I2R = P =
R

Important Terminologies.
1. Current: (I)
Whenever a charge change its position with time we call it a current
Definition:
“It’s the rate of flow of charges”.
Mathematically;
Q
I= t Q = Total charge
Unite: Ampere (A) ………………… Ampere = joule per coulomb

One coulomb is the charge which flows past a point in a circuit in a time of 1 s when the
current is 1 A.
Note:
Since, Q = ne where, n = number of charges.
e = elementary charge.
So,
ne
I= t
Current verses drift Velocity: (I = nAvq)
2. Drift – Velocity:
The actual velocity of an electron between collisions in a conductor is of the order of
magnitude 102 m s−1, called thermal velocity. But the velocity under applied potential
difference is much less like of the order of 0.6 ms-1 and is caked drift velocity.
Definition:
“It’s the velocity of free electrons though a conductor under applied potential
difference”.
The Relation between Current and Drift Velocity: (I = nAvq)
If n = number density or number of charges per unit volume.

L = length of conductor &

A = Cross – sectional area

Than total number of electrons = number density x volume of wire

=nxAxl
Total charge = number x electron charge
Q =nxAxlxe e = elementary charge.

As by definition;
Q
I= t

n x A xl xe
I= t

l
Substituting v = t gives

I
I = nAve Or v = nAe

The moving charge carriers that make up a current are not always electrons. They might
be ions (positive or negative).
In general;

I = nAvq

I I I
Or v = nAe = 2 = 2
n π r e n π (D/2) e

Results: imp
1. v α I ……… If the current increases, the drift velocity v must increase.
 1
2. v α A ……… If the wire is thinner, the electrons move more quickly for a given
current.
There are fewer electrons in a thinner piece of wire, so an individual electron must
travel more quickly.
1
3. v α n ……….In a material with a lower density of electrons (smaller n), the mean drift
velocity must be greater for a given current.
Note: In conductors average value of n = 1028 m-3,
where as in semi – conductors n = 1023 m-3.
Quantization Of Charge:
Quantization means that the charge exists in the multiples of basic charge unit, which is
the charge of electron or proton. (e = 1.6 x 10-19 C)
Q = ne
Where
n = positive integer

3. Potential difference: (V)

“It’s the amount of electrical energy which transform into other form of energies when
a unit charge move between two points in a circuit”.
Electrical energy → other forms
V= Charge

A potential difference of one Volt is equal to one Joule of energy being used by one
Coulomb of charge when it flows between two points in a circuit.
1J
1 V = 1C

4. Ohms Law:
Statement:
“The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the
conductor provided the temperature (and other physical factors) remain constant”.
Mathematically;
VαI
Or V = constant x I
V
Or I
= constant
Graphically;
The graph on negative axis shows that if the polarity of source is reversed the direction
of current changes as well.
Ohmic & Non – Ohmic conductors:
Ohmic:
They obey the Ohm’s law i,e they have a linear relationship between the current
and the voltage..
Silver, copper wire, resistors metals are the examples of ohmic conductors.
Non – Ohmic:
They don’t obey the Ohm’s law
Non-ohmic conductors are diodes, semiconductors, electrolytes, thermistors,
transistors, filament lamps, etc.

Resistor:
It is an electrical devise.
Resistance: (R)
It is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit and is defined as;
Definition:
“It is ratio of the potential difference to the current”.
potential difference
Resistance = Current
V
R= I or V=IR

Unit of resistance – ohm (Ω)

The ohm is equivalent to ‘1 volt per ampere’. That is:
1 Ω = 1 V A−1
Graphically.
Note:
The reciprocal of gradient of I – V graph tells us about the resistance if ‘V’ is along
x – axis.
As,
1
V 1
R = I = I = Gradient
V

So if the gradient increases the resistance decrease & vice – versa.

X = R ….. decreases
Y = Uniform resistance
Z = R …… increases
L
Factors That Effect Resistance: (R =  A )

Experimental it is found;
RαL L = Length of conductor
 1
Rα A A = Cross – sectional area

L
Or Rα A

L
L L
Or R =  A =  2 =  π ( D )2
πr
2

Where,
 = Resistivity

Resistivity: ()
Note: Resistance is an extrinsic property i,e it depends upon ‘L’ & ‘A’. So we need to
define ‘resistivity’ which is intrinsic property.
Resistivity is useful in comparing various materials on the basis of their ability to
conduct electric currents. Higher the resistivity poor the conductors.
Definition:
“It’s the resistance between two opposite faces of a cube with unit length”.

Simple Circuit:
A circuit is the path through which an electric current can travels.
A simple circuit contains three components necessary namely, a source of voltage, a
conductive path, and a resistor.
Terminologies: imp
1. Conventional Current:
“It’s the current opposite to the flow of electrons”
OR
“It’s the current which flow from high to low potential”.
2. Electromotive force: (emf)
EMF and terminal potential difference (VT) are both measured in volts, however they
are not the same thing.
Definition:
“EMF (ϵ) is the amount of energy (E) provided by the battery to each coulomb of
charge (Q) passing through it”.
Or
¿
emf = energy converted ¿ other forms ¿ electrical charge
Note:1
Electromotive force (EMF) is equal to the terminal potential difference when no
current flows.
Note:2
It’s compulsory that all of the emf has to be lost by the charge in the circuit.
Note:3
Its convention that the +ve terminal of source is taken as high voltage and – ve
terminal as 0 V.

Note: 4
Emf is roughly measured by joining the voltmeter with the terminals of the source
when there is no circuit attached or no current is flowing out of the source.
Internal resistance: (r)
It’s the resistance within a battery, or other voltage source, that causes a drop in the
source voltage when there is a current.
This may be due to the wires and components inside, whereas for a cell the internal
resistance is due to the chemicals within it.
Terminal voltage: (VT)
Definition:
“It’s the potential difference across the terminals of source when there is circuit
attached or the current is flowing out of source”.
Or
“It’s the total potential difference across the external circuit”.
Note:
emf ¿ VT
Lost Potential: (VL = Ir)
When a load resistance is connected, current flows through the cell and a voltage
develops across the internal resistance. This voltage is not available to the circuit so it is
called the lost potential/volts.
Simple Circuit Equation: [E = I (R + r)]
Voltage is a measure of energy, and energy is always conserved. So the emf ‘E’ of a cell
is equal to the sum of its terminal potential difference, ‘VT’ and the lost volts, ‘VL’.
This gives rise to the equation;
E = V T + VL
Or E = IR + Ir
Or E = I (R + r)
E
Or I = R +r
Note: imp
emf
Main current = Total resistance of circuit

Graphically;
Experiments show that the voltage across the terminals of the power supply depends on
the circuit of which it is part. In particular, the voltage across the power supply terminals
decreases if it is required to supply more current.

As,
E = VT + Ir or VT = E – Ir
Compare the equation VT = E − Ir with the equation of a straight line y = mx + c.
By plotting V on the y-axis and I on the x-axis, a straight line should result.
The intercept on the y-axis is E, and the gradient is −r.
Circuit Equation If current flows into the source:(Charging)
In such case the terminal voltage has to be more than the emf, so it drives the current
against the emf.
VT ¿ emf
The fifference between VT and emf if equal to the potential lose in internal resistance.
So,
VT – emf = Ir
Or VT = emf + Ir

Resistors Net – Working;

1. Series Circuit:
“In such circuits the current has only one path to flow”.
Objective: To find the formula for total resistance (RT)
As the total p.d across the two resistors must be same as across a single resistor, so
V = V 1 + V2
Or IR = IR1 + IR2
Or R = R 1 + R2
This equation can be generalized to several resistors connected in series, so
R = R 1 + R2 + R3 + . . .
Result: The combined resistor in series id the sum of individual resistors.
2. Parallel Circuit:
“In such circuits the current has more than one path to flow”.

Note:
The equivalent dingle resistor will have the same p.d across it, as the individual resistor’s
but the current will be the total current through the separate resistors.
By law of conservation of charge;
V
I = I1 + I 2 by using I= R
V V V
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
Or = +
R R1 R2
This equation can be generalized to equivalent resistor of several resistors connected in
parallel, so
 1 1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2 R3
+ +...

Result: The sum of reciprocals of the combined resistors in parallel is equal to the
reciprocal of equivalent resistor.
Examination Tips: imp
i. For two resistors in parallel.
R1 R2 Product
RT = R + R =
1 2 ∑ ¿¿
ii. For ‘N’ number of equal resistors in parallel each of resistance ‘R’;
R One of theresistor
RT = N = Number of resistors

iii. For two equal resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is half of the value if
one of the resistor
iv. The value of ‘RT’ in parallel is less than the least resistor.
v. The p.d difference across individual resistors in parallel is always same.
vi. By adding resistor in parallel the total resistance decreases & vice versa.
Addition Of Cells:
1. In Series:

Equivalent EMF/Resistance of Cells in Series

If E is the overall emf of the battery combined with n number cells and E1, E2, E3 , En are the
emf’s of individual cells.
Then Enet = E1 + E2 + E3 + …….En
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3, rn are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal
resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the
individual cells i.e.
rtotal = r1 + r2+ r3 + rn

2. In parallel:

Equivalent EMF/Resistance of Cells in Parallel

If emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of the battery combined with n numbers of
cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance
of the combination is,
1 1 1 1
rtotal = ( r + r + r +…….. r )-1
1 2 3 n

Note:
1. When used in parallel all cells should have same emf. Otherwise an internal
current will flow and will weaken the new cell.
2. When large emf is required we use the cells in series. For large current the cells
are placed in parallel.
Electrical Equipments:
There are four type of electrical equipment’s that we study about.
1. Ammeter:
It is used to measure the current in the circuit.
It is always used in series.
It has always very low resistance (ideally zero).

Note:
 Since it is used in series so if it has large resistance then measured current will be
less than the actual value. So its resistance is kept low.
 If by mistake ammeter is places in parallel then it large current will flow through it
& will damage it.
2. Voltmeter:
It is used to measure the p.d in the circuit.
It is always used in parallel.
It has always very high resistance (ideally infinite).

Note:
Since voltmeter measures the voltage difference between two different points, but it
should not change the amount of current going through the element between those
two points. So, it should have very high resistance so that it doesn't "draw" current
through it.
Note:
If by mistake a voltmeter is placed in series than it gives emf value.

3. Variable resistor:
It is also called ‘Rheostat’. The variable resistor resistance can be changed so it is used
when working with electrical circuit because they help to control voltage and/or
currents.

4. Potential Divider:
A potential divider ( also known as voltage divider) is simply a series circuit that
produces output voltage in a fraction of its input voltage.
a) Discrete potential divider:
It divides the potential into two or more fixed values.
Formula:

Formula:
V¿ V¿
As, I = R = R +R
T 1 2

So
V¿ R1
V1 = I R1 = ( R + R ) R1 = ( R + R ) Vin
1 2 1 2
 R2
Similarly; V2 = ( R + R ) Vin
1 2

In general
same resistor
Vout =
∑ of resistors x emf
b. Continuous potential divider:

It consists of a single variable resistor. By moving the sliding contact, we can achieve any
value of Vout between 0 V (slider at the bottom) and emf (slider at the top).
5. Current division formula: (For two resistors in parallel)
Let there are two resistors in parallel;

Now;
V
I1 = R
1

Where;
R1 R2
V = IT RT we know RT =
R 1+ R 2
So
R1 R2
V = IT ( )
R 1+ R 2
By substituting this value In equation
R1 R2 1 R2 opposite resistor
I1 = IT x R =( ) IT = (
R 1+ R 2 1 R 1+ R 2 ∑ of resistors ) x main current
Similarly;
 R1
I2 = ( ) IT
R 1+ R 2
Note:
In case of three or more resistors;
RT Total resistor
IR = ( ) IT = ( Given resistor ) x main current
R
6. Potentiometer:
It is instrument for precise measurement of emf without drawing any current from the
cell.
When a potentiometer is balanced, no current flows from the cell being investigated.
This means that its terminal p.d. is equal to its e.m.f.; we do not have to worry about
any ‘lost volts’.
This is a great advantage that a potentiometer has over a voltmeter, which must draw a
small current in order to work.
It consists of a driver cell (of known emf) and a uniform cross-sectional area wire of
about 1 m length.

Working:
Suppose the point A is at a voltage of E0 (emf), B is at 0 V, and the midpoint of the wire
is at E0/2. In other words, the voltage decreases steadily along the length of the wire.
Now, suppose we wish to measure the e.m.f. EX of cell X (this must have a value less
than that of the driver cell).
Note: imp
The unknown emf cell is connected such that both cell have +ve polarities on same side.
A lead from the negative terminal is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, with a
metal jockey (a sharp edge devise for precise positioning on the wire).
If the jockey is touched onto the wire close to point A, the galvanometer needle will
deflect in one direction. If the jockey is touched close to B, the galvanometer needle
will deflect in the opposite direction.
Clearly there must be some point Y along the wire which, when touched by the jockey,
gives zero deflection – the needle moves neither to the left nor the right.
When the galvanometer shows zero deflection we say it a balance condition.
Under balance condition;
p.d across AY = Ex
Now if ‘r’ is the resistance per unit length of the wire AB, than
The resistance of length AY = r AY
p.d VAY = I r AY = Ex (V = I RAY)
Also
p.d across AB = E0 = I r AB
So;
Ex Ir AY
=
Eo Ir AB
AY
Or Ex = AB x Eo

Note: imp
Usually a variable resistor is used with potentiometer to bring the balancing point in the
middle of the wire.
Comparing e.m.f.s with a potentiometer:
However, there is a problem: the driver cell is supplying current to the potentiometer,
and so the p.d. between A and B will be less than the e.m.f. of the driver cell (some volts
are lost because of its internal resistance).
To overcome this problem, we use the potentiometer to compare p.d.s. Suppose we
have two cells whose e.m.f.s EX and EY we want to compare. Each is connected in turn
to the potentiometer, giving balance points at C and D as shown below,
The ratio of the e.m.f.s of the two cells will be equal to the ratio of the two lengths AC
and AD:
As,
AC AD
Ex = AB x Eo & Ex = AB x Eo

So,
Ex AC
=
EY AD

If one of the cells used has an accurately known e.m.f., the other can be calculated with
the same degree of accuracy.
Kirchhoff’s laws
He stated two laws.
1. Kirchhoff’s first law:
Statement:
“The sum of the currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that same point”.
Mathematically;
∑ I’sentering = ∑ I’sleaving

I1 = I2 + I3
Note:
The 1st is based upon law of conservation of charge.
Kirchhoff’s second law:
Statement:
“The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s
around the loop”.
Mathematically;
∑ emf’s = ∑ p.d’s
 E = IR1 + IR2
Note:
The 2nd is based upon law of conservation of energy.
Exam Tips:
1. Take care about the polarities of the cells.
2. If you go along the current direction than the p.d is take +ve, while opposite to
current direction p.d is taken – ve.
3. The current flowing in one loop or branch or resistor has no link with other loop
or branch or resistor.
4. While considering a loop ignore all other loop’s or branches.
Power in DC circuits:
The rate at which energy is transferred is known as power.
Power P is measured in watts (W).
energy transferes
power = time taken

W
P = ∆t
Since the amount of energy ‘W’ transferred by a charge ‘Δ’Q when it moves through a
potential difference V is given by:
W = VΔQ
Hence:
W V ∆Q ∆Q
P = ∆t = ∆t = V ( ∆t )

Or
∆Q
P = VI as I = ∆t

As a word equation, we have:

power = potential difference x current
and in units:
watts = amps x volts
Power and resistance:
A current I in a resistor of resistance R transfers energy to it. The resistor dissipates the
energy as heat. The p.d. V across the resistor is given by V = IR. Combining this with
the equation for power, P = VI, gives us two further forms of the equation for power
dissipated in the resistor:
P = I 2R
2
V
P=
R
Which form of the equation we use in any particular situation depends on the
information we have available to us.
Note:
When power delivered by source is needed, we use
P = VI where, V = emf
& I = Current out of cell
When power lost in a resistor is required, we can use any of the above three formulas.
But remember;
V = p.d across the resistor
I = current through the resistor
& R = resistance value
Note: imp
As,
2
V
P= for R = constant, P α V2
R

Electric components
1. Thermistor:
Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes rapidly with the small change
in temperature. As temperature its resistance decreases and vice versa.
In other words, it is a type of resistor in which the flow of electric current changes
rapidly with small change in temperature.
The word thermistor is derived from the combination of words “thermal” and
“resistor”.

2. Light Dependent Resistor:(LDR)

Light dependent resistor (LDR) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic
security lights.
Their resistance decreases as the light intensity increases: in the dark and at low light
levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little current can flow through it.

3. Diode:
The diode is a non-ohmic conductor.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction).

As such, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.

4. Lamp Filament:
A filament lamp is a common type of light bulb. It contains a thin coil of wire called
the filament. This heats up when an electric current passes through it, and produces
light as a result. The current flowing through a filament lamp is not directly proportional
to the voltage across it.