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Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering

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BASIC CIVIL
& MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
B.E., Semester-II
According to the revised (2017) syllabus of ‘Anna University, Chennai.

R. Yuvaraja
B.E, M.E (Structural Engineering)., Ph.D (Purs.)
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
VSA Group of Institutions, Salem

Thakur Publication Pvt. Ltd., Chennai

 Lucknow  Meerut  Hyderabad  Jalandhar  Pune 
 Ahmedabad  Bhubaneswar  Bhopal  Jaipur  Nagpur * Rohtak *Kerala*

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Basic Civil & Mechanical Engineering

ISBN – 9789387483484

Edition 2017-18

Copyright © All Rights Reserved

This book is sole subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
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without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the below mentioned publisher of this book.

Published by :
Thakur Publication Pvt. Ltd.

Books are Available for Purchase Online at: tppl.org.in

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“If there is an unprofessional booklover still left in the world or anyone who just have a
glance. I ask him or her, with fondness and gratitude, to divide the dedication of this book
with my Parents, my Wife and Children. Whenever you pick up a book, flip to the
dedication and find that, once again, I dedicated a book to someone else and not to you.
Not this time.
Because
This is for you.
You know what, and you feasibly know why”
-R. Yuvaraja

* *
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.1

UNIT 1 Scope of Civil and

Mechanical Engineering

1.1. OVERVIEW OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.1.1. Introduction
Civil engineering may be divided into the following fields:
1) Surveying: It is the science of map making. To start any development
activity in an area the relative positions of various objects in the horizontal
and vertical directions are required. This is approved by surveying the area.
2) Building Materials: This technology deals with proper use of desired
material for construction economically and safely. Brick, tiles, soil, cement,
stone, sand, steel, aggregates, glass, wood, plastics, etc., include construction
materials. Some are natural and many are man-made. The mechanical
properties of these materials shall be sufficient to avoid failure and excessive
deformation and provide durability. The chemical properties shall be to
maintain good environment.
3) Construction Technology: Construction is the major activity of civil
engineering which is continuously improving. As land cost is going up there
is demand for tall structures in urban areas while in rural areas need is for low
cost constructions. One has to develop technology using locally available
materials.
4) Structural Engineering: Structural engineers face the challenge of designing
structures that support their own weight and the loads they carry, and that
resist extreme forces from wind, earthquakes, bombings, temperature and
others. Bridges, buildings, amusement park rides and many other kinds of
projects are included within this speciality. Structural engineers develop
appropriate combinations of steel, concrete, timber, plastic and new exotic
materials. They also plan and design, and visit project sites to make sure
work is done properly.
5) Geotechnical Engineering: Soil property changes from place to place. Even
in the same place it may not be uniform at various depths. The soil property
may vary from season to season due to variation in moisture content. The
load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil. For this, safe bearing
capacity of the soil is to be properly assessed. This branch of study in Civil
Engineering is called as Geotechnical Engineering.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.2

6) Hydraulics: Water is an important need for all living beings. Study of

mechanics of water and its flow characteristics is another important field in
Civil Engineering and it is known as hydraulics.
7) Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering: Water is to be supplied to
agriculture field and for drinking purposes. Hence suitable water resources
are to be identified and water is to be stored. Identifying, planning and
building water retaining structures like tanks and dams and carrying stored
water to fields is known as water resources and irrigation engineering.
8) Transportation Engineering: Transportation facility is another important
need. Providing good and economical roads is an important duty of civil
engineers. For proper planning of transportation facility, traffic survey is to
be carried-out. Carrying out traffic survey, design, construction and
maintenance of roads, bridges, railway, harbour and airports is known as
transportation engineering.
9) Environmental Engineering: Proper distribution of water to rural areas,
towns and cities and disposal of waste water and solid waste is another field
of civil engineering. Industrialisation and increase in vehicular traffic are
creating air pollution problems. Environmental engineering while tackling all
these problems provides healthy environment to public.
10) Architecture and Town Planning: Aesthetically good structures are
required. Towns and cities are to be planned properly. This field of
engineering has grown considerably and has become a course separate from
Civil Engineering.

1.1.2. Civil Engineering Contributions to the Welfare of

Society
Civil engineers have one of the world’s most important jobs – they build our
quality of life. With creativity and technical skill, civil engineers plan, design,
construct and operate the facilities essential to modern life, ranging from bridges
and highway systems to water treatment plants and energy efficient buildings.
Civil engineers are problem solvers, meeting the challenges of pollution, traffic
congestion, drinking water and energy needs, urban development and community
planning.
During the past century, clean water supplies have extended general life
expectancies. Transportation systems serve as an economic and social engine.
New bridges, blending strength and beauty, speed transport bring communities
closer together. Public and private construction, for which engineers provide the
essential underpinnings of design and project oversight, produces hundreds of
thousands of jobs and drives community development.
The American Society of Civil Engineers defines civil engineering as “the
profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences
gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgement to develop
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.3

ways to utilise, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the
progressive well-being of humanity in creating, improving and protecting the
environment, in providing facilities for community living, industry and
transportation, and in providing structures for the use of humanity.”
The infrastructure requirements can be broadly grouped under the following
categories:
1) Buildings are required for dwelling, schools, industries, offices, hospitals,
factories etc.
2) Bridges are required for crossing rivers and other obstacles for both rail and
road network.
3) Food is an essential item for all - rich and poor. Agricultural fields are to be
raised and maintained properly.
4) For raising food production irrigation is to be effective. For this dams are
required. The stored water can be used for drinking and hydroelectric power
in addition to irrigation.
5) For transporting men and material from one end of the country to the other
end railways are a must.
6) For linking villages to towns, cities and industrial towns’ roads are required.
7) For faster and quicker transport of passengers and goods air transport is the
only solution.
8) Electric power is required for almost are operations – domestic, commercial
or industrial purposes. The power is generated though hydroelectric, thermal
or nuclear power stations.

1.1.3. Some Recent Remarkable Infrastructure

Developments in India
For any country, its infrastructure is a matter of pride. During the last few years
phenomenal change has taken place in sectors like buildings, roads, railways,
airports etc. leading to world class facilities in various parts of the country. Few
such projects are:
1) Mumbai’s Eastern Freeway: India’s second largest Fly over - More than
25000 vehicles are expected to take the freeway daily. The 17 km freeway is
divided in three parts- 9.29 km elevated road, 4.3 km road-tunnel, and an
elevated 2.5 km fly over.
2) Udhampur-Katra Rail Link (Kashmir): The work on this line is complete.
Pilgrims to Vaishnodevi temple can travel directly to the base camp at Katra.
Constructed at an estimated cost of `1050 crores, the route consists of seven
tunnels, 30 small and big bridges.
3) Double decker train from Chennai to Banglore: The fully air- conditioned
train started its run on April 25, 2013.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.4

4) India’s first solar park at Caranka village in Gujarat: This is country’s

first solar park. Spread across 5000 acres it has 500 MW of generation
capacity of both solar and wind energy.
5) Yamuna Expressway (Greater Noida to Agra): The 165 km long Yamuna
Expressway is the longest access controlled six-lane rigid pavements in India.
6) India’s Longest Rail Tunnel: The 11 km tunnel across PirPanjal mountain
range on the Bani hal – Quazigund railway line in Jammu Kashmir.

1.1.4. Specialised Sub-disciplines in Civil Engineering

In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human
created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work
closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed
projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading,
drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications
supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting
project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans.

General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil

engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to
another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical
engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation
engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial
and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

Followings are the various Sub-disciplines in Civil Engineering:

1) Materials Science and Engineering: One of the major aspects of Civil
engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics
such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminium and
steel, and polymers such as poly-methyl methacrylate (PMMA) and carbon
fibres.

Materials engineering also consists of protection and prevention like paints

and finishes. Alloying is another aspect of materials engineering, combining
two types of metals to produce a stronger metal. It incorporates elements of
applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on
nano-science and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been
propelled to the forefront at many universities. It is also an important part of
forensic engineering and failure analysis. Materials science also deals with
fundamental properties and characteristics of materials.

2) Coastal Engineering: Coastal engineering is concerned with managing

coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defence and coastal
protection are used to mean, respectively, defence against flooding and
erosion. The term coastal defence is the more traditional term, but coastal
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.5

management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include
techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

3) Construction Engineering: Construction engineering involves planning and

execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic,
environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms
tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms,
many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like
in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations,
and closely monitoring prices of necessary supplies.

4) Earthquake Engineering: Earthquake engineering covers ability of various

structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their
particular location.

Earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of

Structural engineering.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:
i) Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground.
ii) Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes.
iii) Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake
exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building codes.

5) Environmental Engineering: Environmental engineering deals with the

treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of
water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste
disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by
environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste
water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment and hazardous waste
management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution
reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology.

Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on

the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of
effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy
makers in the decision making process.

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary

engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much
of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work
covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are
public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

6) Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil

engineering concerned with the rock and soil that support civil engineering
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.6

systems. Knowledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing,
mechanics, and hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely
and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and similar structures.
Environmental concerns in relation to groundwater and waste disposal have
spawned a new area of study called geo-environmental engineering where
biology and chemistry are important.

Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of

the variability and properties of soil. Boundary conditions are often well
defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining
these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behaviour of
soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited
investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material
properties of steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. Soil
mechanics, which describes the behaviour of soil, is also complicated because
soils exhibit nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy
(volume change associated with application of shear stress).

7) Water Resources Engineering: Water resources engineering is concerned

with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a
discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science,
meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of
civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality
and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground
(lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyse and
model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and
content of water as it flows into, through or out of a facility. Although the
actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids,

principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the
design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including
bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals.
Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid
pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

8) Structural Engineering: Structural engineering is concerned with the

structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers,
flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in
the sea, aero-structure and other structures. This involves identifying the
loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise
within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to
successfully support and resist those loads.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.7

The loads can be self-weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads,
moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature
change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their
users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be
serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines
within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and
earthquake engineering.

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the

structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or
self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or
transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other
considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and
sustainability.

9) Surveying and Remote Sensing: Surveying is the process by which a

surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of
the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for
accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope
distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM),
total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a
large extent supplanted) the traditional optical instruments. This information
is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's
surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil
engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade,
respectively.

Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in

relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although
surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing
arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and
mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay
out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and
streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as harbours, before
construction.

10) Land Surveying: Surveying is considered as a distinct profession. Land

surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional
associations and licencing requirements. The services of a licenced land
surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the
boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a
plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn
inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and
roads), both of which are generally referred to as cadastral surveying.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.8

11) Construction Surveying: Construction surveying is generally performed by

specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not
have legal status.

Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:

i) Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography,
existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground
infrastructure whenever possible;
ii) Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake
out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new
structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction.
iii) Verify the location of structures during construction;
iv) As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction
project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the
specifications set on plans.

12) Transportation Engineering: Transportation engineering is concerned with

moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a
vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and
maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals,
highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such
as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some
aspects of urban engineering, pavement engineering, Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

13) Municipal or Urban Engineering: Municipal engineering is concerned with

municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing,
and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street
lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for
various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand,
etc.), public parks and bicycle paths. In the case of underground utility
networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access
chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and
telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of waste
collection and bus service networks.

Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties,

however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these
infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously,
and managed by the same municipal authority.

14) Offshore Structures and Control Engineering: Control engineering or

control systems engineering is the branch of Civil Engineering discipline that
applies control theory to design systems with desired behaviours. The
practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.9

controlled (often a vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give

feedback to the input actuators that can make corrections toward desired
performance.

When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs for
correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for regulating
a car's speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering
activities focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by
mathematical modelling of systems of a diverse range. For the purpose of
offshore oil drilling various types of offshore platforms are constructed by
Civil engineers.

1.2. OVERVIEW OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

1.2.1. Introduction
Mechanical engineering is one of the largest, broadest, and oldest engineering
disciplines. Mechanical engineers use the principles of energy, materials, and
mechanics to design and manufacture machines and devices of all types. They
create the processes and systems that drive technology and industry.

The key characteristics of the profession are its breadth, flexibility, and
individuality. The career paths of mechanical engineers are largely determined by
individual choices, a decided advantage in a changing world.

Mechanics, energy and heat, mathematics, engineering sciences, design and

manufacturing form the foundation of mechanical engineering. Mechanics
includes fluids, ranging from still water to hypersonic gases flowing around a
space vehicle; it involves the motion of anything from a particle to a machine or
complex structure.

Mechanical engineers research, design, develop, manufacture, and test tools,

engines, machines, and other mechanical devices. Mechanical engineering is one
of the broadest engineering disciplines. Engineers in this discipline work on
power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion
engines, and steam and gas turbines.

They also work on power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-

conditioning equipment, machine tools, material-handling systems, elevators and
escalators, industrial production equipment, and robots used in manufacturing.
Some mechanical engineers design tools that other engineers need for their work.
In addition, mechanical engineers work in manufacturing or agriculture
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.10

production, maintenance, or technical sales; many become administrators or

managers.

1.2.2. Mechanical Engineering Contribution to the

Welfare of Society
Engineering is an occupation whose goal is to develop methods for the economic
use of resources, potentials, and materials in nature, for the benefit and welfare of
human beings. This is accomplished by a reasoning process of experience and
practical knowledge gained from the fundamental sciences and mathematics.

The main objective of engineering is to develop existing technology and bring

into existence new systems for human use by introducing the design and
production of innovative technical applications in consideration of scientific
knowledge.

The most important infrastructure in terms of producing unique technology is

fundamental scientific research and qualified manpower and brain power.

The capabilities and contributions of engineers are so important that those

capacities affect directly the assessment by educated people of the potential of a
society or country and even the entire world.

During the engineering execution period, engineers generally think, search, plan,
design, and conceive projects and implement, produce, and manage the related
industrial and business activities. The research capabilities of engineers are as
important as their scientific knowledge and field experience.

In addition to producing unique technology, engineers should carry out tasks

related to technology transfer, adaptation, matching, customisation,
implementation, and usage.

The place of mechanical engineering in society and its importance can only be
described by introducing and presenting in detail the jobs involved in the field. A
strong relationship exists between a country’s reconstruction and
industrialisation, and this relationship cannot be ignored. Industrial progress is
one of the cornerstones of community development. Mechanical engineering is
one of the most important driving forces for in periods of industrialisation and
development for a country and for the world.

Mechanical engineering as an occupation establishes a fundamental bridge for

each applicable area of contemporary science and technology, and engineers
perform the following duties.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.11

People working in mechanical engineering mainly use and manage domestic and
global natural resources by considering the national or international interests;
they also contribute to increasing the productivity of industry. They generally
carry out technical studies and scientific research to facilitate the industrial
development of their own country in parallel to national requirements. Other
related activities include engineering services, for example, searching activities,
inspections, audits, preparing and implementing projects, and writing reports.

All of these activities make it possible to offer services in accordance with the
related technical regulations, norms, and standards and allow for their
supervision, surveillance, checking, approval, and review. Expertise and review
studies help to resolve technical and financial issues that arise from various
industrial applications.

1.2.3. Contribution and Role of Mechanical Engineers to

Organisation Management and Productivity
Engineers who are trainable and educated in accordance with the statements
given in this chapter will be successful, and their activities will lead to industrial
development and economic growth. In turn, the welfare level of the society in
which such engineers work will rise.

It is also possible to achieve technical innovations and advances in many areas. In

addition, it may be possible to make gains in efficiency and in the productivity of
industrial companies and factories.

If companies, corporations, institutions, and universities are organised in line with

the concepts outlined in this chapter, they can attain an institutional structure.
Mechanical and other engineers in the various engineering professions and
branches will have an important and serious role to play in the technical and
administrative management of companies, corporations, factories, institutes, and
universities. Engineers will make significant contributions to organisational
management and, therefore, to productivity through the application of their skills
and knowledge gained through professional experience since mechanical
engineering provides them with an analytical view and exceptional problem-
solving skills.

In addition to the aforementioned issues, mechanical engineers can work in

almost all departments in an organisation. In addition, they can work at each level
of an organisation and advance in their careers. These characteristics of the
engineering profession allow for other contributions to organisational
productivity.

All organisations need engineers from varied backgrounds with miscellaneous

skills. Some types of engineers have deep, theoretical, scientific knowledge in
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.12

many technical subjects in general, so they can be pioneers and leaders in many
occupational fields and manage organisational structures. The second type of
engineer focuses on a few subjects in detail, so they are occupational experts in
their fields of interest. The remaining type, the third type, of engineer has direct
practical experience in some application areas, such as in factory workshops and
on job sites. All the different types of engineers have important contributions to
make to the productivity of organisations.

I would like to explain one particular provision by giving an unusual and

impressive example to highlight the importance of engineers for all kinds of
industrial, occupational, investigational, institutional, and academic areas,
including medical applications.

1.2.4. Specific Example of a Medical Technique in

Engineering and Science
By giving a specific example in this section, it is possible to explain impressively
and clearly the contribution and role of mechanical engineers, as well as
engineers in other related engineering branches, to organisational management
and productivity by emphasising the level of their participation, even for a
different and important science like medicine, and therefore for the importance of
health of human beings and also for the sustainability of life. Moreover, there is a
strong connection between these medical technique applications and the
development of society and economic welfare.

As an applied branch of engineering and science, medical technology has a broad

range of uses. Medical devices, machines, equipment, and apparatus are widely
used in medical diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, medical technology can be
seen as an inseparable part of medical science.

All over the world and also at the various space locations of the universe,
changing from the robotic surgery to the space medicine, there are many fields of
application of medical technology. This is an interdisciplinary technology and
science, bringing together researchers, academics, engineers, and scientists from
different fields of expertise, i.e., mainly mechanical engineering, electrical-
electronics engineering, computer engineering, chemical engineering, engineering
physics, astronomy, fundamental physics, fundamental chemistry, biology,
mathematics, pharmacy, dentistry, and medicine itself.

This particular study (Medical Technique in Engineering and Science mentioned

in this section was written to explain the importance of engineering and the
fundamental science branches for the implementation of medical science using of
medical technology. Many related topics can be introduced and itemised by
separating them into main groups and their detailed contents in order to make
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.13

clear the required subjects so that engineers and scientists can focus on their
fields of interest in relation to the corresponding medical technology.

Hence, this section of the study is aimed at creating an awareness of medical

technology and, moreover, to encourage engineers and scientists to study those
subjects. The paper also makes clear that engineering technology is of great
importance in medical science and greatly affects human health.

By proposing various kinds of research in medical technology, researchers,

academics, engineers, and scientists can establish connections between the
subjects of medical technology and their expertise, so they can study various
areas. Once they study medical technology, many engineers and scientists will
start to invent or develop medical devices, machines, equipment, and apparatus
that can provide medical diagnosis and treatment. Moreover, these kinds of
studies that require a multidisciplinary approach can also ensure the local
production of medical devices, machines, equipment, and apparatus in each
country and contribute to the development of engineering and science in
connection with economic growth by increasing total productivity.

In conclusion, and as can be clearly understood from the preceding example, it is

possible to assert that engineers in various professions will make significant
contributions to the management and productivity of many different kinds of
organisations.

1.2.5. Specialised Sub disciplines in Mechanical

Engineering
Mechanical engineering is a very vast field and encompasses various aspects and
subfields including but not limited to power generation, manufacturing,
transportation and so forth. Read on to find out more about this exciting and
vibrant field of engineering.

As the name itself suggests, mechanical engineering mainly relates to machines

and mechanics in the broadest sense of the term. Since machines are involved in
literally all aspects of human life right from very basic domestic machines to
complicated automated machines in big industries, it is not surprising that there
are several arms of mechanical engineering which deal with different
perspectives of the same as listed below.

Mechanical engineering is a broad field that involves the design and creation of a
vast array of products, from regular household items such as kitchen appliances to
airplanes or artificial organs. Find out more about the different fields of
mechanical engineering. Schools offering Engineering & Technology
Management degrees can also be found in these popular choices.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.14

Brief Overview of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineers use science to solve problems, whether it's designing a
coffee maker to fit your kitchen counter to manufacturing all of the parts that go
into it. It's an extremely broad discipline and includes materials science, fluid
mechanics, control theory, bioengineering and heat transfer, among other fields,
like robotics, thermodynamics, nanotechnology and manufacturing.
1) Robotics: As a mechanical engineer working in the field of robotics, you
may design and fabricate machines and devices that interact with their
surroundings and can be operated remotely. Robots can range from simple
machinery to complex creations that perform repetitive tasks in
manufacturing settings, hazardous tasks too dangerous for humans or more
nuanced motions, such as moving a limb. As a robotics engineer, you may
work in many different industries, including agriculture and transportation.
2) Thermodynamics: If you're working in thermodynamics, your focus is on
energy and the systems available to conserve and transform it for a number of
different uses. For example, you may design systems that change thermal
heat into mechanical energy. You could work in geothermal energy
production or refrigeration. You may use your knowledge of heat transfer and
fluid mechanics to help design power plants, propulsion systems or
refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
3) Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology engineers manipulate atoms and
molecules measured in nano-meters, or one-billionth of a meter, for use in
manufacturing and modelling. In this field, you'll apply your knowledge of
the principles of mechanical engineering to problem solving at this smallest
of scales, where materials, because of their size, may behave differently.
You'll seek to take advantage of these differences in your work to improve
manufacturing and other processes.
4) Biomedical and Engineering Fluid Mechanics: This field of study is based
on the fundamentals of fluid mechanics and their broad range of applications
in the biomedical and engineering arenas. Areas of current research include
blood circulation in the body and its potential role in the regulation of normal
physiological function and in the development of disease; groundwater and
atmospheric flows and their implications for pollutant transport and
environmental concerns; aerodynamic flow around transportation vehicles
and its impact on vehicle performance; and flow in combustion engines and
other energy systems with considerations of efficiency and environmental
impact. These areas are investigated both experimentally and
computationally.
5) Combustion and the Environment: Combustion is widely used for energy
generation, propulsion, heating, and waste disposal, as well as for many other
applications. Mechanical engineers are often heavily involved with the design
of combustion systems (internal combustion engines, gas turbines, furnaces,
etc.) and deal with aspects of combustion ranging from increasing
efficiencies to reducing pollutant emissions. This area of interest is designed
for those who would like to work in fields that use combustion, or that deal
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.15

with pollution related to combustion. With the current increased emphasis on

reducing pollutants while efficiency is maintained or increased, the efforts of
mechanical engineers in designing and improving combustion systems are
becoming more important.

The program of study focuses on basic aspects of combustion, such as the

properties of flames and fuels and pollution; applications of combustion to
practical systems like engines and burners; design and optimization of
systems that use combustion; and environmental considerations like pollution
generation, control, transport, and effect.
6) Ground Vehicle Systems: An aspect of mechanical engineering is the design
of surface vehicles. The emphasis of the design of more environmentally
design vehicles that can provide transportation while using fewer resources.
Innovations in this field require competence in vehicle dynamics, propulsion
and engine concepts, control of power transmission, and construction of
lightweight manufacturable structures and systems. Alternatively fuelled
power systems, including electric drives, are also studied.
7) Energy Engineering/Heat Transfer, Thermodynamics, and Energy
Systems: This area of interest emphasizes the fundamentals of heat transfer
and thermodynamics and their application to the design of advanced
engineering systems. The objective of this program of study is to introduce
the fundamental processes of heat transfer and thermodynamics in complex
engineering systems to enable more efficient, cost effective, and reliable
designs with less environmental pollution and impact.

An understanding of heat transfer and thermodynamics is required for the

design of efficient, cost-effective systems for power generation (including
advanced energy conversion systems), propulsion (including combustion
engines and gas turbines), heat exchangers, industrial processes, refining, and
chemical processing. This area of interest is important to many industries-
aerospace, defence, automotive, metals, glass, paper, and plastic-as well as to
the thermal design of electronic and computer packages.
8) Production/Manufacturing: Manufacturing is the process of converting raw
materials into products. A major activity of mechanical engineers is studying
and working with various production methods and techniques, integrating
creative design activities into actual fabricated products. The emphasis in the
manufacturing program is to provide hands-on experience with state-of-the-
art and computer-integrated processes and manufacturing methods.

Laboratories have state-of-the-art manufacturing equipment for conventional

and non-traditional machining, three-dimensional measurement, and plastic
injection moulding. Computer-oriented manufacturing is also an emphasis of
the program. A manufacturing engineer will have a solid background in
manufacturing processes and systems as well as in statistics, design, controls,
and applications of microprocessors.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.16

9) Mechanical Design: The creation and improvement of products, processes,

or systems that are mechanical in nature are the primary activities of a
professional mechanical engineer. The development of a product, from
concept generation to detailed design, manufacturing process selection and
planning, quality control and assurance, and life-cycle considerations are
areas of study and specialization in the area of mechanical design.

Solutions to such major social problems as environmental pollution, lack of

mass transportation and of raw materials, and energy shortages will depend
heavily on the engineer’s ability to create new types of machinery and
mechanical systems.

The engineer-designer must have a solid and relatively broad background in

the basic physical and engineering sciences and have the ability to solve a
variety of problems. In addition to having technical competence, the designer
must be able to consider the socio-economic consequences of a design and its
possible impact on the environment. Product safety, reliability and economics
are other considerations.
10) System Dynamics and Control: Engineers are increasingly concerned with
the performance of integrated dynamics systems in which it is not possible to
optimize component parts without considering the overall system. System
dynamics and control specialists are concerned with the modelling, analysis,
and simulation of all types of dynamic systems and with the use of automatic
control techniques to change the dynamic characteristics of systems in useful
ways. The emphasis in this program is on the physical systems that are
closely related to mechanical engineering, but the techniques for studying
these systems apply to social, economic, and other dynamic systems.
11) Transportation Systems: An important aspect of mechanical engineering is
the planning, design, and operation of transportation systems. As society
recognizes the increasing importance of optimizing transportation systems to
minimize environmental degradation and energy expenditure, engineers will
need to consider major innovations in the way people and goods are moved.
Such innovations will require competence in vehicle dynamics, propulsion
and control, and an understanding of the problems caused by present-day
modes of transportation.

1.2.6. Interdisciplinary Concepts in Civil and Mechanical

Engineering (Inter-relationship)
Beyond the basic scientific and mathematical foundation required by all
engineering disciplines, mechanical and civil engineering have their own
inevitable educational overlap. This overlap occurs in both undergraduate and
graduate education. Generally speaking, the overlap lies in the two vast and
diverse areas of mechanics of solids and fluid mechanics.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.17

There is an array of common undergraduate courses within these specific areas.

These undergraduate courses are listed next followed by some details and a few
examples for the applications of each course in the two engineering fields at
hand. This list and the subsequent detailed examples are needed to illustrate that
knowing the overlap is important to improve the education process for these two
engineering disciplines.

Common undergraduate courses between mechanical and civil engineering are:

1) Engineering Mechanics-Statics: Statics deals with external and internal
loads on objects in equilibrium. It also deals with cross sectional properties
like the centroid and centre of gravity. Understanding the nature of and how
to quantify loads, and how to find certain sectional properties are extremely
critical to the mechanical engineering discipline in the design of machines
and to the civil engineering field in the design of structures. Mechanical
engineers need to know the loads acting on a sliding piston in the engine of
an automobile, while civil engineers need to calculate the hydrostatic force
exerted by the rising water on a levy protecting a community from dangerous
flooding.

Mechanical engineers need to know the concept of the moment of inertia, I,

and how to find the polar moment of inertia, Jo, of a rotating circular shaft.
Civil engineers need to learn the same concept of moment of inertia, and how
to find the associated radii of gyration about the strong and weak axes, rx and
ry, for a standard W shape.

2) Engineering Mechanics-Dynamics: Dynamics deals with the action of loads

on bodies in motion. The fundamentals of dynamics are needed in both
mechanical and civil engineering application. In the automobile industry,
mechanical engineers use the well-known Impulse-Momentum principle, L1-2
= P2_P1, to reduce dangerous effects of collision accidents.

In highway construction, using principles from the Force-Mass-Acceleration

method (Newton’s second law), Fn = m.an, civil engineers bank the pavement
on a horizontal turn by a certain angle to overcome the normal force, created
by the circular motion of a traveling vehicle. This is absolutely necessary to
insure the safely of the vehicle and its occupants.

3) Strength of Materials (also known as Mechanics of Solids, or Structural

Mechanics): Strength of Material is a prerequisite course for several
advanced design courses in both mechanical and civil engineering fields. This
includes machine design in mechanical engineering, and concrete, steel, and
timber design in civil engineering. Strength of Materials defines the
relationship between externally applied and the resulting internal loads.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 1.18

Additionally, through the famous Hooke’s law, it relates load to deformation,

or stress to strain. Using concepts from this course, a mechanical engineer
can calculate the shearing stress on a circular shaft (τ), due to rotation needed
to transmit power in machines. He or she needs the value of this stress to
safety design such a shaft. Similarly, a civil engineer needs the value of the
critical normal stress (σ), developed in response to all possible kinds of
externally applied loads to adequately design a beam in a building.

4) Fluid Mechanics: Fluid mechanics, as its name suggests, deals with the
mechanics of fluids are defined as those substances which change shape if
subjected to shear stress. In designing machines, mechanical engineers deal
with all kinds of fluids ranging from water through oil to the air in the
atmosphere, but civil engineers are mainly concerned with water in their
applications.

Accordingly the terms hydrology and hydraulic are used for routinely in civil
engineering applications. Further mechanical engineering applications.
Drainage is extremely vital to highway systems. Civil engineers employ
Manning’s formula, v = (1.486R2/3S1/2)/n, to design a drainage ditch.
Mechanical engineers utilise the hydraulic flow from a reservoir to generate
power in a turbine. They use Bernoulli’s equation, V2/2g + p/γ + z =
constant, for this purpose.

5) Basics of the Finite Element Method (FEM): Finite Element Method

(FEM) is an advanced topic in engineering education. Many universities
teach this course at the graduate level. Nonetheless, several universities offer
its students an undergraduate version of it. A case in point is the
undergraduate civil engineering course of CEVE 417 at Rice University,
which is also offered in the undergraduate mechanical engineering
curriculum as MECH 417 at the same institute.

The Finite element Method is basically a numerical approach to solve high

order partial differential equations for various engineering applications. It is
applicable to many engineering curricula including mechanical and civil
engineering. This method is very suitable for computer implementation, and
that made it very popular rather quickly compared to other numerical
methods.

Finite Element Method techniques are used in the analysis of pavement

drainage in civil engineering applications. Mechanical engineers employ
these techniques to study the flow of liquids and gases within components
like turbines and compressors as well as air flow in large building atria.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.1

UNIT 2 Surveying & Civil

Engineering Materials

2.1. SURVEYING
2.1.1. Introduction
“Surveying is the art of and science of determining the relative positions of
various points or stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal
and vertical distances, angles, and taking the details of these points and by
preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale.”

The primary aims of field surveying are:

1) To measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
2) To measure the Vertical elevation between points.
3) To find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles
with reference to any arbitrary direction and
4) To find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference
to a fixed direction.

These parameters are utilised to find out the relative or absolute coordinates of a
point/location.

2.1.2. Objective of Surveying

Followings are the different objects of surveying:
1) To collect field data;
2) To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
3) To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of
actual engineering works.
4) To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.

2.1.3. Classification of Surveying

Surveying may be classified on the basis of nature of the survey field, object of
survey, instruments used and the methods employed.
1) Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
This basis survey may be classified as land survey, marine or hydraulic survey
and astronomical survey.
i) Land Survey: It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type
of survey may be further classified as given below:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.2

a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers,

lakes, forests and hills as well as man-made features like roads, railways,
towns, villages and canals.
b) Cadestal Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities,
villages, talukas, districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties of
individuals also come under this category.
c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of
streets, water supply and sewage lines fall under this category.

ii) Marine or Hydrographic Survey: Survey conducted to find depth of water

at various points in bodies of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this
category. Finding depth of water at specified points is known as sounding.
iii) Astronomical Survey: Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars
etc., to locate absolute positions of points on the earth and for the purpose of
calculating local time is known as astronomical survey.

2) Classification Based on Object of Survey

On the basis of object of survey the classification can be as engineering survey,
military survey, mines survey, geological survey and archeological survey.
i) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for
designing civil engineering projects like roads, railways, irrigation, water
supply and sewage disposals. These surveys are further sub-divided into:
Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of the
scheme. Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the
cost of the project, and Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
ii) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of strategic
importance.
iii) Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.
iv) Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s
crust.
v) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

3) Classification Based on Instruments Used

Based on the instruments used, surveying may be classified as:
i) Chain survey
ii) Compass survey
iii) Plane table survey
iv) Theodolite survey
v) Tacheometric survey
vi) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total station
vii) Photographic and Aerial survey

The survey is taught to civil engineering students mainly based on this

classification.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.3

4) Classification Based on Methods Employed

On this basis surveying is classified as triangulation and traversing.
(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a
network of triangles.

(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points consists of a series

of connected points established through linear and angular measurements. If the
last line meets the starting point it is called as closed traverse. If it does not meet,
it is known as open traverse.

2.1.4. Principles of Surveying

Followings are the principles of surveying which should be kept in mind while
determining the relative positions of points on the surface of earth:

2.1.4.1. To Work From Whole to Part

Working from whole to part is done in surveying in order to ensure that errors
and mistakes of one portion do not affect the remaining portion. First step in the
extensive surveys such as topographic surveys is to establish a system of control
points with high precision. For the horizontal control, the points are established
by triangulation or precise traversing.

To do this by triangulation, the areas to be surveyed are divided in to large

triangles. These triangles are surveyed with greatest accuracy. These large
triangles are further divided in to small triangles which are surveyed with less
accuracy. The object of this system is to prevent the accumulation of errors, and
to control minor errors.

On the other hand if we work from part to whole, small errors are magnified in
the process of expansion of survey. These errors become uncontrollable at the
end.

2.1.4.2. To Locate a New Station by at Least Two Measurements

From Fixed Reference Points
According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at
least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear
measurements refer to horizontal distances measured by chain or tape.

Angular measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by

a prismatic compass or theodolite. In chain surveying, the positions of main
stations and directions of main survey lines are fixed by tie lines and check lines.

Uses of Surveying
Followings are the different uses of surveying:
1) To prepare a topographical map this shows the hills, valley, rivers, villages,
town, etc., of a country.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.4

2) To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields houses, and

other properties.
3) To prepare an engineering map to show details like roads, railways, canals,
etc.
4) To prepare military map showing roads and railways, communication with
different parts of country.
5) To prepare contour map and to determine capacity of a reservoirs and to find
the best possible route for roads, railways etc.
6) To prepare archaeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
7) To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.

2.1.5. Method of Surveying

There are various methods of making linear measurement and their relative merit
depends upon the degree of precision required.
They can be mainly divided into three heads:
1) Direct Measurements.
2) Measurements by Optical Means.
3) Electro-Magnetic Methods.

In the case of direct measurements, distances are actually measured on the ground
with help of a chain or a tape or any other instrument. In the optical methods,
observations are taken through a telescope and calculations are done for the
distance, such as in tacheometry or triangulation. In the electro-magnetic
methods, distances are measured with instruments that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of either radio wave or light waves or
infrared waves.

2.1.5.1. Direct Measurements

The various methods of measuring the distances directly are as follows:
1) Pacing,
2) Measurement with passometer,
3) Measurement with pedometer,
4) Measurement by odometer and speedometer, and
5) Chaining.

2.1.5.2. Angular Measurement

Angular measurement can be done with the help of these instruments
1) Sextant
2) Theodolite

A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and

vertical planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications, and have
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.5

been adopted for specialised purposes in fields like meteorology and rocket
launch technology. A modern theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted
within two perpendicular axes – the horizontal axis, and the vertical axis. When
the telescope is pointed at a target object, the angle of each of these axes can be
measured with great precision, typically to seconds of are.

Theodolites may be either transit or non-transit. Transit theodolites (or just

“transits”) are those in which the telescope can be inverted in the vertical plane,
whereas the rotation in the same plane is restricted to a semi-circle for non-transit
theodolites. Some types of transit theodolites do not allow the measurement of
vertical angles.

A vertical angle is an angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal. It may
be an angle of elevation or depression according as the object is above or below the
horizontal plane.
A
A
AOB =α + β AOB =α – β
B
α
α
Hori. Line β Hori. Line
O O
O Hori. Line β
β
Figure b α
Figure a B B

A Figure c

Figure 1.1: Vertical Angle

To measure horizontal angle AOB:

1) Set up the theodolite at station point O and level it accurately.
2) Set the vernier A to zero or 360° of the horizontal circle. Tighten the upper clamp.
3) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the instrument and direct the telescope towards A to
bisect it accurately with the use of tangent screw. After bisecting accurately check
the reading which must still read zero. Read the vernier B and record both the
readings.
4) Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until line of sight bisects
point B on the right hand side. Then tighten the upper clamp and bisect it accurately
by turning its tangent screw.
5) Read both verniers. The reading of the vernier which was initially set at zero gives
the value of the angle AOB directly and that of the other vernier B by deducting
180°. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the value of the required angle
AOB.
6) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the whole process. The mean of the two
vernier readings gives the second value of the angle AOB which should be
approximately or exactly equal to the previous valve.
7) The mean of the two values of the angle AOB, one with face left and the other with
face right, gives the required angle free from all instrumental errors.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.6

A B

O
Figure 1.2: Horizontal Angle AOB

Graphical Method
Surveying and instruments for Plane Table Survey. “Surveying is an art of
making measurements on the surface of the earth. Plane Table is a graphical
method of surveying in which the field works and plotting is done
simultaneously. Plane Table Survey is a method of Surveying in which field
work and the office work are done simultaneously. It is also known as the
graphical method of Surveying. A manuscript map is made in the field and the
topographic details can be filled in later.

Figure 1.3: Plane-Table Cut-a-way, shows a

part of the table and the tripod stand

List of instruments used in surveying using graphical method

1) Plane Table,
2) Alidade,
3) Plumbing fork and Plumb bob,
4) Spirit Level,
5) Chain or Tape,
6) Rain roof cover for the plane table,
7) Compass,
8) Ranging Rods,
9) Drawing Sheets, and
10) Drawing equipment.

To do the plane tabling one has to follow the following procedure at every
plane table set-up:
1) Fixing the plane table to the tripod stand
2) Setting up and temporary adjustments:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.7

i) Leveling the plane table with the help of spirit level

ii) Centering with the help of plumbing fork
iii) Orientation by trough compass or by back sighting
3) Sighting the points with the help of Alidade

Methods of Plane Table Surveying

1) For Locating Details:
i) Radiation Method: A ray is drawn towards the point with the help of the
Alidade. With the help of Chain or Tape the horizontal distance is
measured from the Plane Table to the point and this point is located on
the sheet by plotting it into the scale of the map.
ii) Intersection Method: In this method two instrument stations are used
but no chain or tape is required. Intersecting rays are drawn from these
two stations whose location is already plotted (by measuring the distance
between them), the point of intersection is the location of the point.

2) For Locating Plane Table Stations:

i) Traversing: In this method the location of the Plane Table station is
located in the following manner:
a) At previous station a ray is drawn in the forward direction (Toward
next station) and point is plotted by measuring the horizontal distance
and plotting it to scale.
b) Instrument is shifted to next station (which is just located in first
step) and the previous station is back-sighted to orient the plane table.
ii) Resection: Resection the process of finding the position of a station
where plane table, is placed, with the help of sights taken towards known
and visible points whose location has already been plotted.

Pedometer
A pedometer is a device, usually portable and electronic or electromechanical,
that counts each step a person takes by detecting the motion of the person's hands
or hips.

Because the distance of each person's step varies, an informal calibration,

performed by the user, is required if presentation of the distance covered in a unit
of length (such as in kilometers or miles) is desired, though there are now
pedometers that use electronics and software to automatically determine how a
person's step varies. Distance traveled (by walking or any other means) can be
measured directly by a GPS receiver.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.8

2.1.6. Leveling
Leveling is a process of determining the height of one level relative to another. It
is used in surveying to establish the elevation of a point relative to a datum, or to
establish a point at a given elevation relative to a datum. It is important to know
the height of ground from datum.
Leveling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is:
1) To find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum, and
2) To establish points at a given or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the
second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works.
Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
Methods of Determining Elevation
Three principle methods are used for determining differences in elevation,
namely, barometric leveling, trigonometric leveling and spirit leveling:
1) Barometric leveling: Barometric leveling makes use of the phenomenon that
difference in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in
atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be used
and the readings observed at different points would yield a measure of the
relative elevation of those points.

At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the
course of the day, even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore,
relatively inaccurate and is little used in surveying work except on
reconnaissance or exploratory survey.
2) Trigonometric leveling (Indirect leveling): Trigonometric or Indirect
leveling is the process of leveling in which the elevations of points are
computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the
field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from
proper trigonometric relations.
In a modified form called stadia leveling, commonly used in mapping, both
the difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are
directly computed from the measured vertical angles and staff readings.
3) Spirit leveling (Direct leveling): It is that branch of leveling in which the
vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the
direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in
elevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to
level surface at any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or a
level vial.
In spirit leveling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined
and vertical distances are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.9

the points. The method is also known as direct leveling. It is the most precise
method of determining elevations and the one most commonly used by
engineers.
4) Reciprocal leveling: It is the method of leveling in which the difference in
elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of
reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the
two points.

2.1.7. Spirit Levelling

Spirit levelling employs a spirit level, an instrument consisting of a telescope with
a crosshair and a tube level like that used by carpenters, rigidly connected. When
the bubble in the tube level is centered the telescope's line of sight is supposed to
be horizontal (i.e., perpendicular to the local vertical).
The spirit level is on a tripod with sight lines to the two points whose height
difference is to be determined. A graduated levelling staff or rod is held vertical
on each point; the rod may be graduated in centimeters and fractions or tenths and
hundredths of a foot.
The observer focuses in turn on each rod and reads the value. Subtracting the
“back” and “forward” value provides the height difference. If the instrument is
placed equidistant from the two points to be measured, any small errors in its
adjustment and the effects of earth curvature and refraction will tend to cancel
out.

Methods of Spirit Levelling

1) Simple Levelling: It is the simplest operation in levelling when it is required
to find the difference in elevation between two points both of which are
visible from a single position of the level. Suppose A and B are two such
point and level is set up at 0, approximately mid-way between. A and B but
not necessary on the line joining them, after finding the reading on point A
and point B, let the respective reading on A and B be 2.340 and 3.315
difference between them is 3.315-2.340=0.795m.
2) Differential Levelling: This method is used in order to find out the
difference in elevation between two points:
i) If they too apart.
ii) If the difference in elevation between them is too great.

In such cases it is necessary to set up the level in several positions and to

work in a series of stages. The method of simple levelling is employed each
of the successive stages. The process is also known as compound continues
levelling.

3) Check Levelling: It is the operation of running levels for the purpose of

checking the series of levels, which have been previously fixed. At the end of
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.10

each day’s work, a line of level is run, returning to the starting point of that
day with a view to check the work done on that day.

4) Profile Levelling: It is the operation in which the object is to determine the

elevation of points at known distance apart along a given line, and thus to
obtain the accurate outline of the surface of the ground. It is called the
longitudinal levelling or sectioning.
5) Cross Sectioning: It is the operation of levelling to determine the surface
undulation or outline of the ground transverse to the given line and on either side
of it.
6) Reciprocal Levelling: It is then method of levelling in which the difference
in elevation between two points, accurately determined by two sets of
observation when it is not possible to set up the level midway between the
two points.
7) Barometric Levelling: It is the method of levelling in which the altitudes of
points are determined by means of a barometer, which measures atmospheric
pressure.
8) Hypsometry: It is the method of levelling in which the heights of mountains
are found by observing the temperature at which water boils.
9) Trigonometric Levelling: It is then process of levelling in which the
elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal
distance measured in the field.

2.1.8. Booking and Reducing Levels

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the
observed staff readings:
1) Height of Instrument Method: In this method, the Height of the Instrument
(H.I.) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by adding back sight
(plus sight) to the elevation of the B.M. (First point). The elevation of
reduced level of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting from H.I.
the fore sight (minus sight).
For the next setting of the instrument, the H.I is obtained by adding the B.S
taken on T.P. 1 to its R.L. The process continues till the R.L. of the last point
(a foresight) is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from height of the
last setting of the instrument. If there are some intermediate points, the R.L.
of those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (minus
sight) from the height of the instrument for that setting.
The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the
method of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by height of
instrument method.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.11

Station B.S I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

A 0.865 561.365 560.500 B.M. on Gate
B 1.025 2.105 560.285 559.260
C 1.580 558.705 Platform
D 2.230 1.865 560.650 558.420
E 2.355 2.835 560.270 557.815
F 1.760 558.410
Check 6.475 8.565 558.410 Checked
6.475 560.500
2.090 Fall 2.090

Arithmetic Check
The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of fore sights
should be equal to the difference between the last and the first R.L. Thus,
ΣB.S. – ΣF.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
The method affords a check for the H.I. and R.L. of turning points but not for
the intermediate points

2) Rise and Fall Method: It consists of determining the difference of elevation

between consecutive points by comparing each point after the first that
immediately preceding it. The difference between there staff reading
indicates a rise fall according to the staff reading at the point. The R.L. is then
found adding the rise to, or subtracting the fall from the reduced level of
preceding point.

Arithmetic Check
Sum of B.S. – Sum of F.S. = Sum of Rise – Sum of Fall = Last R.L. – First
R.L.

Characteristics of Rise and Fall Method

1) This method is complicated and is not easy to carry out.
2) Reduction of levels takes more time.
3) Visualisation is necessary regarding the nature of the ground.
4) Complete check is there for all readings.
5) This method is preferable for check leveling where numbers of change
points are more.

Procedure
Followings are the different steps of rise and fall method:
1) Set-up the leveling instrument at level position 1.
2) Hold the staff on the Datum (RL + 50m) and take a reading. This will be a
back-sight, because it is first staff reading after the leveling instrument has
been set-up.
3) Move the staff to A and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
4) Move the staff to B and take a reading. This also will be an intermediate
sight.
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.12

5) Move the staff to C and take reading. This will be another intermediate sight.
6) Move the staff to D and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after
this reading the level will be moved. (A change plate should be placed on the
ground to maintain the same level.)
7) The distance between the stations should be measured and recorded in the
field book (see table 1).
8) Set-up the level at level position 2 and leave the staff at D on the change
plate. Turn the staff so that it faces the level and take a reading. This will be a
back-sight.
9) Move the staff to E and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
10) Move the staff to F and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after
taking this reading the level will be moved.
11) Now move the level to leveling position 3 and leave the staff at F on the
change plate.

Now repeat the steps describe 8 to 10 until you finished at point J.

3.015 0.780
1.925 0.462 J
2.554 1.786 0.927 1.983 3.589 3.250 Level
0.571 H
B 1.305 1.422 position 4
A Level C G Level
Datum position 1 D Level E F position 3
RL+50m
position 2
B C G
A J
D E F H
⊕
Datum Level ⊕
position 1
⊕ ⊕ Level
RL+50m Level Level position 4
position 2 position 3
Figure

Specimen Pages of Level Field Book – Collimation System

RL of Plane of
Distance Reduced
Station Reading Collimation Remarks
(cm) Level
(H)
BS IS FS
A B.M.

Arithmetic Sum of BS–Sum of FS = Last RL – 1st – RI

Check
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.13

2.1.9. Contour
A contour or contour line is an imaginary line which connects points of equal
elevation. Such lines are drawn on the plan of an area after establishing reduced
levels of several points in the area. The contour lines in an area are drawn
keeping difference in elevation of between two consecutive lines constant.
For example, figure 2.3 shows contours in an area with contour interval of 1 m.
On contour lines the level of lines is also written.

5 0 5 10 15 10 5 0 5

0 10 15 20 25 29 15 10 0

5 15 25 30 35 30 25 15 5

10 20 30 40 45 40 30 20 10

15 25 35 45 50 45 35 25 15

10 20 30 40 45 40 30 20 10

5 15 25 30 35 30 25 15 5

10 15 20 25 20 15 10 0

5 0 5 10 15 10 5 0 5

Figure 2.3

Uses of Contour
Contour maps are extremely useful for various engineering works:
1) A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to
identify. Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
2) By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the
ground along that line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if
formation level of road/railway is decided.
3) Inter-visibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the
ground along that line.
4) The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to
minimize and balance earthworks.
5) Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of drains or
river can be found. This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and
also to find out flood levels.
From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.14

2.1.10. Characteristics of Contours

Followings are the different characteristics of contours:
1) Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2) The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount
of slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope.
3) Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
4) Closely spaced contour indicates steep slope ground.

70
72

74

76
Steep slope
terrain
78

80
Contours of Terrain having different
types of slope
Figure 2.4: Contour Showing Steep Slope Terrain

5) Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.

70
72

74
Uniform slope
76 terrain

78

80
Contours of Terrain having
different types of slope
Figure 2.5: Contour Showing Uniform Slope Terrain

6) Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

7) Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards
centre indicate a pond.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.15

GL

85
90
95
100

Pond and its contour

Figure 2.6

8) Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards

centre indicate hills.

637
600
550
500

Hill and its contour

Figure 2.7

9) Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate
ridge.
10) Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate
valley.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.16

99 100
98
97 Ridge line

ContourFigure 2.8: Ridge and its

Contour

98 97 Valley line
96
100 99

Figure 2.9: Valley and its

11) Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other. If contour lines
are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff.

400
350
300
250
200

Vertical cliff and its contours

Figure 2.10: Contour Showing Ridge Line and Valley Line
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.17

12) Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other. If contour lines
cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave.

250

200
150
100
Overhanging cliff and its contour

Figure 2.11

13) The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the
normal of the contour at that point.
14) Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings.

103
102

101

100

Permanent
Structure

Figure 2.12: Contours across Permanent Structure

15) A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits
of the map.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.18

2.2. CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

2.2.1. Introduction
The modern civil engineer needs to deal with traditional construction materials as
well as advanced materials. Traditional construction materials, such as timber,
steel, asphalt and Portland cement concrete are often used in many construction
projects.

Modern materials, such as polymers and composites are making headway into the
construction industry. Significant research on these materials has led to better
understanding of these materials and improved their strength and durability
performance. The traditional materials used today are far superior to those of the
past, and new materials are being specially developed to satisfy the needs of civil
engineering applications.

To a civil engineer the performance of materials in structures and their ability to

resist various stresses are of prime importance. This laboratory experimental
work is intended to help students in civil engineering to understand the physical
and structural properties of common construction materials. This involves the
study of Portland cement concrete and concrete making materials (cement,
aggregates, etc.), asphalt concrete, steel and timber, with minor reference to other
advanced materials.

2.2.2. Brick
Brick is one of the oldest building materials. It is reported that Egyptions,
Romans and Chinese used bricks for building construction centuries back.

A small, hard block of baked clay that is used to build structures (such as houses)
and sometimes to make streets, paths, etc., blocks of baked clay used as building
material.
2.2.2.1. Composition of Good Brick Earth
Following are the composition of brick
1) Silica (SiO2)
i) Brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 % of silica.
ii) It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw
bricks.
iii) It also affects the durability of bricks.
iv) If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and
the brick becomes brittle.
2) Alumina (Al2O3)
i) Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
ii) It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important
in moulding operation.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.19

iii) If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
3) Lime (CaCO3)
i) The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good
brick earth.
ii) It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
iii) It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
iv) Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick loses its shape.
4) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
i) A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
ii) It gives red colour to the bricks.
iii) It improves impermeability and durability.
iv) It gives strength and hardness.
v) If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or
blackish.
vi) If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes
yellowish in colour.
5) Magnesia
i) Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia
about1%
ii) Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
iii) It is responsible for reducing shrinkage.
iv) Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Advantages of Brick
1) Economical (Raw material is easily available).
2) Hard and durable.
3) Compressive strength is good enough for ordinary construction.
4) Different orientations and sizes give different surface textures.
5) Very low maintenance cost is required.
6) Demolishing of brick structures is very easy, less time consuming and hence
economic.
7) Re-usable and Recyclable.
8) Highly fire resistant.
9) Produces less environmental pollution during manufacturing process.

2.2.2.2. Uses of Bricks

1) As a Structural Unit: Since the clay bricks or burnt bricks are strong, hard,
durable, resistive to abrasion and fire, therefore, they are used as a structural
material in different structures:
i) Buildings,
ii) Bridges,
iii) Foundations,
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.20

iv) Arches, and

v) Pavement (Footpath, Streets).
2) As an Aesthetic Unit/Surface Finish: Bricks can be used in different
colours, sizes and orientations to get different surface designs. As an aesthetic
material bricks can be used:
i) In Pavements,
ii) As Facing Brick, and
iii) For Architectural Purposes.
3) As a Fire Resistant Material.

2.2.2.3. Classification of Bricks

Followings are the different types of brick:
1) Unburnt or Sun-Dried Bricks: The unburnt or sun-dried bricks are those
bricks which are dried with the help of heat that is received from sun after the
process of moulding. The unburnt bricks can only be used in the construction
of simple temporary and cheap structures. Unburnt bricks should not be used
at places exposed to heavy rains.
2) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and
they are classified into the following four categories:
i) First Class Bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of uniform shape
and they are burnt in kilns. The surfaces and edges of the bricks are
sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply with all the qualities of
good bricks. These bricks are used for important work of permanent
nature.
ii) Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they are
burnt in kilns. The surface of the second class bricks is slightly rough and
shape is also slightly regular. These bricks may have hair cracks and their
edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly used at
places where brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
iii) Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground-moulded and they are
burnt in clamps. These bricks are not very hard and they have rough
surfaces with irregular and blunt edges. These bricks give dull sound
when they are struck together. They are used for unimportant works,
temporary structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
iv) Fourth Class Bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape
and dark colour. These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete
in foundations, brick floors, surkhi, roads, etc., because of the fact that
the over burnt bricks have a compact structure and hence they are
sometimes found to be stronger than even the first class bricks. It is thus
seen that the above classification of bricks is based on the manufacturing
or preparing bricks.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.21

2.2.2.4. Quality Requirement of Brick

Followings are the different quality requirement of brick:
1) The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured,
free from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be
uniform and bright.
2) The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3) The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each
other.
4) The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and
uniform compact structure free from voids.
5) The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class
bricks and 22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a
period of 24 hours.
6) The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick
surface, when it is scratched with finger nail.
7) The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground
from a height of about one meter.
8) The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound
proof.
9) The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of
white salt when allowed to dry in shade.
10) No bricks should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm2.

2.2.2.5. Field Tests on Bricks

It is necessary to check the quality of brick before using it in any construction
activities. There are some field tests that we can conduct in the field in order to
check the quality of bricks. These tests are as follows:
1) Water Absorption: Five bricks are taken and the bricks are weighed dry
and the average dry weight of 5 bricks is calculated. Bricks are then
immersed in water for a period of 24 hours. After 24 hours of immersion,
bricks are weighed again and average of 5 bricks is calculated. The
difference of the final average weight and initial average weight indicates
the amount of water absorbed by the bricks. It should not in any case
exceed 20% of average weight of dry bricks.
2) Visual Inspection: In this test bricks are closely inspected for its shape. The
bricks of good quality should be uniform in shape and should have truly
rectangular shape with sharp edges.
3) Efflorescence: This test should be conducted in a well-ventilated room.
The brick is placed vertically in a dish 30cm × 20cm approximately in
size with 2.5cm immersed in distilled water. The whole water is allowed
to be absorbed by the brick and evaporated through it. After the bricks
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.22

appear dry, a similar quantity of water is placed in the dish, and the water
is allowed to evaporate as before. The brick is to be examined after the
second evaporation and reported as follows:
i) Nil: When there is no perceptible deposit of salt.
ii) Slight: When not more than 10% of the area of brick is covered with salt.
iii) Moderate: When there is heavy deposit covering 50% of the area of the
brick but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
iv) Heavy: When there is heavy deposit covering more than 50% of the area
of the brick accompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
v) Serious: When there is heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering
and/or flaking of the surface and this deposition tends to increase in the
repeated wetting of the specimen.
Bricks for general construction should not have more than slight to moderate
efflorescence.
4) Dimensional Tolerance: Twenty bricks are selected at random to check
measurement of length, width and height. These dimensions are to be
measured in one or two lots of ten each as shown in figure. Variation in
dimensions are allowed only within narrow limits, ±3% for class one and
±8% for other classes.

Dimension Test on Bricks

Measurement of Length

Measurement of Width

Measurement of Height
Figure 2.6: Brick Dimensions

1) Hardness: In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of a
finger nail. If no impression is left on the surface, brick is treated as to be
sufficiently hard.
2) Soundness: Two bricks are taken, one in each hand, and they are struck with
each other lightly. A brick of good quality should not break and a clear
ringing sound should be produced.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.23

3) Structure: A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be

homogeneous, compact and free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.

2.2.2.6. Laboratory Tests on Bricks

The following laboratory tests may be conducted on the bricks to find their
suitability:
1) Crushing Strength: The brick specimens are immersed in water for 24
hours. The frog of the brick is filled flush with 1:3 cement mortars and the
specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and then immersed in
clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing
machine with 6mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load
on the specimen. Then load is applied axially at a uniform rate of
14N/mm2. The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing strength is
the ratio of crushing load to the area of brick loaded. Average of five
specimens is taken as the crushing strength.
2) Absorption Test: Brick specimens are weighed dry. Then they are immersed
in water for a period of 24 hours. The specimen are taken out and wiped with
cloth. The weight of each specimen in wet condition is determined.
The difference in weight indicates the water absorbed. Then the
percentage absorption is the ratio of water absorbed to dry weight multiplied
by 100. The average of five specimens is taken.
3) Shape and Size: This value should not exceed 20 per cent, sharp edges. To
check it, 20 bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the
length, along the width and then along the height.
For the standard bricks of size 190mm×90mm×90mm. IS code permits the
following limits – Lengthwise – 3680 to 3920mm, Width wise – 1740 to
1860mm, Height wise – 1740 to 1860mm.
4) Efflorescence: The presence of alkalies in brick is not desirable because they
form patches of grey powder by absorbing moisture. Hence to determine the
presence of alkalies this test is performed.
In this test place the brick specimen in a glass dish containing water to a
depth of 25mm in a well-ventilated room. After all the water is absorbed or
evaporated again add water for a depth of 25mm. After second evaporation
observe the bricks for white/grey patches. The observation is reported as:
i) Nil: No patches.
ii) Slight: 10% of area covered with deposits.
iii) Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with deposit but unaccompanied by
flaking of the surface.
iv) Heavy: More than 50 per cent area covered with deposits but
unaccompanied by flaking of the surface.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.24

v) Serious: Heavy deposits of salt accompanied by flaking of the surface.

2.2.3. Stones
Stone is a hard solid, non-metallic mineral matter of which rock is made,
especially as a building material.

Following are the three basis of classification of stones:

1) Geological Classification: This is classification of rocks based on their
origin and formation. On this basis, rocks are classified as:
Igneous rock
Volcanic eruption

Earth’s surface

Molten rock

Figure 2.1: Igneous Rock

i) Igneous Rock: These rocks are formed when molten or partially molten
material, called magma, cools, and solidifies. The inner layers of the
earth are at a very high temperature causing the masses of silicates to
melt. Magma is forced up and released on the surface of the earth. This
release is called volcanic eruption. The magma that is released cools and
solidifies into a crystalline rock.
Geologists classify igneous rocks according to the depth at which they
are formed in the Earth’s crust. Using this principle, they divide igneous
rocks into two broad categories:
a) Those that are formed beneath the Earth’s surface, and
b) Those that are formed at the surface.
Rocks formed within the Earth are called intrusive or plutonic rocks
because the magma from which they form often intrudes into the
neighboring rock. Rocks formed at the surface of the Earth are called
extrusive rocks. In extrusive rocks, the magma has extruded, or erupted,
through a volcano or fissure.
Geologists can tell the difference between intrusive and extrusive rocks
by the size of their crystals; crystals in intrusive rocks are larger than
those in extrusive rocks.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.25

ii) Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed by the consolidation of

particles deposited in any of the three following ways:

Mudstone

Siltstone
Limestone
Sandstone

Conglomerate

Sedimentary Rocks

a) By the mechanical destruction and subsequent deposition of other

rocks, usually by water, as in the case of sandstone or lime stone;
b) By the action of animals and plants, as in the case of coral;
c) By the chemical precipitation of mineral matter from water as in the
case of gypsum. The metamorphic rocks are formed by the
transformation of either igneous or sedimentary rocks through the
influence of heat or chemical action. To this class belong marble,
gneiss, and slate.
Most sedimentary rocks are characterised by parallel or discordant
bedding that reflects variations in either the rate of deposition of the
material or the nature of the matter that is deposited. Sedimentary rocks
are classified according to their manner of origin into mechanical or
chemical sedimentary rocks:
a) Mechanical rocks, or fragmental rocks, are composed of mineral
particles produced by the mechanical disintegration of other rocks
and transported without chemical deterioration, by flowing water.
They are carried into larger bodies of water, where they are deposited
in layers. Shale, sandstone, and conglomerate are common
sedimentary rocks of mechanical origin.
b) The materials making up chemical sedimentary rocks may consist of
the remains of microscopic marine organisms precipitated on the
ocean floor, as in the case of limestone. They may also have been
dissolved in water circulating through the parent rock formation and
then deposited in a sea or lake by precipitation from the solution.
Halite, gypsum, and anhydrite are formed by the evaporation of salt
solutions and the consequent precipitation of the salts.
iii) Metamorphic Rocks: This is a type of rock formed when rocky material
experiences intense heat and pressure in the crust of the Earth.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.26

Ocean Pressure

Rock
Centre of the earth Heat

Figure 2.3: Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rock forms when pre-existing rock undergoes

mineralogical and structural changes resulting from high temperatures
and pressures. These changes occur in the rock while it remains solid
(without melting).
The changes can occur while the rock is still solid because each mineral
is stable only over a specific range of temperature and pressure. If a
mineral is heated or compressed beyond its stability range, it breaks
down and forms another mineral. For example, quartz is stable at room
temperature and at pressures up to 1.9 gigapascals (corresponding to the
pressure found about 65 km [about 40mi] underground). At pressures
above 1.9 gigapascals, quartz breaks down and forms the mineral coesite
in which the silicon and oxygen atoms are packed more closely together.
In the same way, combinations of minerals are stable over specific ranges
of temperature and pressure.
At temperatures and pressures outside the specific ranges, the minerals
react to form different combinations of mineral, such combinations of
minerals are called mineral assemblages.
2) Classification Based on the Physical Form: Rocks are also classified as:
i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks exist in distinct layers and can be split
along these layers. Example: Sand stone, Lime stone.
ii) Un-stratified Rocks: These rocks do not exist in layers but occur in huge
masses. Example: Granite, Basalt
iii) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a layered or banded appearance
which is produced by exposure to heat and pressure. Example: Gneiss

3) Classification based on the Chemical Composition: Rocks may be further

classified as silicious, calcareous, and argillaceous, according to the chemical
composition of the earth forming their main ingredients.
i) Siliceous Rocks: In silicious stones, silica is the principal earthy
constituent. Example: Granite, Quartzite. Example: Marble, Limestone,
Dolomite
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.27

ii) Calcareous Rocks: In calcareous stones, carbonate of lime is the

predominating material; and
iii) Argillaceous Rocks: In argillaceous stones, alumina is the chief
component. Example: Slate, Laterite

2.2.3.1. Qualities/Characteristics of Good Building Stones

1) Strength: Must be good in compression stress. Closed grained and uniform
textured stones are generally good in compressive strength.
2) Structure: A good stone if broken in direction of cleavage should not give a
dull appearance. These should be either closed grained or crystalline and
show uniformity of texture. Stones should be free from cavities and cracks. If
the stones are obtained from sedimentary rocks, their stratification should not
be visible to naked eye.
3) Seasoning: Stone should be free from quarry sap. The stones after quarrying
and dressing should be left for atleast 6-12 months before using for
construction.
4) Toughness: Should be tough enough for withstanding the stress developed
due to vibration of machineries and moving loads. Following table refers the
crushing strength of various stones:
Stones Specific Gravity Crushing Strength
(kg/cm2)
Granite 2.63-2.65 1000-1400
Basalt 3.00 700-850
Sandstone 2.3-2.6 400-650
Limestone 2.3-2.4 400-650
Marble 2.72 500-600
Slate 2.89 750-2100
Quartz 2.65 750

5) Resistance to Fire: Should be able to resist high temperature. Should not

have minerals that are decomposable under heating such as calcium carbonate
and iron oxide. Also stones should not be composed of minerals with
different coefficient of thermal expansion. Quartz expands at low temperature
and agrillaceous variety of stones resists high temperature.
6) Appearance: The stones used in construction should be of uniform colour;
lighter colour is more favorable than darker ones as the latter are less durable.
Also stones should be able to receive good polish.
7) Porosity and Absorption: They should not be porous and should not absorb
water when immersed. Porous stones are unsuitable for the construction work
as rain water may be absorbed and through chemical reaction with minerals
and possibly weather. In cold climatic regions water may ingress into the
pores and freeze leading to disintegration of stones.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.28

8) Hardness: A good stone depending upon its site of implementation should

possess enough abrasive resistance. Hardness of a stone is tested by Mohr’s
scale of hardness however in field it can be tested by knife scratching. Hard
stones do not show any mark of scratching.
9) Heaviness: The stones used in construction of dams, weir, barrages, docks
should be of heavy varieties. The stones used for roof coverings should be
lighter one. A stone should have specific gravity between 2.4-2.8.
10) Durability: Good stones should resist the action of atmosphere such as wind,
rain and temperature. Durable stones are compact and crystalline in structure.
11) Dressing: The stone used in making statues like structure should be good
enough to be converted into certain shape. Marble is one of the renowned
examples but are weak and less durable.

2.2.3.2. Tests on Building Stones

Tests which are to be conducted on stones for selecting it as a building material or
one can say that to ascertain the qualities of building stones, different tests are
conducted.

Different Tests of Stones which are carried out in the selection of building Stones
are given below:
1) Acid Test: This test is used to investigate how much atmospheric action
can be resisted by stone. In this test 100 grams of stones in chipped form
are kept in a 5% solution of hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. After 3
days stones in chipped form are taken out and dried. If the edges of stones
are sharp as earlier, it indicates that stone can resist weathering actions.
2) Smith’s Test: This test is used for finding out the presence of soluble
matter in stones. In this test few sample of stones are placed in a glass or
test-tube filled with clean water. Stones are kept in water for 1 hour.
After this the glass or test-tube is vigorously shaken. Due to presence of
earthy material and clay impurities water is converted to dirty water.
Slightly cloudiness of water will prove that the stones are good and
durable. If water becomes too dirty, it indicates that stone contains too
much soluble impurities and it is not suitable for construction.
3) Crushing Strength: This test is used to investigate the compressive strength
of stone. In this test stone is cut into cubes of dimension 40mm. Sides of cube
are finely dressed and finished. Cubes of stones are then kept in water for 72
hours. Then 5mm thick layer of plywood or plaster of paris is applied on the
load-bearing surface. Load is applied axially on load-bearing surface using
universal testing machine or crushing testing machine until cracks appear on
the stone or stone starts crushing. Crushing strength of the stone is the
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.29

maximum load at which it crushes divided by the area of the load bearing
surface.
4) Water Absorption Test: In this test, 50 grams of stones in chipped form are
placed in an oven at 105°C for 3 hours then cooled at room temperature.
Weight of stones is then taken (W1). Then stones are places in distilled water
for 3 days. After 3 days weight of stones is taken (W2).
Percentage ‘%’ of water absorption should not exceed 15%, otherwise stone
is not suitable for construction.
Absorption of water (%) =
(W2 – W1 ) ∗ 100
W1

5) Crystallisation Test: Four cubes of stone with dimension 40mm are

taken. Stones are dried for 3 days and weighed. Then stones are immersed in
14% solution of Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) for 2 hours. After this stones are
dried at 100°C and weighed. Difference in weight is noted. Process of drying,
weighing, immersion and re-weighing is repeated at least 5 times. Each time,
change in weight is noted and it is expressed as a percentage of original
weight.

Percentage of wear should not exceed 2% for good stone.

W − W2 ∗ 100
Percentage of wear = 1
W1
6) Hardness Test: This test is carried out to determine the hardness of stone.
First weight of specimen is taken (W1). The specimen is filled in a test
cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm. Then cylinder is placed in
Dorry’s testing machine and force of 12.50N is applied. The disc of testing
machine is rotated at 28 revolutions per minute. During the rotation of the
disc, coarse sand of standard specification is sprinkled on the top of disc.
After 1000 revolutions specimen is weighed (W2).
Coefficient of hardness = 20 −
(W2 − W1 )
3
7) Impact Test: This test is carried out to determine the toughness of stone.
This test requires an ‘Impact Testing Machine’. In this test stones are filled in
test cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm. The cylinder is placed on
machine and steel hammer of weight 20N is allowed to fall on the specimen
in cylinder. The height of first fall is 1cm, height of second fall is 2cm and so
on. The height at which specimen breaks is recorded. If specimen breaks at ‘n
cm’ then ‘n’ is the toughness index of stone.
8) Microscopic Test: In this test specimen of stones is placed under microscope
and various properties are studied such as grain size, texture of stone, pores,
veins, shakes etc.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.30

9) Attrition Test: This test is carried out to test the resistance to abrasion
(ability to withstand grinding action) of stone. This test is carried out in
‘Attrition Test Machine’. In this test specimen of stone is weighed (W1).
Then stones are transferred to drum and drum is inclined to 30° to the
horizontal. Then stones are revolved at 2000 revolution per hour for 5 hours.
After this stones are sieved on a 2mm sieve. Stones retained on sieve are
weighed (W2) and loss in weight percentage gives the percentage of wear.

2.2.3.3. Uses of Stones as a Building Materials

Followings are the different uses of Stones as a Building Materials:
1) Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.
2) Good and durable construction material
3) Thresholds and steps in manor houses
4) War memorials in the 19th and 20th centuries
5) Limestone for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement
6) Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces
7) Insulators in electrical appliances

2.2.4. Sand
A loose granular substance, typically pale yellowish brown in colour, resulting
from the erosion of siliceous and other rocks and forming a major constituent of
beaches, river beds.

Sand can be classified as following two types:

1) Coarse Sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of
3.175mm is known as coarse sand. It is generally used for masonry work.
2) Gravelly Sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of
7.62mm is known as gravelly sand. It is generally used for concrete work.

2.2.4.1. Bulking of Sand

The increase in the volume of sand due to the presence of moisture is known as
bulking of sand. This is due to the fact that moisture forms a film of water around
the sand particles and this result in an increase in the volume of sand. The extent
of bulking depends on the grading of sand. The finer the material the more will be
the increase in volume for the given moisture content. Bulking of sand can be
expressed in a graphical way as shown in figure 6.1.

For a moisture content of 5-8 per cent, the increase in volume may be about 20-
40 per cent depending upon the gradation of sand. When the moisture content is
further increased, the particles pack near each other and the amount of bulking is
decreased. Hence, dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have
practically the same volume.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.31

The volumetric proportioning of sand depends upon the extent of bulking. It is

more with fine sands than with coarse sands. If proper allowances are not made
for bulking of sand, the cost of concrete and mortar increase and it results in
mixes with inadequate sand. This makes the mix harsh and difficult for working
and placing.

Properties of Good Sand

Good sand should possess the following properties:
1) It should be clean and coarse.
2) It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3-4 per cent clay is
permitted.

40
Percentage increase in volume

fine
30 medium

20

coarse
10

0 5 10 15 20
Percentage by weight of moisture
Figure 6.1: Graph Showing the Percentage Increase in
Volume to the Percentage by Weight of Moisture
Sand is an important building material. It abundantly occurs in nature and is formed by
the decomposition of rocks. Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (SiO2). It forms
a major ingredient in concrete, lime mortar, cement mortar, etc.

2.2.4.2. Natural Sources of Sand

Sand is formed by the weathering of rocks. Based on the natural sources from which sand
is obtained, it is classified as follows:
1) Pit Sand: This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils. It is excavated from a depth
of about 1-2m from the ground level. This sand is found as deposits in soil and it
consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts. It serves as an excellent
material for mortar or concrete work. Pit sand must be made free from clay and other
organic materials before it can be used in mortar. Also, the coating of oxide of iron
over the sand grains should be removed.
2) River Sand: This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the banks
or beds of rivers and it consists of fine rounded grains. The presence of fine rounded
grains is due to mutual attrition under the action of water current. The river sand is
available in clean conditions. The river sand is almost white in colour.
3) Sea Sand: Sea sand is obtained from the sea shores. It consists of fine rounded grains
like the river sand. Sea sand is light brown in colour. Since the sea sand contains
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.32

salts, it attracts moisture from the atmosphere. Such absorption causes dampness,
efflorescence and disintegration of work. Sea sand increases the setting time of
cement. Hence, it is the general rule to avoid use of sea sand for engineering
purposes even though it is available in plenty. However, after removing the salts by
washing, it can be used as a local material.

2.2.4.3. Classification of Sand

Based on the grain size distribution, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly:
1) The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1,5875mm is known as fine
sand. Fine sand is mainly used for plastering.
2) It should be chemically inert.
3) It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
4) It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.
5) It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.
6) It should be strong and durable.
7) It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.

2.2.4.4. Functions of Sand in Mortar

Sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following functions:
1) Strength: It helps in the adjustment of the strength of mortar or concrete by variation
of its proportion with cement or lime. It also increases the resistance of mortar
against crushing.
2) Bulk: It acts as an adulterant. Hence, the bulk or volume of mortar is increases which
results in reduction of cost.
3) Setting: In the case of fat lime, carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed through the voids
of sand and setting of fat lime occurs effectively.
4) Shrinkage: It prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar in the course of drying and,
hence, the cracking of mortar during setting is avoided.
5) Surface Area: It subdivides the paste of the binding material into a thin film and,
thus, more surface area is offered for its spreading and adhering.

2.2.4.5. Substitutes of Sand

Sand has now become a scarce and costly material and extraction of river sand is
now said to affect the ecological balance. The use of substitutes for sand has
gained great importance.

Surkhi, or finely grained burnt clay, is one of the materials used for this purpose.
It can be used in all mortars, except that for plastering.

Processed quarry dust or stone screening is also being used as substitutes. It is

abundantly available and if it is properly screened it imparts more strength to the
mortar. This is now being industrially manufactured under various trade names.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.33

2.2.5. Cement
A powdery substance made by calcining lime and clay, mixed with water to form
mortar or mixed with sand, gravel, and water to make concrete.

2.2.5.1. Types of Cements

Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for
use in different environmental conditions and specialised applications. Lists of
some commonly used cement are:
1) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): Ordinary Portland cement is the most
common type of cement in general use around the world. The most common
use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and
water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Portland cement may be grey or white.

Properties of Ordinary Portland cement are as follows:

i) This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to
sulphates in the soil or ground water.
ii) Lime saturation factor is limited 0.66 to 1.02.
iii) Free lime-cause the cement to be unsound.
iv) Percentage of (Al2O3/Fe2O3) is not less than 0.66.
v) Insoluble residue not more than 1.5%.
vi) Percentage of SO3 limited by 2.5% when C3A (Tri Calcium Aluminate)
< 7% and not more than 3% when C3A >7%.
vii) Loss of ignition = 4% (max.).
viii) Percentage of MgO = 5% (max.).
ix) Fineness – not less than 2250 cm2/g.

2) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

i) It is firmer than ordinary Portland cement.
ii) It contains more C3S (Tri calcium silicate) are less C2S (Di calcium
silicate) than the ordinary Portland cement.
iii) Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland
cement.
iv) This is generally used in situations where strength has to be attained
quickly. Shuttering can be removed early and period of curing is less.

3) Low Heat Portland Cement

i) Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3 days is 80cal/gm.
While in low heat cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
ii) It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than
O.P. Cement.
iii) Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard (B S.
1370:1974) limit the heat of hydration of this cement.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.34

iv) This is generally used for massive construction like dams.

4) Quick Setting Cement: In this the amount of quantity of gypsum is reduced
while small quantity of aluminium sulphate is added. Also the cement is finely
ground. This type of cement is used for concreting in stagnant or running
water.
5) High Alumina Cement: This contains comparatively large percentage of
alumina compared to OPC. This cement can withstand corrosive action of sea
water though its initial setting time is slightly more (about 3.5 hours), its final
setting time is less to about 5 hours.
6) Pozzolana Cement: In this type of cement, pozzolanic materials (powered
burnt bricks, fly ash etc.) are mixed to add certain qualities to the ordinary
cement. It offers great resistance to sulphate and corrosive action of sea
water. Also it does not release large amount of heat when reacting with water.
As such it is ‘suitable for mass construction work’.
7) White Cement: It is a special type of cement with a milky white colour. In this
type of cement, iron oxide, manganese and chromium are not added. Instead of
coal, oil is used in kiln for firing.

2.2.5.2. Uses of Cement

Following table shows the use of cement.
Table 3.1: Uses of Cement
Types of Cement Composition Purpose
Rapid Hardening Increased Lime content. Attains high
Cement strength. In
early days it
is used in
concrete
where form
work are
removed at an
early stage.
Quick Setting Small percentage of aluminium sulphate Used in
Cement as an accelerator and reducing percentage works to be
of Gypsum with fine grinding. completed in
very short
period and
concreting in
static and
running
water.
Low Heat Cement Manufactured by reducing tri-calcium It is used in
aluminate. massive
concrete
construction
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.35

like gravity
dams.
Sulphates It is prepared by maintaining the It is used in
Resisting Cement percentage of tri-calcium aluminate below construction
6% which increases power against exposed to
sulphates. severe
sulphate
action by
water and soil
in places like
canals linings,
culverts,
retaining
walls,
siphons, etc.
Blast Furnace It is obtained by grinding the clinkers with It can used for
Slag Cement about 60% slag and resembles more or works where
less in properties of Portland cement. economic
considerations
is
predominant.
High Alumina It is obtained by melting mixture of It is used in
Cement bauxite and lime and grinding with the works where
clinker it is rapid hardening cement with concrete is
initial and final setting time of about 3.5 subjected to
and 5 hours respectively. high
temperatures,
frost, and
acidic action.
White Cement It is prepared from raw materials free It is more
from Iron oxide. costly and is
used for
architectural
purposes such
as pre-cast
curtain wall
and facing
panels,
terrazzo
surface, etc.
Coloured Cement It is produced by mixing mineral pigments They are
with ordinary cement. widely used
for decorative
works in
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.36

floors.
Pozzolanic It is prepared by grinding of pozzolanic It is used in
Cement clinker with Portland cement. marine
structures,
sewage
works, and
for laying
concrete
under water
such as
bridges, piers,
dams, etc.
Air Entraining It is produced by adding indigenous air This type of
Cement entraining agents such as resins, glues, cement is
sodium salts of sulphates, etc., during the especially
grinding of clinker. suited to
improve the
workability
with smaller
water cement
ratio and to
improve frost
resistance of
concrete.
Hydrographic It is prepared by mixing water repelling This cement
Cement chemicals. has high
workability
and strength.

2.2.5.3. Basic Ingredients of Cement

Table 3.2 shows the basic ingredients of cement
Table 3.2: Basic Ingredients of Cement
Ingredient Percentage in Cement
Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulphate 0.1-0.5
Sulphur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.37

Functions of Cement Ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and
usefulness or harmfulness are given below:
1) Lime: It is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. Functions of lime are as
follows:
i) Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium.
ii) Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of cement.
iii) Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
iv) Excess lime makes cement unsound.
v) Excessive presence of lime causes cement to expand and disintegrate.

2) Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2. Functions

of silica are as follows:
i) Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and
tricalcium silicate.
ii) Silica imparts strength to cement.
iii) Silica usually present to the extent of about 30 per cent cement.

3) Alumina: It is Aluminium oxide. Chemical formula is Al2O3. Following are

the functions of alumina:
i) Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
ii) Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of requisite quantity of
alumina.
iii) Excess alumina weakens the cement.
4) Magnesia: Magnesium oxide. Chemical formula is MgO. Functions of
magnesia are as follows:
i) Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
ii) Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
5) Iron Oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3. Following are the functions of iron
oxide:
i) Iron oxide imparts colour to cement.
ii) It acts as a flux.
iii) At a very high temperature it imparts into chemical reaction with calcium
and aluminium to form tricalciumaluminoferrite.
iv) Tricalciumaluminoferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
6) Calcium Sulphate: Chemical formula is CaSO4. Functions of calcium
sulphate are as follows:
i) This is present in cement in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
ii) It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.38

7) Sulphur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3. Following are the functions of

sulphur trioxide:
i) Should not be present more than 2%.
ii) Excess sulphur trioxide causes cement to become unsound.
8) Alkaline: Functions of alkaline are as follows:
i) Should not be present more than 1%.
ii) Excess alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

2.2.6. Concrete
“Concrete is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium
within which are embedded particles or fragments of aggregates, usually a
combination of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates; in Portland-cement
concrete, the binder is a mixture of a Portland-cement and water, with or without
admixtures.”

In order to determine the quality of concrete on site, it shall undergo quality tests.
Here are 6 common quality tests on concrete before and after completion of
casting on site.

2.2.6.1. Properties of Concrete

The concrete has the following properties:
1) It has high compressive strength.
2) It is free from corrosion.
3) It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete has attained
sufficient strength.
4) It is proved to be economical than steel.
5) It binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension, steel reinforcement is
placed in cement concrete at suitable places to take up tensile concrete or
simply R.C.C.
6) It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion stresses. This is called
reinforced cement.

Grades of Concrete
As per IS 456-2000, concrete is graded according to the compressive strength of
nominal test cubes. The grade is specified by M15, M20. like that where M stands
for the mix and the suffix number 15, 20, etc., specifies the compressive strength
of 15cm size concrete cubes tested under a compressive load after 28 days of
casting. The compressive strength is specified in N/sq. mm.
Grades of Concrete and Their Uses
Grade Proportion Uses
M5 1 : 5 : 10 Mass concrete works
M10 1:3:6 Mass concrete Works
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.39

M15 1:2:4 Plain cement concrete works

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 General RCC works in buildings
M25 1:1:2 Water retaining structures

Preparation of Concrete
Following steps are used for the preparation of the concrete:
Step 1) Plan your project carefully: Having a detailed plan for your project:
i) Decide on the area to be concreted, draw up a plan, and write in all
measurements.
ii) Determine the finished levels of the work and write these levels on the plan.
iii) Determine the thickness (depth) of the concrete and write it on the plan. 4 in.
(10 cm) depth is standard for driveways and garages used by passenger
vehicles, but not for heavy trucks.
iv) Remember to allow for drainage and ensure that water will not run to
undesired locations. Provision a minimum drop of 1" for each ten feet of
slab (1.2cm per m), although 1.5" drop for every ten feet of run (1.8cm per
m) is preferred.

Step 2) Purchase or Gather the Raw Materials: Generally, you will need
Portland Type I (general use cement) or Type II (used for structures in water or
soil containing moderate amounts of sulfate, or when heat build-up is a concern)
cement, masonry/builder's sand or other clean sand, and gravel or crushed
limestone.
i) Calculate the volume of concrete required by multiplying the thickness in feet
by the square footage of the area to be concreted.
ii) Purchase as much concrete as needed for your project. 1 square foot (.093 sq.
m) of 4 in. (10 cm) deep concrete requires 50 pounds (22.7 kg) of concrete
mix.
iii) Portland cement generally comes in bags weighing 96 lbs (43.5 kg) and
should be handled with care. Depending on the size of your project, a truck
may be needed to assist in hauling.

Step 3) Assemble or Buy a Mixing Container: Build a mixing box from wood
planks or use a sturdy wheelbarrow to mix the materials. If your project is large,
rent a mechanical mixer to do reduce the human labor.

Step 4) Build the Forms: In order to contain the wet concrete, assemble the
forms along the outer edges of the area you will be placing the concrete in.
i) Use timber boards to assemble the forms.
ii) Brace the boards securely, ensuring that they are strong enough to support the
weight of the concrete.
iii) Check that the form work is level.
iv) If you are plumbing underneath the concrete, ensure it is in the proper place.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.40

v) Confirm that the dimensions of the forms match the dimensions laid out in
your plans.

Step 5) Mix the Cement and Sand: Prepare your dry mix by mixing the cement
mix and sand. There are a few common mixtures and methods for concrete
preparation.
i) Option 1: A basic mixture for mortar (not concrete) is made using a 1:2:3
ratio of water to cement to sand by volume.
ii) Option 2: General purpose concrete is created using a 1:2:3 ratio of cement
to sand to gravel by volume.
Step 6) Add the Gravel or Crushed Stone: Incorporate the gravel or crushed
stone in the dry mixture.
i) Add gravel or crushed stone at a ratio of up to 5 parts gravel per 1 part
cement and sand mixture.
ii) The gravel doesn't adversely affect the tensile strength of the concrete unless
you add too much. If the gravel does not leave enough cement paste to fill the
cracks between the gravel, you have added too much.
iii) Adding too much gravel can also make it difficult to get a smooth finished
surface on the cured concrete.

Step 7) Add Water: Begin by adding water to the mixture slowly, mixing
continuously until the concrete becomes plastic enough to place in your form.

The plastic character of the concrete is measured in “slump”, which is determined

by filling a metal “slump” cone with the mixed, wet concrete, lifting the cone off
gently, then measuring how far the concrete sags, or slumps. The typical “slump”
of good structural concrete is about 3 or 4 inches (7.5 or 10 cm).

Step 8) Mix the Concrete: Continue mixing until the concrete has a uniform
consistency. The texture should be even throughout the mix, with no pockets
of dry material. Continue mixing for two or three more minutes to begin the
hydration process, which is ultimately what causes the concrete to harden.

Step 9) Pour and Float the Concrete: Add the concrete to your form, tapping all
the edges to remove air pockets, and let it settle in evenly and firmly.
i) Using a magnesium float or a smooth flat board, level the concrete across the
top.
ii) Do this by dragging the tool, tilted slightly upward on the leading edge,
across the surface of the concrete.
iii) This process is known as “floating” and will float the fine cement paste to the
surface.
iv) The fine paste is malleable and easy to smooth and finish either by brushing,
brooming or troweling when it begins to “set” or harden.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.41

After the step 9 concrete is ready to use.

2.2.6.2. Constituents of Concrete

The main constituents of concrete:
1) Cement/Lime: Before introduction of ordinary Portland cement, lime was
used as cementing material. At present most of the cement concrete works in
the building construction is done with ordinary Portland cement. But other
special varieties of cement such as rapid hardening cement, high alumina
cement are used under certain circumstances. The cement should comply
with all standard specifications.
Function of Cement
i) It fills up voids existing in the fine aggregate and makes the concrete
impermeable.
ii) It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
iii) It binds the aggregate into a solid mass by virtue of its setting and
hardening properties when mixed with water.
2) Fine Aggregates: The material, which is passed through 4.7625 mm
sieve, is termed as fine aggregates. Usually natural river sand is used as
fine aggregates. But places where natural sand is not available
economically, finely crushed stone may be used as fine aggregates.
Function of Fine Aggregates
i) It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate.
ii) It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
iii) By varying the proportion of sand concrete can be prepared economically
for any required strength
iv) It helps in hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids.
v) To form hard mass of silicates as it is believed that some chemical
reaction takes place between silica of sand and constituents of cement.
3) Coarse Aggregates: The material retained on 4.7625mm size sieve is termed
as coarse aggregates. Broken stone is generally used as coarse aggregates.
For thin slabs, and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregates should be
limited to one third the thickness of the concrete section.
Functions of Coarse Aggregates
i) Coarse aggregate makes solid and hard mass of concrete with cement and
sand.
ii) It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies major volume.
iii) It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
4) Water: Water to be used in the concrete work should have the following
properties:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.42

i) It should be free from oils.

ii) It should be free from acids or alkalis
iii) It should be free from iron, vegetables matter or other substance, which is
likely to have adverse effect on concrete.
iv) It should be fit for drinking purpose.

Function of Water
i) It acts as lubricant for fine and coarse reinforcement.
ii) It acts chemically with cement to form binding paste with coarse
aggregates and fine aggregates.
iii) It is necessary to flux the cementing material over the surface of the
aggregates.
iv) It is employed to damp the concrete in order to prevent them absorbing
water vitally necessary for chemical action.
v) It enables the concrete mix to blow into moulds.

2.2.6.3. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)

The intimate mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate (jelly) and water are
known as plain cement concrete. A small quantity of mixtures like air entraining
agents, water proofing agents, and workability agents may also be added to
impart special properties to the plain cement concrete.

Uses of plain cement concrete are listed below:

1) As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below
beams.
2) As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
3) As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
4) For flagging the area around the buildings.
5) For making pavements.
6) For making tennis courts, basketball courts, etc.

2.2.6.4. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but is very weak in resisting
tensile stresses. Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile
stress is expected. The best reinforcing material is steel, since its tensile strength
is high and bond between steel and concrete is good. Since elastic modulus of
steel is quite high compared to concrete, the force developed in steel is high.

A cage of reinforcements is prepared as per the design requirements, kept in the

form work and then green concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the
form work is removed. The composite material of steel and concrete, now called
R.C.C. acts as a structural member and can resist tensile as well as compressive
forces efficiently.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.43

Uses of Reinforced Cement Concrete

1) R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is
expected. The common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used
are:
i) Footing,
ii) Columns,
iii) Beams, lintels,
iv) Chajjas, roof slabs, and
v) Stairs.
2) R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like:
i) Water tanks,
ii) Dams, and
iii) Silos, bunkers.
3) They are used for the construction of
i) Bridges,
ii) Retaining walls,
iii) Docks and harbours, and
iv) Under water structures.
4) R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like
i) Multi-storey buildings,
ii) Chimneys, and
iii) Towers.
5) R.C.C. is used for paving
i) Highways,
ii) City roads, and
iii) Airports.
6) R.C.C. is used in atomic plants to prevent radiation. For this purpose R.C.C.
walls built are as thick as 1.5m to 2.0m.

2.2.6.5. Prestressed Concrete (PSC)

In prestressed concrete elements, calculated compressive stresses are introduced
in the zone wherever tensile stresses are expected when the element is put to use.
Thus in bridge girders, bottom side of beam tensile stresses develop when deck
slab is placed and vehicles start moving on the bridge.

Hence, before girder is placed in its position compressive stresses are introduced
at bottom side. This is achieved by pulling the high tensile wires before concrete
is poured in the form work of beam and releasing the pull only after concrete
hardens (pretension prestress concrete).

In another method, it may be achieved by providing a duct from end-to-end in the

beam while casting the beam. Then high tensile wire is passed through the duct
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.44

and after stretching, it is anchored to the ends of beams. This is called post-
tensioning prestress beam.

ACI committee defines prestressed concrete as the one in which internal stresses
have been introduced such that the stresses resulting from given external loadings
are counter-acted to a desired degree.

Prestressed concrete is commonly used in making the following structural

elements:
1) Beams and girders,
2) Slabs and grid floors,
3) Pipes and tanks,
4) Poles, piles, sleepers and pavements, and
5) Shell and folded plate roofs.

2.2.6.6. Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1) Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other
building materials.
2) Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a
good amount tensile stress.
3) Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4) The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other
building system.
5) Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be
economically molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
6) The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7) In the structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most
economical construction material.
8) It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9) As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used
in precast structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum
apparent deflection.
10) Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less
skilled labor for the erection of the structure.

2.2.6.7. Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

1) The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its
compressive strength.
2) The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing.
All of this effects the final strength.
3) The cost of the forms used for casting is relatively higher.
4) For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel
section as the compressive strength is lower in the case of.
5) Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.45

2.2.7. Cement Concrete

Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and water.
When places in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard like a
stone. Cement Concrete is important building material because of the following
reasons:
1) It can be moulded into any size and shape of durable structural member.
2) It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete.
3) It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing processes.
4) It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.

2.2.7.1. Tests Carried-Out in Cement Concrete

Following are the different tests in cement concrete:
1) Slump Test: This is the most commonly used method of measuring
consistency of concrete which can be employed either in laboratory or at site
of work. It is not a suitable method for very wet or very dry concrete and stiff
mix. It does not measure all the factors contributing to workability.
The diameter of the rod is 16mm and its length is 60cm. The strokes to be
given ramming vary from 20 to 30.
10cm

Handles
30cm

G L
20cm
Elevation
Foot Pleces

Plan Slump Cone

Figure
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.46

Measuring
Slump 10cm dia

30cm

20cm dia

Figure

Table: Recommended Slumps of Concrete

Type of Concrete Slump
1) Concrete for Road Construction 20 to 40mm
2) Beams and Slabs 50 to 100mm
3) Normal RCC work 80 to 150mm
4) Mass Concrete 25 to 50mm
5) Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25mm
6) Impermeable Work 75 to 120mm

2) Compaction Factor Test: In this test, the degree of workability is measured

in terms of internal energy required to compact the concrete thoroughly. A
compaction factor of 0.95 represents flowing concrete having high
workability; 0.92 plastic concrete having medium workability; 0.85 stiff
plastic concrete having low workability and a compaction factor of 0.75
represents stiff concrete having very low workability.

The compacting factor test is designed primarily for use in the laboratory but
it can also be used in the field. The degree of compaction called the
compacting factor is measured by the density ratio, i.e., the ratio of the
density actually achieved in the test to density of same concrete fully
compacted.

Workability, slump and Compacting Factor of Concrete with 20mm or

40mm Maximum Size of Aggregate

Table:
Degree of Slump Compacting Factor Use for which Concrete is Suitable
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.47

Workabilit (mm) Small Large

y Apparatu Apparatu
s s
Very low – 0.78 0.80 Roads vibrated by power-operated machines. At
the more workable end of this group, concrete may
be compacted in certain cases with hand-operated
machines.
Low 25-50 0.85 0.87 Roads vibrated by hand-operated machines. At the
more workable end of this group, concrete may be
manually compacted in roads using aggregate of
rounded or irregular shape. Mass concrete
foundations without vibration or lightly reinforced
sections with vibration.
Medium 50-100 0.92 0.935 At the less workable end of this group, manually
compacted flat slabs using crushed aggregates.
Normal reinforced concrete manually compacted
and heavily reinforced sections with vibration.
High 100-150 0.95 0.96 For sections with congested reinforcement. Not
normally suitable for vibration, for pumping and
tremle placing.
Very high – – – Flow table test is more suitable.

3) Vee-Bee Test: This is carried-out in such a manner that the specimen

concrete in the test receives more or less same treatment in respect of the
method of placing as it would in actual execution of the work. This test is
preferred for finding workability of stiff concrete mix having very low
workability.

In this test a Vee-Bee time of 5 to 3 seconds represent stiff plastic concrete

having medium workability, 10 to 15 seconds represents stiff concrete of low
workability and Vee-Bee time to 18 to 10 seconds represent very stiff
concrete having very low workability.

4) Vee Bee Consistometer: This is a good laboratory test to measure indirectly

the workability of concrete. This test consists of a vibrating table, metal pot, a
sheet metal concrete a standard iron rod. The time required for the shape of
concrete to change from slump concrete shape to cylindrical shape in second
is known as Vee Bee Degree.

This method is very suitable for very dry concrete whose slump value cannot
be measured by slump test but the vibration is too vigorous for concrete with
a slump greater than about 50mm.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.48

5) Flow Test: This is a laboratory test which gives an indication of the quality
of concrete with respect to consistency cohesiveness and the proneness to
segregation. The spread or the flow of the concrete is measured and this flow
is related to workability.

Spread diams in cm – 25
Flow Per cent = × 100
25

The value could range anything from 0-150%. It can be realised that the
compacting factor test measures the inherent characteristics of the concrete
which relates very close to the workability requirements of concrete and as
such it is one of the good test to depict the workability of concrete.

6) Estimating Yield of Concrete: A rule-of-thumb as given below, may be

used to find out the approximate yield of concrete from a given concrete mix.

If the proportion of Concrete is a: b: c, i.e., if a parts of cement, b parts of

sand and c parts of coarse aggregates are mixed by volume, the resulting
concrete will have a volume of 2/3 (a + b + c).

Let w, a, b and c be absolute volumes of water, cement, fine aggregate and

coarse aggregate respectively. Then, w + a + b + c =1.

Weight of the Materials

Absolute Volume =
Apparent sp. gr. × Unit wt. of Water

2.2.8. Steel
Steels are essentially alloys of iron and carbon but they always contain other
elements, either as impurities or alloying elements.
1) Steel is man-made metal containing 95% or more iron and 1-2% carbon,
smaller amounts (around 1.6%) of manganese, nickel to improve certain
properties.
2) Carbon improves strength/hardness strength/hardness but reduces ductility
and toughness.
3) Low carbon steels are not used as structural materials.
4) Alloying nickel, the tensile strength can be increased while retaining the
desired ductility.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.49

2.2.8.1. Types of Steel

Steels are classified in manyt ways based on different criteria as discussed in the
following:
1) Carbon Content: Based on the amount if carbon present, steel may be
classfied as dead mild steel, mild steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon
steel.
2) Microstucture: Steel is sometimes categorized on the basis of its
microstructure. For example, austenitic steel, pearlitic steel, martensitic
steel, etc.
3) Alloying Element: Based on the number and type of alloying elements, there
are different categories of alloy steel such as low-alloy steel or high-alloy
steels based on the total amount of alloying elements presents. Steels are also
categorized according to the principal alloying element, for example, nickel
steel, chromium steel and manganese steel. According to the application steel
may be categorized as structural steel, tool steel, stainless steel or special
purpose steel.
4) Method of Steel Production: Steels are named as electric furnace steel or
open-hearth steel, based on the method of production.
5) Degree of de-oxidation: Depending on the degree of de-oxidation of steel
during its production, steel may be categorise as killed steel, semi-killed steel,
rimmed steel and capped steel.
6) Based on Mechanical working of Steel during Production: Steel passes
through various stages during its manufacturing, from pig iron stage to the
commercial form of steel. It passes through hot and cold-working. Hence,
steel is sometimes called wrought metal (hot-rolled) or cold-rolled.
7) Commercial Forms of Steel: there are numerous forms or names under
which steel is available in the market, for example, mild steel, structural
steel, machine or free cutting steel or cast steel, tool steel, forged steel, spring
steel, stainless steel, heat-resisting steel, magnetic steel, high speed steel or
cutting alloys.

2.2.8.2. Commercial Forms of Steel

Following are the commercial form of the steel:
1) Low Carbon Steels: low carbon steels are used when moderate strength is
needed along with enough plasticity. Steels with carbon 0.05 to 0.10% are
used for sheets, tubing and wire nails. Metals sheets are made either by cold-
rolling or by hot-rolling; hot rolled sheets are thinner and have better
mechnical properties. With addition of vanadium or columbium, high
strength hot-rolled and cold-rolled sheets are made for making tubes for
components of automobiles, furniture and refrigerator by welding.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.50

2) Structural Steels: Structural steels are intended for general engineering

purposes for making structures, frames, bridges, industrial building trusses,
transportation equipment and other components subjected to static and
dynamic loadings. These can be divided as:
i) Carbon Steels: Most of the structural steels being used for general
purpose are plain carbon steels. These are covered under IS: 1977-1969;
IS: 2062-1969; IS: 226-1969 and IS: 961-1962. A typical St 42-S type
structural steel has tensile strength between 42 and 54kg/mm2 and carbon
(0.25%). sulphur (0.055%) and phosphorus (0.055%). High tensile
strength steels (St 58-HT), having minimum tensile strength of
58kg/mm2, are also used, but these may not be welded. Carbon steels
have in general excellent weld ability and require neither pre-heat nor
post-heat treatment.
ii) High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA): These structural steels have
alloying elements which enhance the hot-rolled strength. Low alloy
structural sleds (manganese and vanadium type) have tensile strength up
to 50kg/mm2. High strength low alloy columbium-vanadium structural
steels (also called niobium-vanadium steels) have tensile strength up to
60kg/mm2. These have high strength in-weight ratio.

3) Forging Steels: Forging steels have carbon 0.30 to 0.40% and are readily
forged. These are used for bolts, pins, crankshaft, connecting rods, and are
suitable for light loads.

4) Bright Steels: Bright steels are basically medium carbon steels (C – 0.3 to
0.8%). Cold working of these steels gives them very clean and smooth
surface with close dimensional accuracy. Bright steels are available in
rounds, hexagonal, squares, bars, flats and other sections. These are used as
available or can be machined.

5) Free production Cutting Steels (Or Machine Steels): Free cutting or free
machining steels are used as raw material for mass of bolls, nuts, screws and
nails in automatic machines working at higher cutting speeds. These have
exceedingly high machinability; some of them can have machinability index
(or raring) even more than 100%. Surface finish on these steels is very good.
Two typical examples of these steels are given below, those having
machinability index 150% and 100%.

Machinability Carbon (0.10 to 0.16%),

rating 150% manganese (0.65 to 0.85%),
sulphur (0.12 to 2.0%),
phosphorus (0.08 to 0.12%)
and lead (0.25%).
Machinability Carbon (0.10 to 0.16%),
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.51

rating 100% manganese (0.65 to 0.85%),

sulphur (0.17 to 0.20%) and
phosphorus (0.08 to 0.12%).

Free cutting steels have higher sulphur contents in the form of manganese
sulphide inclusions, causing chips to break short during machining. The
presence of manganese and phosphorus hardens and embrittles the steel,
which also contributes towards free machining and better finish.

6) Spring Steels: Spring steels are used for making helical and leaf springs.
These are hardened and tempered after making the spring. For small springs,
plain carbon steels are used. For large springs, alloy steel, chrome-vanadium
type or silicon-manganese type is used. These steels have high elastic limit.

7) Forged Steel: Forged steel is that steel which has been hammered, drawn or
pressed or hot rolled in the process of its manufacture. It is a general name of
carbon steels. Hot rolled steel or products are called wrought metals also.

8) Cast Steel: Cast steel is that steel which has been cast into sand moulds to
form finished or semi-finished products. Steel castings are used to replace
forgings when only small quantities are required that do not justify the high
cost of forging dies. Also, it is easier to cast large products which cannot be
easily forged, if the configuration or shape of the product is intricate, in that
case also it is easy to produce the product by casting rather than forging.

Steel castings are categorised in the following types:

i) Low carbon steel castings having carbon less than 0.2%.
ii) Medium carbon steel castings having carbon 0.2 to 0.5%.
iii) High carbon steel castings having carbon above 0.5%.
iv) Low alloy steel castings having alloying elements totalling less than 8%.
v) High alloy steel castings having alloying elements totalling more than
8%.

Most carbon steel castings are produced in low carbon steel or medium
carbon steel. High carbon steel castings have higher tensile strength (up to
95kg/mm2) and high hardness and are used for metal working dies and rolls.
Such a typical casting may have carbon 1.7% (maximum), manganese 0.5 to
1%, silicon 0.2 to 0.8%, phosphorus 0.05% (maximum) and sulphur 0.05%
(maximum). Boron cast steels have higher hardness and strength, without
losing ductility and impact strength.

Steel castings tire covered under BIS Code (IS: 4843-1968).

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.52

2.2.8.3. Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material

Followings are the different Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material:
1) High strength to low weight – good for long span bridges, tall buildings.
2) Light weight compared to concrete – can be handled and transported, and
prefabricated.
3) Properly maintained have a long life.
4) Uniformity properties do not change with time.
5) A ductile material, does not fail suddenly, but gives visible evidence of
failure by large deflections.
6) Additions and alterations can be made easily.
7) They can be erected at a faster rate compared to reinforced concrete.
8) Steel has the highest scrap value.
9) Can be even reuse on demolition.

2.2.8.4. Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural Material

Followings are the different disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material:
1) When placed in exposed conditions, are subjected to corrosion. They require
painting, hence induce high maintenance cost.
2) Needs fire proof treatment, which increases cost.
3) Fatigue – strength reduced if large number of stress reversals.

2.2.9. Timber
“Wood which is suitable for building or any other civil engineering purpose is
called timber.”

Timber denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry and for various
engineering and other purposes. The word timber is derived from an old English
word ‘timbrian’ which means to build. Timber or wood as a building material
possesses a number of valuable properties, such as low heat conductivity,
amenability to mechanical working, low bulk density and relatively high strength.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.53

Structure of Timber
Following figure shows the basic structure of a timber:

Outer Bark Heart Wood

Pith

Inner Bark
Sap Wood

Medullary Rays

Cambium Layer

Figure 5.1: Structure of Timber

2.2.9.1. Component of a Timber

The cross-section of the trees shows the following structure:
1) Pith or Medulla: The first formed round dark portion of the tree is called pith,
around pith annual rings are formed, when the plant is young it contains large amount
of fluid and it nourishes the plant. It dies up and decays when the plant becomes old.
2) Annual Rings: Woody fibre formed and arranged in concentric rings around the pith
are called annual rings, they are called annual because each year one ring is
developed, with the help of annual rings anyone can find the age of tree by counting
dark or bright rings.
3) Bark or Cortex: It is the outermost protective covering of the tree which is exposed
to air.
4) Heart Wood or Duramen: The central rings surrounding the pith and is near to the
pith is generally darker and is called heartwood.
5) Sap Wood: Ring near to the bark or away from pith is generally lighter in colour and
is weaker as well, its main task is to provide sap from root to branches.
6) Cambium Layer: Rings between bark and sap wood constitutes cambium layer, it is
that part which is not yet converted into wood.
7) Medullary Rays: These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the
bark. The main purpose of medullary rays is to carry sap from inner to bark, and they
also keep the inner or outer rings bound together.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.54

2.2.9.2. Properties of Timber

Following are the basic properties of a timber:
1) Hardness: A good quality timber should be hard enough to resist deterioration.
2) Strength: It should have sufficient strength to resist heavy structural loads.
3) Toughness: It should have enough toughness to resist shocks due to vibrations.
It should not break in bending and should resist splitting. Timbers having
narrow annual rings are generally the strongest.
4) Elasticity: It should have the property of elasticity so as to regain its original shape
after removal of loads. This is a very important property to be considered if the
timber is used in making sport goods.
5) Durability: It should be able to resist attacks of fungi and worms and also
atmospheric effects for a longer period of time.
6) Defects: Timber should be prepared from the heart of a sound tree and be free from
sap, dead knots, shakes and other similar defects.
7) Fibres and Structure: It should have straight and closed fibres and compact
medullary rays. It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is
an indication of internal decay. Its annual rings should be uniform in shape and
colour.
8) Appearance and Colour: Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell and present
shining surface. It should have dark colour, as light coloured timbers are generally
weak in strength.
9) Shape and Weight: It should retain its shape during the process of seasoning. Heavy
timbers are always stronger than lightweight timbers.
10) Workability: It should be well seasoned and easily workable. Teeth of saw should
not get clogged during the process of sawing. It should provide smoothened surface
easily.

2.2.9.3. Uses of Timber

Timber is used for the following works:
1) For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles.
2) For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.
3) For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and
gates.
4) For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centring, shoring and strutting,
packing of materials.
5) For decorative works like showcases and furniture.
6) For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats.
7) For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall papers.
8) For making sports goods and musical instruments.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.55

2.2.9.4. Classification of Timber

There are two types of timber depending upon their mode of growth:
1) Endogenous: They grow inward in longitudinal fibrous mass. For example, banana,
bamboo, palm and cane. Their stem is rough and light yet it is flexible enough to be
useful for engineers.
2) Exogenous: They grow outward by the addition of one concentric ring every year.
These concentric rings are called annual rings. The number of concentric rings
indicates number of years or age of that tree. Exogenous trees are mostly used for
engineering purpose.
Exogenous trees are further classified into two types:
i) Trees yielding soft wood:
a) Conifers or evergreen.
b) Trees with pointed leaves.
c) Deodar, pine, chir, kail belong to this group.
ii) Trees yielding hard wood:
a) Deciduous with broad leaves.
b) Teak, sal, shisham belong to this group.

2.2.9.5. Seasoning in Timber

The process of removal of moisture content from wood so as to make it useful for
construction and other uses is called ‘drying of wood’ or ‘seasoning of wood’.

This reduces the chances of decay, improves load bearing properties, reduces weight, and
exhibits more favourable properties like thermal and electrical insulation, glue adhesive
capacity and easy preservative treatment, etc.

Methods of Seasoning
Following are the methods of seasoning are as follows:
1) Natural Seasoning: This seasoning is simple, cheap and does not require skilled
supervision but the drying of different surfaces may not be uniform and also the
space required for stacking is quite large. Following are the natural seasoning
methods:
i) Air Seasoning: The traditional method for drying wood, air seasoning is also the
longest, taking six to nine months. To air season wood, stack logs, or planks
outside on pallets in such a manner that air can circulate vertically and
horizontally through the timbers. The raised pallets also keep wood away from
vegetation and damp ground. Plank and log ends are often wrapped or sealed to
prevent excessive moisture loss through these areas. Protect the drying wood
from the elements with an overhead canopy.
ii) Water Seasoning: In this method wood pieces are kept in the running water of a
river for about to four weeks. The sap will be washed away during this period.
The cut pieces are then taken out of water and allowed to dry in air.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.56

2) Artificial Seasoning: These are many types. Some are given as below:
i) Kiln Seasoning: The most common and effective commercial process for drying
wood is kiln seasoning, which accelerates the process of removing moisture
through the use of external energy. Drying takes two days to one weekend,
depending on the type of wood. Two methods, progressive and compartmental,
are used for kiln seasoning.
In a progressive kiln, timber enters at one end and travels on a trolley through
chambers with different air conditions to progressive dry the wood. This method
produces a constant flow of seasoned timber. Wood seasoned via the
compartmental process remains in a single building where it is subjected to a
program of varying conditions until the moisture content is removed. This
process is used for hard-to-dry or expensive wood.
ii) Solar Kiln: This method combines the speed of kiln seasoning with the low
energy of air drying. Solar kilns have single-thickness windows on the south side
of the structure that work as collectors to trap the Sun’s energy. Heat collectors,
made from black metal are attached near the top of the window sashes. Various
methods force the heated air to circulate through the kiln to dry the wood. Some
solar kilns have insulation to retain heat at night. This process takes
approximately twice as long as traditional kiln seasoning. Because of its gentle
nature, it is well suited to producing wood for furniture fabrication.
iii) Microwave Seasoning: It uses pulsed energy directed into timbers to drive out
moisture in a manner that will not cause seasoning degrade. This method also
provides advantages such as high speed and high quality and is well suited for
seasoning lumber, blocks, veneer, chips, paper and wood-based composite
materials. Areas in the wood with the most moisture absorb the most energy
resulting in even temperature during the drying process and a uniform moisture
content. These factors enhance quality and reduce timber checking and warping.

2.2.9.6. Defects of Timber

Various defects which are likely to occur in timber may be grouped into the following
three:
1) Defects Due to Natural Forces: The following defects are caused by natural forces:
i) Knots: When a tree grows, many of its branches fall and the stump of these
branches in the trunk is covered. In the sawn pieces of timber the stump of fallen
branches appears as knots. Knots are dark and hard pieces. Grains are distorted
in this portion. Figure 5.2 shows some varieties of knots:

Live knot Decayed knots

Figure 5.2: Knots

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.57

ii) Shakes: They are cracks in the timber which appear due to excessive heat, frost
or twisting due to wind during the growth of a tree. Depending upon the shape
and the positions shakes can be classified as star shake, cup shake, ring shakes
and heart shakes.

Ring shakes Star shakes

Cup shakes Shakes
heart

Cup shakes Heart shakes Ring shakes Star shakes

Figure 5.3: Shakes

iii) Wind Cracks: These are the cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of
the exterior surface.
Wind cracks

Figure 5.4: Wind Cracks

iv) Upsets: Figure 5.5 shows a typical upset in a timber. This type of defect is due to
excessive compression in the tree when it was young. Upset is an injury by crushing.
This is also known as ‘rupture’.

Figure 5.5: Upset

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.58

2) Defects Due to Defective Seasoning and Conversion: If seasoning is not uniform,

the converted timber may warp and twist in various directions.
3) Defects Due to Fungi and Insects Attack: Fungi are minute microscopic plant
organism. Due to fungi attack rotting of wood takes place. Wood becomes weak and
stains appear on it. Beetles, marine borers and termites (white ants) are the insects
which eat wood and weaken the timber.

2.2.9.7. Preservation of Timber

Any treatment of mine timber for the purpose of extending the useful life of the timber is
known as preservation. Various preservatives are used, such as ‘creosote’, ‘zinc chloride’,
‘sodium fluoride’, and other chemicals.

Preservatives
Wood preservatives are chemical compounds used to protect timber against fungi and
insects. Dependent on the solvent, it distinguishes as:
1) Oil-borne,
2) Water-borne, and
3) Organic solvent-borne preservatives.

The preservatives most commonly applied are:

1) Creosote,
2) NAPCP,
3) CCA,
4) CCB/CCF,
5) Methylen-bis-Thiocyanate,
6) Boron, and
7) Borax.

Methods of Preservation of Timber

Timber scheduled for treatment should be free of defects. All machining, i.e., borings,
recesses, etc., have to be carried-out before preservation. Timber can be preserved by:
1) Charring: The simplest method applied, which does not require any preservative is
the charring of timber. It is a chemical process of incomplete combustion of certain
solids when subjected to high heat. The resulting residue matter is called char.
By the action of heat charring removes hydrogen and oxygen from the solids, so the
remaining char is composed
primarily of carbon. However,
it only provides temporary
protection. It is particularly
applied for cheaper timber in
ground contact, e.g., fence
posts.
2) Dip Treatment: In order to
protect the timber during
seasoning, the boards have to Figure 5.6: Charring of Pole
be dipped in a preservative
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.59

solution immediately after sawing. The dipping tank can be welded out of half-cut
oil drums, or out of a wooden box lined with plastic sheets. The tank should be
placed between resaw and the seasoning sheds to allow an unimpeded workflow.
The boards should be free of sawdust and remain in the preservative for at least a
minute before being removed and stacked. The solution has to be exchanged at
intervals to sustain its toxicity.
3) Brushing/Spraying: The minimum solution strength of the preservative applied by
this method is 3%. Depending on the moisture content of the timber and the
roughness of its surface, 1 to 3 coatings have to be applied. However, this method
has limited effect only.
4) Soaking: The timber
to be treated can be
soaked in a 3-5%
solution for upto 8
hours (depending on Smoke outlet
use and thickness).
Soaking provides
better protection than
brushing or spraying.
5) Hot and Cold Bath:
Two open tubes of
Fuel channels
appropriate length and
volume are required to Figure 5.7: Vessel for Soaking
accommodate the
timber sizes to be treated. They should be made of stainless steel in order to
withstand the corrosive effects of the preservative. One of the tubes should be
equipped with a heating source .The timber is submerged in the preservative and
heated for 2-3 hours up to 100°C.
Then the timber is transferred to the other tube filled with the same preservative but
cold. Here it is again kept for 8-24 hours. In both tubes the timber should be totally
immersed. During the hot bath, air in the wood expands and is forced out. During
the cold bath the residual air in the wood contracts, thus creating a partial vacuum
which allows the preservative to penetrate.
Board Thickness Soaking Time (Hours)
mm Hot Bath Cold Bath
12 1 8-12
25 2 Maximum 12
50 18
To be determined during process
Thicker 24

2.2.10. Modern Materials

India is witnessing construction of very interesting projects in all sectors of Infrastructure.
High rise structures, under construction, include residential/commercial blocks up to a
height of 320 m and RC chimneys for thermal power stations extending upwards up to
275m. Majority of the structures are in structural concrete. The functional demands of
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.60

such high rise structures include the use of durable materials. High Strength Concrete,
Self–compacting Concrete are gaining widespread acceptance.

Apart from the basic structural materials, modern projects require a variety of secondary
materials for a variety of purposes such as construction chemicals, waterproofing
materials, durability aids etc. The paper highlights some of the recent developments.

Types of Modern Materials

1) Durable Concrete: Concrete Design and Construction Practices today are strength
driven. Concrete grades up to M80 are now being used for high rise buildings in
India. However, due to escalation in the repair and replacement costs, more attention
is now being paid to durability issues. There are compelling reasons why the concrete
construction practice during the next decades should be driven by durability in
addition to strength.

A large number of flyovers and some elevated roads extending up to 20km in length
are being realized in different parts of the country and involve huge outlay of public
money. However, the concrete durability is suspect. Many of the structures built
during the period from 1970 have suffered premature deterioration. Concrete bridge
decks built during the period now require extensive repairs and renovations, costing
more than the original cost of the project. Multi-storied buildings in urban areas
require major repairs every 20 years, involving guniting, shotcreting etc.

A holistic view needs to be taken about concrete durability. In this context, there are
a large number of materials in the market which facilitate durable construction. Apart
from the materials, the construction processes have also undergone changes with a
view to improving the durability of the finished structure.

2) High Performance Concrete: In the United States, in response to widespread

cracking of concrete bridge decks, the construction process moved towards the use of
High Performance Concrete (HPC) mixes. Four types of HPC were developed1:
i) Very High Early Strength Concrete – 17.5 mPa in 6 hours
ii) High Early Strength Concrete – 42.5 mPa in 24 hours
iii) A Very High Strength – 86 mPa in 28 days
iv) High Early Strength with Fiber Reinforcement
v) High Performance Concrete was introduced in India initially for the
reconstruction of the pre-stressed concrete dome of the Kaiga Atomic Power
Project, followed for parts of the Reactors at Tarapur and Rajasthan.
Subsequently, a number of bridges and flyovers have introduced HPC up to M75
grade in different parts of India.

3) Self–compacting Concrete (SCC): SCC was developed by the Japanese initially as

a Quality Assurance measure, but now is being widely used for concrete structures
worldwide. In India, one of the earliest uses of SCC was for some components of
structures at Kaiga Atomic Power Project. Many components of the structures were
very heavily reinforced and the field engineers found it difficult to place and compact
normal concrete without honeycombs and weaker concrete. SCC was successfully
used.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.61

SCC leaving the batching plant is in a semi-fluid state and is placed into the
formwork without the use of vibrators. Due to its fluidity, SCC is able to find its way
into the formwork and in between the reinforcement and gets self-compacted in the
process. SCC is particularly useful for components of structures which are heavily
reinforced. The fluidity is realized by modifying the normal mix components. In
addition to cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water, special new generation
polymer based admixtures are used to increase the fluidity of the concrete without
increasing the water content.

Due to its high fluidity, the traditional method of measuring workability by slump
does not work. The fluidity is such that any concrete fed to the slump cone falls flat
on raising the slump cone; the diameter of the spread of concrete is measured as an
indication of workability of SCC. This is called Slump Flow and is in the range of
600 – 800 mm.

4) The Use of Mineral Admixtures: After realization of the need for durable concrete
structures, the composition of concrete has undergone changes. From being a product
made of three or four materials (cement, aggregates, water), today a typical durable
concrete consists of six or more materials. The use of low water cement ratio enables
a reduction in the volume and size of capillary voids in concrete; this alone is not
sufficient to reduce the cement based content of concrete which is the source of
micro-cracking from thermal shrinkage and drying shrinkage.

To reduce the cement based content, both the water content and cement content must
be reduced as much as possible. Concrete mixes with fewer micro cracks can be
produced by blending the cement with mineral admixtures either in the batching plant
or in the cement plant. This enhances the service life of concrete structures in a cost-
effective manner.

5) Fly Ash: Thermal power stations are left with an undesirable by-product, fly ash, in
large quantities which is not able to effectively utilize or dispose of. Currently,
(2009) more than 120 million tonne of fly ash are generated annually and the storage
and disposal has been costing the power stations substantial unproductive
expenditure. Unfortunately, all the fly ash available at the power stations is not fit for
use as mineral admixture directly. Fly ash as a mineral admixture should conform to
IS: 3812. Such a material is available in the finer streams of Electro Static
Precipitators fitted to the power generation system.

The coarser materials are required to be processed (generally with the help of
Cyclones) before being considered for use as mineral admixture for concrete. There
are only a few processing units in India, including the one as Nashik Thermal Power
Station. As per the Euro Code for Concrete, only processed fly ash can be permitted
as mineral admixture in concrete. The code limits the use of fly ash. About 35% of
cement may be replaced by fly ash; the actual percentage replacement depending on
the outcome of trial mixes.

6) High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFA): The high volume fly ash concrete
(HVFA) represents an emerging technology for highly durable and resource efficient
concrete structures. Laboratory and field experience have shown that fly ash from
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.62

modern coal-fired thermal power plants, when used in large volume (typically 50 -
60% by mass of the total cementious materials content, is able to impart excellent
workability in fresh concrete at a water content that is 15 – 20% less than without fly
ash. To obtain adequate strength at early age, further reductions in the mixing water
content can be achieved with better aggregate grading and use of super-plasticizers.

7) Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS): The problems associated with
the quality of fly ash do not exist in the case of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace
Slag GGBFS, as the produce is necessarily the outcome of grinding to the required
particle size. Thus the use of GGBFS as a mineral admixture should be preferred,
despite long leads for end users in certain parts of India far from the steel plants.
GGBFS sold in India is of uniform quality and particle size gradation. For many
landmark structures such as the Burj Dubai (the tallest building in the world in 2009)
GGBFS has been extensively used as a mineral admixture, even though the material
is imported from other countries, resulting in the landed cost being more than that of
cement. This was a conscious decision with a view to obtaining a more durable
concrete structure.

In India the use of GGBFS has been fairly limited, in spite of all the technical
advantages. The Indian Concrete Code permits up to 70% of cement replacement
where GGBFS is used. Technically, the use of GGBFS is more effective only at
replacement levels of 50% or more. For a number of structures in a port in Andhra
Pradesh, typically the M40 concrete mix contained 100 kg of cement and 300 kg of
GGBFS.

8) Condensed Silica Fume (CSF): CSF is a by-product of Ferro-Silicon industry and at

present an imported product, easily available in the Indian market. The particle size is
very small, about 100 times smaller than that of cement. It can occupy the voids in
between cement particles in a concrete mix, reduce the water demand and thus
contribute to a very dense concrete of high durability. Normally, 5 - 10% of cement
can be replaced by CSF in order to produce durable concrete. The product is
expensive and is used in developed countries only for very high strength concrete
(above 75 mPa). Indiscriminate use of CSF for lower grades, barring exceptions, only
increases the project cost without corresponding technical benefits. Even when used,
the percentage replacement should be based on trial mixes in each case, which may
vary from one to 10%. CSF may also be used for High Performance Concrete of
lower grades.

9) Ternary Blends: Ternary blends of mineral admixtures are now recommended for
improving the durability of important concrete structures. An outstanding example is
the Reconstruction of the New I-35 W St. Anthony Falls Bridge crossing the
Mississippi River in Minneapolis, US. The new bridge has been opened to traffic in
September 2008, less than 14 months after the collapse. HPC has been used for
reconstruction with a target 100 year life span. High Performance Concrete
containing silica fume and fly ash was used for low permeability.

10) Cement Silos: The use of batching plants for producing concrete is gaining
increasing acceptance. As large volumes of cement are used in a batching plant, the
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 2.63

cement is generally stored in vertical steel silos. When cement is received in bulkers
from the factory, the same is directly pneumatically pumped into the silos which have
capacities ranging from 50 to 500 tonne depending upon the project requirements. If
only bagged cement is available, they are emptied into the silos, usually with the help
of screw conveyors. For modern applications, more than one silo will be required
depending on the types of cement and mineral admixture used in the concrete mix.

In a recently commissioned batching plant complex in the Middle East, each of the
two plants feature nine cement silos for Portland cement, slag cement, micro silica,
fly ash and SRC cement.

11) Advanced Composite Reinforcement: In highly corrosive environments, the use of

advanced composite fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) is attractive as a replacement
for conventional steel reinforcements. While the FRP materials can be resistant to
corrosion, there is lack of ductility. At the moment FRP reinforcement in India is
quite expensive. The main market for FRP in India is for structural retrofit for
increasing the load capacity, to remedy construction defects or repair damages.

12) Application of Nano Technology: Reducing particle size of a material to nano–scale

often imparts new properties or enhances existing ones. This is typical of nano
particles of titanium dioxide, which maintains its photo-catalytic activity even when
mixed with cement. External cement based surfaces become strongly photo-catalytic,
leading to a much better appearance and a significant reduction in concentration of
pollutants in the surrounding air.

The photoactive titanium dioxide was found to be a more powerful photo-catalytic

agent when its particle size decreased to non-size. This makes it an ideal vehicle for
application in construction. A cement binder containing about 5% of active titanium
dioxide produces concrete with a smooth surface and also converts the pollutants,
removes them from the surrounding air. In a typical application on a building in
France completed in 2000, the quality of concrete surface have remained unchanged
till date. The structure looked as if it were freshly built (Fig 3.)

13) Cleaner Surfaces and Less Pollution: Mixing active titanium dioxide with cement
produces a binder that maintains its entire normal performance characteristic when
used to make concrete. The photocatalytic action makes the surfaces not only to a
significant self–cleaning; it also improves the quality of surrounding environment.
Using titanium dioxide in glass fiber reinforced concrete offers more efficient and
economical way to achieve the benefits of photocatalytics. The environmentally
active e-GRC offers the most economical way to achieve cleaner, brighter facades.

Applications for the e-GRC include:

i) Cladding panels and facades elements
ii) Permanent formwork and form liners
iii) Roofing tiles
iv) Motorway and Railway sound barriers
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.1

UNIT 3 Building Components

and Structure

3.1. FOUNDATION
3.1.1. Introduction
Foundation is a structural part of a building on which a building stands. Foundation
transmits and distributes its own load and imposed loads to the soil in such a way that the
load bearing capacity of the foundation bed is not exceeded.

3.1.1.1. Requirements of Good Foundation

Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements:
1) The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to
transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause
settlement which would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2) Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised,
specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
3) Foundations should be taken suficient1y deep to guard the building against damage
or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
4) Foundations should be so located that its performances may not be affected due to
any unexpected future influence.

3.1.2. Types of Foundation

Followings are the different types of foundation:

3.1.2.1. Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at shallow depth (upto 1.5m) is able
to support the structural loads. The depth of shallow foundations are generally less than
its width.

Followings are the different types of shallow foundation:

1) Strip Footing: A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is
also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread
footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A
strip footing is also known as continuous footing.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.2

Elevation

Plan
Figure 3.1: Strip Footing
2) Spread or Isolated Footing: A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is
provided to support an individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread
the load over a large area.

Elevation

Plan
Figure 3.2: Spread or
Isolated Footing

3) Combined Footing: A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the
two columns are so close to each other that their individual footings would overlap.
A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column
that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the
property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly
distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.3

Elevation

Plan
Figure 3.3: Combined Footing

4) Strap or Cantilever Footing: A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated
footings connected with a structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two
footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The
individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes through
the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a combined
footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between
the columns is large.

Elevation

Plan
Figure 3.4: Strap or Cantilever footing

5) Mat or Raft Foundations: A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a

number of columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part of the
structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the
columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch
each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-
homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual
columns.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.4

3.1.2.2. Deep Foundations

Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible
soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional
reasons.
Deep foundations are founded too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base
bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below
finished ground level.
Deep foundation can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at
depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Types of Deep Foundation

The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:
1) Basement foundation: These are hollow substructures designed to provide working
or storage space below ground level. The structural design is governed by their
functional requirements rather than from considerations of the most efficient method
of resisting external earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place in
open excavations.
2) Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations): Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures
designed to provide a buoyant or semi-buoyant substructure beneath which the net
loading on the soil is reduced to the desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be
designed to be sunk as caissons, they can also be constructed in place in open
excavations
3) Caissons foundations: Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed
on or near the surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.
4) Cylinders: Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.
5) Drilled Shaft foundations: Shaft foundations are constructed within deep
excavations supported by lining constructed in place and subsequently filled with
concrete or other pre-fabricated load-bearing units.
6) Pile foundations: Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members
constructed by driving preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or
drilling-in tubes to the required depth – the tubes being filled with concrete before or
during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which
are then filled with concrete.

3.1.2.3. Causes of Failure of Foundation

The foundations may fail due to the following reasons:
1) Unequal Settlement of Sub-Soil: Unequal settlement of the sub-soil may lead to
cracks in the structural components and rotation thereof. Unequal settlement of sub-
soil may be due to
i) Non-uniform nature of sub-soil throughout the foundation,
ii) Unequal load distribution of the soil strata, and
iii) Eccentric loading.

2) Unequal Settlement of Masonry: As stated earlier, foundation includes the portion

of the structure which is below ground level. This portion of masonry, situated
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.5

between the ground level and concrete footing (base) has mortar joints which may
either shrink or compress, leading to unequal settlement of masonry. Due to this, the
superstructure will also have cracks.

3) Sub-Soil Moisture Movement: This is one of the major causes of failures of

footings on cohesive soil, where the sub-soil water level fluctuates. When water table
drops down, shrinkage of sub-soil takes place. Due to this, there is lack of sub-soil
support to the footings which crack, resulting in the cracks in the building.

During upward movement of moisture, the soil (especially if it is expansive) swells

resulting in high swelling pressure. If the foundation and superstructure is unable to
resist the swelling pressure, cracks are induced.

4) Lateral Pressure on the Walls: The walls transmitting the load to the foundation
may be subjected to lateral pressure or thrust from a pitched roof or an arch or wind
action. Due to this, the foundation will be subjected to a moment (or resultant
eccentric load). If the foundation has not been designed for such a situation, it may
fail by either overturning or by generation of tensile stresses on one side and high
compressive stresses on the other side of the footing.

5) Lateral Movement of Sub-Soil: This is applicable to very soft soil, which are liable
to move out or squeeze out laterally under vertical loads, especially at locations
where the ground is sloping. Such a situation may also arise in granular soils where a
big pit is excavated in the near vicinity of the foundation. Due to such movement,
excessive settlements take place, or the structure may even collapse. If such a
situation exists, sheet piles should be driven to prevent the lateral movement or
escape of the soil.

6) Weathering of Sub-Soil due to Trees and Shrubs: Sometimes, small trees, shrubs
or hedge is grown very near to the wall. The roots of these shrubs absorb moisture
from the foundation soil, resulting in reduction of their voids and even weathering.
Due to this the ground near the wall depresses down. If the root penetrates below the
level of footing, settlements may increase, resulting in foundation cracks.

7) Atmospheric Action: The behaviour of foundation may be adversely affected due to

atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, and rains. If the depth of foundation is
shallow, moisture movements due to rains or drought may cause trouble. If the
building lies in a low lying area, foundation may even be scoured. If the water
remains stagnant near the foundation, it will remain constantly damp, resulting in the
decrease in the strength of footing or foundation wall.

Hence it is always recommended to provide suitable plinth protection along the

external walls by
i) Filling back the foundation trenches with good soil and compacting it,
ii) Providing gentle ground slope away from the wall and
iii) Providing a narrow, sloping strip of impervious material (such as of lime or lean
cement concrete) along the exterior walls.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.6

3.1.2.4. Preventive Steps to be Adopted to Avoid the Failure of

Foundation
It is noted that many foundation failures could be avoided if the design does take into
consideration of the most critical condition and adequate protection to ensure the integrity
of design in long-term.
1) The foundation shall be designed to withstand the most critical combination of loads
which the foundation may be subjected to during its service period.

Additional forces induced by down-drag effect of subsiding ground on piles, rising of

groundwater table on retaining wall and effect of wetting band on slope stability shall
also be considered.

2) The characteristics of foundation soil including its mode of failure shall be well
delineated for ensuring the most representative approach of analysis and valid
assumption in the design, e.g., cohesive or cohesionless soils, saturated or
unsaturated conditions, drained or undrained shearing, modes of failure and rapid or
slow application of loads, etc.

For the type of c-φ soil commonly found in Singapore except for the soft marine
deposits it is recommended that the bearing capacity of foundation soil should be
analysed and checked for both drained and undrained cases to determine its safe
bearing capacity. When compressible materials exist within influence zone of
foundation, settlement of the foundation should also be assessed to ensure that no
excessive settlement will be induced under the design foundation pressure.

3) Suitable types of field and laboratory tests shall be assigned based on the soil types,
existing and future stress conditions to determine the representative soil parameters.
It should be noted that cu and φu values of clay reported in some of local soil
investigation works do not truly represent the undrained shear strength of clay and
therefore are not recommended for foundation design.

4) For design of foundations located on slopes, the effect of ground profile on the
bearing capacity of foundation should be properly analysed to determine the possible
reduction of soil bearing capacity. Earth slopes supporting foundations of structures
should be adequately designed in terms of effective stress taken into consideration of
the most critical piezometric profile which may be induced by the critical rain storm
and the worst loading condition during its service period.

Adequate surface protection and drain system including surface and subsoil drains
shall be provided to prevent surface erosion and soil disturbance due to infiltration of
rainfall. The slope should possess adequate factor of safety against possible slip
failure in long-term.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.7

3.1.3. Bearing Capacity of Soil

In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads
applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact
pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in
the soil.

Determination of Bearing Capacity of Soil

Following are the two tests used to determine the bearing capacity of soil:
1) Field Tests: following are the field test:
i) Plate Load Test: The arrangement for plate load test is given in the figure 5.1.

All and
socket Loaded
arrangement platform

Head room for

person to sit
and observe
dial gauge

Dial gauge
As Required
Dial gauge
fixture
Test Plate or As Required PIT, strutted
block if necessary

Figure 5.1: Plate Load Test Arrangement

For this test, first a pit is made at the desired depth. A test plate is kept at the
centre of the pit. The load is applied in steps and the settlement noted. The
pressure versus settlement is then plotted. The ultimate bearing capacity is then
calculated. The safe bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by
factor of safety (2 or 2.5).
ii) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is an
in- situ testing method to determine the engineering properties of subsurface
soils. It is a simple test to estimate the relative density of soils and approximate
shear strength parameters.
In Standard Penetration Test (SPT) a standard thick-walled sampling tube is
driven into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide hammer
with standard weight and falling distance. The sampling tube is driven 150 mm
into the ground and then the number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate
each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of 450 mm (18 in) is recorded. The sum of the
number of blows required for the second and third 6 in (150 mm) of penetration
is reported as SPT blow value, commonly termed the “N-value”.
The N-value provides an indication of the relative density of the subsurface soil,
and it is used to estimate the approximate shear strength properties of the soils.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.8

Correlation between SPT (N value), Friction Angle, and Relative Density

Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and
Relative density (Meyerhoff 1956)
SPT N3 Soil packing Relative Density [%] Friction
[Blows/0.3 angle
m] [°]
<4 Very loose < 20 < 30
4 -10 Loose 20 - 40 30 - 35
10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35 - 40
30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40 - 45
> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45

2) Laboratory Tests: Undisturbed soil samples are collected from the field and tests
conducted in the laboratory to determine the shear strength of soil. Bearing capacity
is then calculated.

Presumptive Bearing Capacity

National Building Code has recommended safe bearing capacity for different soils.

Type of Soil Safe Bearing Capacity (kN/sq m)

Fine sand, silt 150
Medium clay 245
Soft rock 440

3.1.4. Settlement of Foundation

Settlement is the vertical displacement from its original level of placement. Settlement
has got several implications on a foundation.

The implications include:

1) Appearance of Structures: Settlement affects the appearance of structures. If a
structure settles excessively, its aesthetic is impaired. It causes doors and windows to
distort, walls and plasters to crack and the structure to tilt.
2) Utility of Structures: Settlement interfere the utility of structures in many ways. If
settlement is excessive overhead cranes do not operate correctly, machinery may go
out of plumb and tracking units such as radar become inaccurate.
3) Damage to the Structure: If the settlement is severe, it may lead to the complete
collapse of the structure even though the factor of safety against shear failure is high.

3.1.4.1. Types of Settlement

Structural rigidity, sub-soil conditions and the load to be transmitted by the foundation
affect settlement. On the basis of the movement of the foundation, settlement is
categorised into three main types, which are shown in figure 1. They are:
1) Uniform Settlement: A settlement is uniform, if all pans of the structure undergo
equal settlement as shown in figure l (a).

Uniform settlement occurs under a structure supported by a very rigid raft

foundation. If the settlement is uniform, the structural failure will not take place. For
example, several structures in Mexico City have suffered from very heavy
settlements but they are still functioning. This is due to the settlement being uniform.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.9

However, if the uniform settlement is very excessive its function is impaired. For
example, the utility services such as water supply and sewage lines, electric and
telephone poles, etc., may not function properly even the structure remain sound
structurally.

2) Tilt: It occurs when an entire structure rotates due to non-uniform settlement. The tilt
is shown in figure l (b).
3) Angular Distortion: When two foundations supporting columns/walls settle
unequally, the structure will be subjected to angular distortion as shown in figure l
(c). If Î′ is the difference between two foundations separated by a distance L, the
angular distortion is given by:
Angular distortion (&I&max − &I&min ) / L = Î′ / L
l l

ρ ρmin
ρmax δ
(a) (b) ρmin
ρmax
Figure 1: Types of Settlement (c)

3.1.5. Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation

All civil engineering structures whether they are buildings, dams, bridges etc. are built on
soils. A foundation is required to transmit the load of the structure on a large area of soil.

The foundation of the structure should be so designed that the soil below does not fail in
shear nor there is excessive settlement of the structure. The conventional method of
foundation design is based on the concept of bearing capacity.

The bearing capacity of foundation is the maximum load per unit area which the soil can
support without failure. It depends upon the shear strength of soil as well as shape, size,
depth and type of foundation.

A spread footing is simply an enlargement of a load-bearing wall or column that makes it

possible to spread the load of the structure over a larger area of the soil. In soil with low
loadbearing capacity, the size of thc spread lootings required is impracticably large. In
that case, it is more economical to construct the entire structure over a concrete pad.

The settlement increases linearly with load at the initial stage. On further increase in load,
the settlement increases more rapidly and then continues to increase without any
appreciable increase in load. This stage is called failure of foundation, i.e., the soil has
reached its capacity to bear load.

The sign of Bearing Capacity (B.C) and units as pressure’s unit ton/m2, kN/m2, kg/cm2,
etc.,… so can called Bearing Pressure.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.10

Important terminologies
Following are the important terminologies used in bearing capacities in shallow
foundation:

1) Gross Loading Intensity: Total pressure at the level of foundation including the
weight of superstructure, foundation, and the soil above foundation.
Qsuperstructure + Q Foundation + Qsoil
qg =
A Foundation

2) Net Loading Intensity: Pressure at the level of foundation causing actual settlement
due to stress increase. This includes the weight of superstructure and foundation only.
qn = qg – γDf

3) Ultimate Bearing Capacity: Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can
support against shear failure is called ultimate bearing capacity.

4) Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity: Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can
support at the level of foundation.
qnu = qu – γDf

5) Net Safe/Safe Bearing Capacity: Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can
safely support without the risk of shear failure.
q nu
q ns =
FOS

6) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity: Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can
safely support without the risk of shear failure.
qgs = qns + γDf

7) Safe Bearing Pressure: Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on
the soil without settlement exceeding the permissible limit.

8) Allowable Bearing Pressure: Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed
on the soil with no possibility of shear failure or settlement exceeding the permissible
limit.

3.2. BRICK MASONRY

3.2.1. Introduction
Brick masonry is construction in which uniform units (“bricks”), small enough to be
placed with one hand, are laid in courses with mortar joints to form walls. Bricks are kiln
baked from various clay and shale mixtures.

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together
by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common
materials of masonry construction are brick, building stone such as marble,
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.11

granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, and cob.
Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used,
the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are
assembled can significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A
person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer.

Advantages over Other Types of Masonry

Brick masonry is sometimes preferred over other types of masonry due to the following
reasons:
1) All the bricks are uniform size and shape, and hence they can be laid in any definite
pattern.
2) Brick units are light in weight and small in size. Hence these can be easily handled
by brick layers by hand.
3) Brick do not need any dressing.
4) The art of brick laying can be understood very easily, and even unskilled masons can
do the brick masonry. Stone masonry construction requires highly skilled masons.
5) Bricks are easily available at all sites. Due to this, they do not require transportation
from long distances.
6) Ornamental work can be easily done with bricks.
7) Light partition walls and filler walls can be easily constructed in brick masonry.

3.2.2. Different Terms Related to Bricks

1) Header
2) Stretcher
3) Frog
4) King Closer
5) Queen Closer
6) Bat
7) Course
8) Perpends

3.2.2.1. Header
It is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right angles to the face of the
work. In case of stone masonry header is sometimes known as through stone. The course
of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as headers is known as header course.

3.2.2.2. Stretcher
It is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel to the face of the work. The
course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers is known as stretcher
course.
3.2.2.3. Frog
It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object of forming a
key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of the brick also.

3.2.2.4. King Closer

These are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece between the
centre of one end and the centre of one side.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.12

3.2.2.5. Queen Closer

It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.

3.2.2.6. Bat
It is the portion of brick cut across the width.

3.2.2.7. Course
A course is a continuous horizontal layer of similarly-sized building material one unit
high, usually in a wall. The term is almost always used in conjunction with
unit masonry such as brick, cut stone, or concrete masonry units ("concrete block").

3.2.2.8. Perpends
Perpend stone (parpen, parpend, perpin, and other spellings), bond stone, or tie stone is a
structural element building term used by stonemasons and brick masons. Perpend is also a
piece in brickwork also called a cross joint or when extending through the entire wall a
transverse joint or perpend bond.
Usually stone walls are built with two layers of stone, an inner and an outer layer, with
the space between them sometimes filled with rubble. A perpend stone is a longer stone
that extended through the entire wall's width, from the outer wall to inner wall, which
serves to lock the two wall layers structurally together.

3.2.3. Bond
Bond is the method of arranging the bricks so that the individual bricks are joined
together in layers (courses) and that the vertical joints do not come in the same line.

Rules for Bonding

1) The lap should be at least ¼ th brick along the length and ½ brick across the
thickness of wall.
2) Brick bats should be used for the minimum.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.13

3) All bricks should be of same size and shape.

4) The vertical joints in alternate layers should be in the same line.
Method of Brick Laying
Brick laying is an art. Only a skilled mason can do the work efficiently. First clean the
surface over which the wall is to be built. Then spread 15 mm thick cement mortar over
the area. The corner of the wall is marked.
The first brick is laid at the corner over the mortar and pressed well. The other bricks are
laid subsequently. The corners are raised first and then the in-between portion is raised.

3.2.4. Types of Bond

Different types of bonds are:
1) Stretcher bond,
2) Header bond,
3) Facing bond,
4) English bond,
5) Flemish bond,
6) Dutch bond,
7) English cross bond,
8) Brick on edge bond,
9) Raking bond,
10) Zigzag bond, and
11) Garden wall bond.

Some of these bonds are explained below in detail:

1) Stretcher Bond: All bricks are arranged in stretcher course in this bond. The
following are some features of Stretcher bond:
i) All bricks laid in stretcher course create stretcher bond.
ii) This bond is useful for half brick wall/partition walls.
iii) There is no header in such walls.
iv) This bond does not develop proper internal bond or joint.
v) It should not be used for walls having thickness greater than half brick wall.

2) Header Bond: All bricks are arranged in header courses. The following are some
features of header bond:
i) This brick bond is used for curved surface in brick work because if stretcher is
used for curved surface, it would project beyond the face of wall.
ii) All bricks are arranged in header courses.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.14

3) English Bond: This bond is widely used and is considered as the strongest bond in brick
work. The following are some features of English bond:
i) Alternate courses/layers consist of stretcher and header.
ii) Queen closer is put next to quoin header to develop face lap.
iii) Each alternate course/layer of header is centrally supported over stretcher.
iv) The number of mortar joints in header course is nearly double than that made in
stretcher course.
v) The joints are not continuous and vertical except at the end of wall in some
cases.
vi) The bricks in alternate courses have straight joints.

4) Flemish Bond: This brick bond consists of alternate header and stretcher in each
course. The following are some features of flemish bond:
i) This bond creates better appearance than English Bond.
ii) The queen closer is put next to quoin header in alternate course to develop face
lap.
iii) Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.
iv) Half bats and three quarter bats are used for walls having thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks.
v) This bond is not as strong as english bond and is not used generally.

3.2.5. Beams
Any structure member which cross section is much smaller compare to its length and
undergoes lateral load, known as beam.

In other words beam is a horizontal bar witch undergoes lateral load or couple which
tends to bend it or a horizontal bar undergoes bending stress known as beam. Typically,
the width and depth are less than span/10.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.15

3.2.6. Classification of Beams

Beams are classified into several groups,

Classification of Beams

Depending on the kind of Depending on the position

supports of supports

Depending on the number of

supports

1) Depending on Kind of Supports

i) Simply supported beams having roller support at one end and a hinge or the pin
support at the other end. See figure 3.1 (a). Distance between supports is called
span of the beam.
ii) Cantilever: A cantilever has one end fixed and the other free, as shown in
figure 3.1 (b).
iii) Fixed Beams: A fixed beam or a built-up beam has both ends fixed as shown in
figure 3.1 (c).
iv) Propped Cantilever: A propped cantilever is fixed at one end and has a roller or
hinge at the other end as shown in figure 3.1 (d).

Hinged Roller Free Fixed

support support end end
(b) Cantilever
(a) Simply supported beam

Roller
Propped Fixed
end end
Fixed Fixed
(c) Fixed beam (d) Propped cantilever

Figure 3.1: Types of Beams Depending on the Kind of Supports

2) Depending on the Position of Support

i) Simply Supported Beams: Here supports are at the two ends of the beam. See
figure 3.2 (a).
ii) Over-Hanging Beams: Here a small portion of the beam over-hangs either one
or both supports of a simply supported beam. In figure 3.2 (b), the beam over-
hands on the left of the left support, while in figure 3.2 (c), the over-hang is one
the right end. In figure 3.2 (d), the beam over-hangs are at both ends.
iii) Propped Cantilevers: The two propped cantilevers are shown in figure 3.2 (e)
and (f).
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.16

C B
A B A
a1 a1 = length of over-
Supports at extreme ends hang on the left of A
(a) Simply supported beam (b) An over-hanging beam

B
A D C D

Span a2 a1 a2
a2 = length of over-hang on
the right of support B (d) An over-hanging beam with
over-hangs at both supports
(c) An over-hanging beam with over-
hangs on the right of right support

A B C
A B

(e) A propped cantilever with (f) A propped cantilever with

prop at A over-hangs at propped end

Figure 3.2: Types of Beams Depending on the Position of Supports

3) Types of Beams Depending on the Number of Supports: The minimum number of

supports is one, and that support should be fixed. Thus, we get a cantilever (table
3.1). The following table gives the details of beams depending on the number of
supports.
Table 3.1:
No. of Type of Figure of Beam Description of
Supports Supports Beam
One Fixed B Cantilever, stable
A and determinate.

Free Cantilever Fixed end

end
Two 1) One roller A B 1) Simply
end and the supported
other hinged beam stable
Roller Hinged and
support support determinate.
a) Simply Supported Beam
2) One end A B 2) Propped
fixed and cantilever,
other roller stable and
supported Roller support indeterminat
Fixed
(Propped end) e.
support
(b) Propped cantilever
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.17

3) One end A B 3) Propped

fixed and cantilever
other hinged stable and
Fixed indeterminat
Hinge
support e.
support
(c) Porpped cantilever
4) Both ends A B 4) Fixed beam,
fixed stable and
indeterminat
e.
Fixed Fixed
support support
(d) Fixed beam
5) One end on C A B 5) Over
roller hanging
support and beams,
the other on Hinge Roller stable and
hinge determinate
supported CA = over hang (i)
A B D

Hinge Roller
BD = over hang
(ii)
C D

A B
Hinge Roller
CA and BD = over hangs
(iii)
(e) Over hanging beams

More than Various Continuous

two combinations of beams, stable and
roller, hinge and Hinge Roller Roller indeterminate.
fixed supports (i)

Fixed Roller Hinge

(ii)
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.18

3.2.7. Column
There are various types of RCC Column based on its shape, length and forces. Function
and construction methods are discussed here for these types of column.

Column is a vertical member which takes complete load of the beam, slabs and the entire
structure and the floor and other area of the building is adjusted as per the requirement of
the client or owner.

The size of the columns, quantity of cement sand and aggregate to be mixed, the number
of steel bars to be placed, spacing between the stirrups is all mentioned in the structural
drawing which is designed by structural designer as per the actual load on the column and
considering the factor of safety.

A column is a vertical member which effectively takes load by compression. Basically

column is a compression member as load acts along its longitudinal axis. Bending
moment may occur due to wind earthquake or accidental loads.

Column transfers the load of the structure of slabs beams above to below, and finally load
is transferred to the soil. Position of the columns should be so that there are no tensile
stresses developed at the cross section of the columns. Columns location should be such
that it hides in the walls partially or fully.

3.2.8. Types of RCC Column

Followings the different types of RCC column on the basis of different aspects:
1) Types of RCC Column based on Shapes
i) Circular for exposed outside for good architecture view
ii) Square or rectangular traditional for any structure

2) Types of RCC Column based on length

i) Short Column – if L/B<=12
ii) Long Column – if L/B > 12
Where L is the height of the column, B is width

Generally, floor height is approximately 3 m or 10 feet, L/B ratio will be less than 12, so
in maximum cases short column is placed. In case where height of floor is more than 3 m
or 10 feet, we need to check L/B ratio so result may be long or short column. Generally,
on long column there are more forces generated so should be designed carefully.

3) Types of RCC Column based on moments

i) Biaxial Column: Designed for axial load and moment in 2 directions
ii) Uniaxial Columns: Designed for axial load and moment in 1 direction

Generally, in a building corner most columns are biaxial columns and side column is
uniaxial column and internal columns can be any of these.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.19

3.2.9. Stone Masonry

Masonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at
times simple, but some of considerable complexity and then arranging the resulting
stones, often together with mortar, to form structures.

Classification / Types of Stone Masonry

Types of Stone Masonry are given below:
1) Rubble Masonry: When roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is
stone rubble masonry.
2) Ashlar Masonry: Well-arranged and cut stones set in mortar.

Stone Masonry

Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry

Coarsed Rubble Masonry Ashlar Fine Masonry

Un-Coarsed Rubble Masonry Ashlar Chamfered

Random Rubble Masonry Ashlar Facing

Advantages of Stone Masonry

1) Stone Fences are durable and Stable: Stone fences are practically immune to even
the most disastrous forces of nature. Rain, wind, sleet, snow and summer heat will
have little to no effect on a stone fence. They do not rot. Insects like termites, ants
and other creepy crawlies do not disturb the sanctity of the structure of a stone fence.
If you have a fire, it may dis-colour the stone fence, but it would not destroy it.
2) Stone Fences are Aesthetically Pleasing: Stone fences are beautiful and their
construction is like the creation of a piece of artwork. The professionals, like those
found at B.C. Fence, carefully fit the stones together so that they do not fall. It is said
that the shape and the weight of a stone determines where it is placed.
3) Stone Fences are made from Basic Building Materials: Stone fences are made
from natural materials. They are often easy to find and inexpensive or even free.
For example, if you have a property filled with rock and boulders that blend
with your existing landscape, you can use these stones for your stone fence
building. You can also purchase stones of varying types at different costs. They
are usually cheaper than other fence materials. The adhesives can be bought at a
lumber yard or building centre for just a few dollars. If your fence is dry-stacked,
then you do not even need the adhesive.
4) Stone Fences are Easy to Maintain: Because they are so durable, this type of fence
requires little to no maintenance. They will hold up to any type of weather as we
mentioned before. They will maintain their natural look despite what the elements
throw at it. Some stone fences will last more than a hundred years. You do not need
to paint or seal them either.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.20

Disadvantages of Stone Masonry

1) Stone Fences cannot be Easily Altered: A stone fence cannot be changed on a
whim. It is pretty much guaranteed to remain in the same form for the life of the
fence. You cannot paint them because the paint would not adhere to the rocks.
Adding more stone to the fence will create a mismatched look because it would not
be weather-beaten like the existing stone. It just would not blend. Besides adding to a
stone fence can make it look uneven and even ruin the aesthetic of the existing
structure.
2) Stone Fences are Difficult to Repair or Relocate: Stone fences are difficult but not
impossible to damage. When damage occurs either due to a natural disaster or a
collision of some sort, it is costly to repair or replace the missing stones. Stone
masons are expensive to hire because they do such specialised work. These types of
fences cannot be moved without a major undertaking of labour. They are also
difficult to re-assemble. It would be wiser to start over than attempt to realign the
stones to their former positions. Trying to move a stone fence is a logistical
nightmare. It is virtually impossible to recreate the structure in a new location.
3) Stone Fences take a Lot of Time to Build: If you want to build a stone fence, it will
be a time-consuming and pain-staking process. Not many people can construct these
fences like we can at B.C. Fence. Builders must take the time to find the right stones,
haul them to the location and determine how they fit together. This can be an arduous
process and not one meant for the do-it-yourself.

3.2.10. Difference between Stone and Brick Masonry

Table 4.2: Comparison between Brick and Stone Masonry
Brick Masonry Stone Masonry
1) Construction of brick masonry is quick Whereas, the dressing and handling of
as the uniform size and regular shape of stone need more time and extra labour in
bricks facilitates in maintaining proper the construction of stone masonry.
alignment.
2) Skilled labour is not required Highly skilled labour is required than the
Stone masonry.
3) Brick masonry is not water tight as Stone masonry is more water-tight than the
Stone masonry. brick masonry.
4) Brick masonry does not give massive Stone masonry gives a massive appearance
appearance as compared to stone and hence used for monumental works.
masonry.
5) Bricks can be conveniently moved by The use of stone masonry is only appliance
manual labour. are restricted to handle the stone blocks.

6) The brick masonry is more fire-resisting Stone masonry is less fire-resisting than
than stone masonry. Brick masonry.
7) Brick masonry may be damaged by Generally stone masonry is not damaged
chemical present in the environment and by chemicals present in the environment
salts present in water or sewage. and salts present in water or sewage
8) Brick masonry does not possesses Stone masonry possesses higher strength,
higher strength, durability and weather durability and weather resisting quantities
resisting quantities than Stone masonry. than brick masonry.
9) Brick masonry has lesser crushing Stone has higher crushing strength than
strength than Stone masonry. Hence not brick. This makes stone suitable for the
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.21

suitable for the construction of dams, construction of dams, piers, docks and
piers, docks and other marine structures. other marine structures.

3.2.11. Lintels
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings like doors, windows,
etc. It takes the load coming from the structure above it and gives support. It is also a type
beam, the width of which is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of which are built
into the wall. These are very easy to construct as compared to arches.

A lintel is a structural horizontal block that spans the space or opening between two
vertical supports. It can be a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented
structural item. It is often found over portals, doors, windows and fireplaces.

3.2.11.1. Types of Lintels Used in Building Construction

Lintels are classified based on the material of construction as:
1) Timber or Wood Lintel: In olden days of construction, timber lintels were mostly
used. But now-a-days they are replaced by several modern techniques, however in
hilly areas these are using. The main disadvantages with timber are more cost, less
durable and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then lintel is provided by jointing multiple numbers
of wooden pieces with the help of steel bolts which was shown in figure (a). In case
of wider walls, lintel is composed of two wooden pieces kept at a distance with the
help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes, timber lintels are strengthened by
the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as flitched lintels.

Elevation
A Selection A-A
(a) Simple Lintel

Packing Piece

Plan B
Selection B-B
(b) Built-up Lintel
Figure

These lintels consist of pieces of timber which are placed across the opening. The
timber lintels are the oldest types of lintels and they have become obsolete except in
hilly areas or places where timber is easily available.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.22

Important features of wood lintels are as follows:

i) A bearing of about 150mm to 200mm should be provided on the wall and the
ends of lintel should be placed on mortar so as to create a level and firm bearing.
ii) The width of lintel should be equal to the thickness of the opening and the depth
of lintel should be about 1/12 to 1/8 of the span with a minimum value of 80mm.
iii) The wood lintels are liable to be destroyed by fire and also are liable to decay, if
not properly ventilated. Hence sound and hard timber like teak should be used in
the construction of wood lintels and a coat of suitable preservative should be
applied.
iv) The wood lintels are comparatively weak and relieving arches of brick or stone
should therefore be provided.
v) The wood lintels help in securing the beads of frames of timber doors and
windows.
vi) If wood lintel is to be sued for larger spans, it is necessary to design it as a
timber beam simply supported at its ends.

2) Stone Lintel: These are the most common types of lintels especially where stone is
abundantly available. The thickness of these are most important factor of its design.
These are also provided over the openings in brick walls. Stone lintels are provided
in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece.

The depth of this type is kept equal to 10cm/meter of span, with a minimum value of
15cm. They are used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure subjected to vibratory
loads, cracks are formed in the stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence
caution is needed.

Elevation Section
Figure

3) Brick Lintel: When the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting, brick
lintels are used. The depth of brick lintel varies from 10cm to 20cm, depending upon
the span. Bricks with frogs are more suitable than normal bricks because frogs when
filled with mortar gives more shear resistance of end joints. Such lintel is known as
joggled brick lintel.

Opening

Figure
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.23

4) Steel Lintel: If the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large, then one
can go for steel lintels. These lintels consist of channel sections or rolled steel joists.
We can use one single section or in combinations depending upon the requirement.

When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with stone
facing to keep the width same as width of wall. When more than one unit are placed
side by side, they are kept in position by tube separators.

R.S.J. Lintel

(a) Elevation

Pipe separator
Stone
lintel

(a) Concrete (b) Stone (c) Multiple

embedment facing units
Figure

5) Reinforced Concrete Lintel: At present, the lintels of R.C.C. are widely used to
span the openings for doors, windows, etc. in a structure because of their strength,
rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease in construction. R.C.C. lintels are suitable
for all the loads and for any span. The width of lintel is equal to width of wall. Depth
of lintel is dependent of length of span and magnitude of loading.

Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom and half of these bars are cranked at
the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse shear as shown in figure
below:

Stirrups
Main
reinforcement

(a) Longitudinal section (b) Cross-section

Figure
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.24

6) Reinforced Brick Lintel: If loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m, then
reinforced brick lintels are useful. The depth of reinforced brick lintel should be
equal to 10cm or 15cm or multiple of 10cm. The bricks are so arranged that 2 to 3cm
wide space is left length-wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild steel
bars as reinforcement. The 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps. Vertical
stirrups of 6mm diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement
is provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at
the ends.

third vertical joint

Stirrups Brick Stirrups @ Ev
Main
reinforcement
(a) Longitudinal Section (b) Cross-Section

Figure

3.2.12. Roof
A roof is the uppermost part of a building whose main function is to enclose the space and
to protect the same from the effects of weather elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and
snow.

Function of Roof
A good roof is just as essential as a safe foundation. As a well-designed foundation
secures the building against destruction starting at the bottom, similarly a good roof
affords protection for the building itself and what the building contains and prevents
deterioration starting from the top.

Roofing Materials
1) Tile Roofing Materials
i) When installing a new roof or re-covering an old roof, you will need to choose
tile roofing materials to ensure protection from the weather and general debris.
ii) An additional possibility for shed roofing materials is clay tile. This is a good
option if the individual wants a custom look as the tiles come in a wide range of
styles and colours.
2) Roofing Materials Shingles
i) Such tile roofing materials will be more expensive than asphalt, but cedar shingles
will also be more durable and in some cases longer lasting.
ii) These include wood shingles, corrugated iron, mineral roof felt, standing seam metal,
and clay tiles. Wood shingles are one of the more traditional shed roofing materials.
There are a few varieties available, including white cedar and red cedar.
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.25

3) Corrugated Roofing Materials

i) If low cost is a primary concern, you can purchase corrugated plastic roofing
materials. These usually come in panels which can be nailed or screwed down to
larger areas of the roof.
ii) Corrugated roofing is a low-cost roofing material which comes in large panels
that are designed to be easy to install while providing weather resistance.
4) Rubber Roofing Materials
i) Other types of roofing materials include rubber and mixed material. Rubberised roofs are
energy efficient and can be used for any shape of roof, but are not intended for areas that
receive a high volume of rain or snow.There are several important benefits to using a
membrane roofing system instead of traditional roofing materials. A classic asphalt roof is
prone to leaks simply due to its construction.
5) Copper Roofing Material
i) Many times, church and religious buildings use copper roofing materials because
it gives the buildings a majestic appearance.
ii) This has given rise to a brisk copper roof trade in used materials. Often, a copper
roof will outlast the structure it covers, and that roof is often purchased by
salvage companies who will re-sell it to homebuilders or individuals.

3.2.13. Plastering
Plastering is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction
of houses and other structures with a plastic material, called plaster, which is a mixture of
lime or cement concrete and sand along with the required quantity of water.

Requirements of Good Plaster

1) It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered during all climatic
changes.
2) It should be cheap and economical.
3) It should be hard and durable.
4) It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
5) It should effectively check the entry or penetration of moisture from the surfaces.
6) It should possess good workability.

Purpose of Plastering
1) It is to provide an even, smooth, regular surface for improve the appearance.
2) In order to protect the surfaces free from the effects of atmospheric agencies,
plastering is required.
3) To conceal the defective work man ship and to provide a satisfactory base for white
washing, colour washing, painting or distempering.

Precautions before Applying the Plaster

1) Never work in direct sun. Plastering should be protected from the sun and drying
winds.
2) The plaster should be used up within two hours of being mixed and never be re-
tempered by mixing in additional water.
3) Ensure that plaster is not continuous across the line of a damp-proof course. Plaster
should be cut through to the substrate where different substrate materials meet, e.g.,
masonry and concrete.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.26

Procedure for Applying Plaster

1) For accurate work, apply screed strips before the wall is plastered. These are narrow
strips of plaster along the perimeter of the wall, or at suitable intervals on the wall,
that act as guides for the striker board.
2) Using a rectangular plasterer’s trowel, push plaster onto the wall or ceiling using
heavy pressure to compact the plaster and ensure full contact with the substrate. The
plaster should be slightly proud of the intended surface.
3) Once the plaster starts to stiffen, it should be struck off to a plane (or curved) surface
using a light striker board. Material removed in this way should be discarded.
4) If plaster is to be applied in more than one coat, the undercoat(s) should be scored
with roughly parallel lines about 20mm apart and 5mm deep. The purpose of scoring
is twofold – to provide a key for the next coat and to distribute cracking so that it is
less noticeable.
5) For the final coat, use a wood float to remove ridges made by the striker board. At
the same time fill in any depressions and float flush with the surrounding plaster.
6) If a very smooth texture is required, a steel trowel may be used on the surface. Such
surface is however not generally recommended because it tends to craze and show up
imperfections.
7) Various decorative finishes are also possible. Techniques include brushing, flicking
plaster onto the surface and lightly floating, etc.

3.2.14. Difference between Plastering and Pointing

Plastering Pointing
1) Mortar is applied to the full surface of Only joints are filled properly.
the structure.
2) In plastering, lime and cement mortar In pointing, only cement mortar is used.
are used.
3) Plaster is applied in both inside and Done only at the outside part.
outside.
4) More materials are needed. Less materials are needed.
5) The surface becomes plain. The surface is not plain like plaster.
6) Not possible to see the defects of The masonry work can be seen fully.
masonry.
7) Plaster can be applied to all brick Pointing only can be done to first class
surface. brick surface.

3.2.15. Various Defects in Plastering

Followings are the various defects in plastering:
1) Cracking: Formation of cracks in plaster work due to:
i) Old surface not being properly prepared.
ii) Movements in the backing material due to thermal expansion as shrinkage
caused by drying of backing material. To avoid this, backing material should be
allowed to dry properly before plastering.
iii) Movements in plaster due to expansion (gypsum plaster) as shrinkage (lime sand
plaster) during drying.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.27

iv) Excessive shrinkage of plaster due to application of thick coat of mortar.

v) Workmanship and the method of application of plaster. Rough tinctured finishes
know less cracking than smooth finishes

2) Blowing as Blistering: Formation of small patches of plaster swelling out beyond

the plastered surface due to improper cracking of line plaster. The unslaked particles,
after application of plaster, start slaking and thus defect takes place. Therefore,
properly slaked line should be used.

3) Falling Out of Plaster: Due to:

i) Adhesion of the plaster to the background may not be perfect.
ii) Suction of the backing material may not be uniform. At places where backing
material absorbs excessive amount of water, plaster loses its strength and
mechanical bond between surfaces.
iii) Bond between successive coats of plaster may not be perfect.
iv) Inadequate curing of plaster.

4) Efflorescence: If soluble salts are present in brick or mortar, they absorb moisture
and go into solution, which appears on the surface as the whitish substance at the
moisture dries out and salts crystallise. It can occur on brickwork or plaster.

It gives a bad appearance and affects the adhesion of paint with the wall surface.
Efflorescence on surface can be removed to some extent by brushing as washing
repeatedly. In case of brickwork it can be removed by applying a solution of zinc
sulphate and water and then brushing of the surface when dry.

5) Flaking: Formation of loose mass of plastered surfaces, due of poor bond between
successive coats.
6) Peeling: Complete dislocation of portions of plastered surface resulting in formation
of pitch due to poor bond between successive coats.
7) Crazing: Formation of series of hair cracks due for seasons which cause cracking.
8) Popping: Formation of conical hole in plastered surface due to presence of some
particles which expands on setting.
9) Rust Strains: Formed when plaster is applied on metal laths.
10) Uneven Surface: Due to poor workmanship.

3.2.16. Floor Area

Floor area (building) (FA) is a building, architecture, and real estate term referring to the
amount of area (measured as square feet or square metres) taken up by a building or part
of it.
This is the usable covered area of the building at any floor level. To get floor area,
the area of walls shall be deducted from the plinth area to arrive at the floor area.
The following shall be included in the wall area:
1) Door and other opening in the wall,
2) Internal pillars and supports,
3) Plaster along walls exceeding 300cm2 in area, and
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.28

4) Flues which are within the walls.

5) The following shall be excluded from the wall area:
6) Plaster along walls each not exceeding 300cm2 in area,
7) Fire place projecting beyond the face of the wall in living or bedrooms, and
8) Challah platforms projecting beyond the wall of kitchen.

3.2.17. Carpet Area

As the name suggests, carpet area means the area of the property where one can lay one’s
carpet, measured wall to wall. This is the actual area, which one can call his personal
space and one should be really concerned about.
Areas included in carpet area:
1) All Rooms – Living room, bedrooms, dining room, dressing room, other rooms like
Kitchen and Bathrooms, Stores and Balconies.
2) Areas not included in carpet area:
3) External and Internal walls.
1) Common Areas.
This is the floor area of the usable rooms at any floor level.
The carpet area of any floor shall be the floor area worked as per floor area and
exclude the following portions of the building:
i) Sanitary accommodations,
ii) Verandahs,
iii) Corridors and passages,
iv) Kitchen and pantries ,
v) Stores in domestic buildings,
vi) Entrance hall and porches,
vii) Staircases and mumties,
viii) Shafts for lifts,
ix) Barsaties,
x) Garages,
xi) Canteens, and
xii) Air-conditioning ducts and air-conditioning plant rooms.

3.2.18. Floor Space Index

FSI stands for Floor Space Index also known as Floor Area Ratio (FAR). FSI means the
ratio between the area of a covered floor (Built up Area) to the area of that plot (land) on
which a building stands.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.29

This numeric value indicates the total amount of area (on all floors) you can build upon a
plot.

Floor space covered in all floors

FSI =
Area of the plot
Floor Space Index (FSI)

Floor Space Index (FSI)

Area of Floor

Ratio of the area of the floor to

the area of the plot Reservoir

Figure: Floor Apace Index (FSI) is the ratio of the area of

the floor to the area of the plot on which a building stands.
In some cities, FSI is known of Floor Area Ratio (FAR).

Calculation Floor Space Index for Building

FSI regulates by Directorate of Town and Country Planning (DTCP) department. They
will regulate the FSI value based on city zone, type of building and other amenities.
Construction companies or builders can only build up to the FSI imposed by the
government.
FSI x Plot Area = Built-up Area

Example: ) Calculate plinth area, floor area and carpet area for the plan of a
building given below – wall thickness is 30cm.(June 2016, 8)

Ans: Carpet Area

= 3.5 × 3 + 3 × 3 + 3.5 × 2 + 3 × 2
= 10.5 + 9 + 7 + 6
= 32.5m2
7.6m

Room Room
3.5 × 2m 3.5 × 2m
6.2m
Verandah
W/C and both 3 × 2m
3.5 × 2m
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.30

Plinth Area
Carpet Area + External Wall + Internal Wall
= 32.5 + [2 × 7.6 × 0.3 + 2 × (6.2 – 0.3 × 2) × 0.3] + [5 × 0.3 + 3.5 × 0.3 × 2 + (3 – 0.9) ×
0.3 + (3.5 – 0.75) × 0.3 + 2 × 3 × 0.3 + 3 × 0.3]
= 32.5 + 7.92 + 7.76
= 48.18m2 = 48.18m2

Floor Area
= 7.6 × 6.2 = 47.12m2

3.2.19. Bridges
A bridge is a structure which allows passage over an obstruction. The obstructions may be
river, valley, rail route or road way, etc.

3.2.20. Types of Bridges

There are various types of bridges classified based on span, materials, types of bridge
structures, functions, utility and position, etc.

Bridges are classified into so many types based on different criteria. They are explained
below:
1) Types of Bridges based on Type of Super Structure
i) Arch Bridge: It is curve-shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed
and is restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many
types of arch bridges are there. In some cases, the arch may be under the deck
slab also.

Or
Light green = Thrust line

In order for an arch bridge to work it needs to have firm

foundations, to allow all the members to push back against
each atones. The arch needs to be within a thrust line to
stay rigid + supportive. This can be found by hanging a
chain off the gap then mirroring it (light blue dotted line)

Figure: Arch Bridge

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.31

ii) Girder Bridge: In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of
girders. The girder may be of rolled steel girder or plate girder or box girder.
Load coming from the deck are taken by girder and transferred them to the piers
and abutments.
iii) Truss Bridge: Truss is member consisting connected elements to form
triangular units. In case of truss bridge the super structure is provided with
trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel. There are several types of trusses
are available.

Compression Truss bridges are kept strong by the

Tension stiffness of the structure. All the
Forces beams/members work together to
spread out the load
Figure: Truss Bridge

iv) Suspension Bridge: In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with
the help of cables and suspenders. These will give good appearance. For long
span bridges, this type of suspension is suitable.

Red = Load path

4a) Cable-stayed
bridge

Green = Support

4b) Suspension
Bridge

Suspension bridges allow for the longest spans. The bed of the
bridge can be continuors, and is held up by cables stretched
between piers. In the top bridge, these cables are rigid + directly
connected to the bridge deck. In the bottom bridge, they hang
vertically off another cable supported by the piers
Figure: Suspension Bridge

2) Types of Bridges based on Materials

i) Timber Bridge: Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges.
These are generally constructed for short spans or as temporary bridges. They
are not useful for heavy loads.
ii) Masonry Bridge: Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These
are generally constructed for short spans and in low depth canals.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.32

iii) Steel Bridge: Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel
cables. These are more durable and bear heavy loads.
iv) R.C.C Bridge: R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced cement concrete.
These are more stable and durable. They can bear heavy loads and are widely
using nowadays.
v) Pre-stressed Concrete Bridge: If concrete material is placed under compression
before applying the loads, then it is called as pre-stressed concrete. To construct
pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-stressed concrete blocks are arranged as deck
slab with the help of girders. These blocks are suitable for shorter span to longer
span bridges.

3) Types of Bridges based on Span

i) Culvert Bridge: When the bridge span length is below 6meters then it is called
as Culvert Bridge.
ii) Minor Bridge: If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters, then it is
called minor bridge.
iii) Major Bridge: For major bridge, the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.
iv) Long Span Bridge: When the span of bridge is more than 120 meters then it is
termed as long span bridge.

4) Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing

i) Over Bridge: To pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is
constructed to allow traffic. This is called over bridge or fly over bridge.
ii) Under Bridge: If over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is
constructed to pass another route. This is called under bridge.

5) Types of Bridges based on Function

i) Foot Bridge: Foot Bridge is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads
or rail route or any canal by foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.
ii) Highway Bridge: High way or road Way Bridge is used for road transportation.
These are constructed over rivers or another routes to allow road way traffic.
Girder type bridges are used as highway bridges over rivers or canals.
iii) Railway Bridge: Rail bridges are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type
bridges are preferred for railways but how ever R.C.C bridges are also used.
iv) Aqueduct Bridge: Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water carrying bridges
which are constructed to transport water from source to system.

6) Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation

i) Simple Bridge: Simple bridge is like simply supported beam type which consist
two supports at its ends. For shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.
ii) Continuous Bridge: If the bridge span is very long, then we have to build more
supports in between end supports. This type of bridge is termed as continuous
bridge.
iii) Cantilever Bridge: Cantilever type of bridge have only supported at one end
and another end is free to space. Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to
make way to the vehicles or humans.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.33

7) Types of Bridges based on Utility

i) Temporary Bridge: During construction of dams or bridges or during floods,
temporary bridges are constructed at low cost for temporary usage. These
bridges are maintained at low cost. After construction of original structure
temporary bridges are dismantled. Generally timber is used to construct
temporary bridges.
ii) Permanent Bridge: These bridges are constructed for long term use and
maintained at high level. Steel or R.C.C bridges are come under this category.

8) Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor

i) Deck Bridge: In case of Deck Bridge, super structure or floor of bridge is
positioned in between the high flood level and formation level.

ii) Through Bridge: In case of through bridge, Super structure of bridge is

completely above the formation level.

iii) Semi-Through Bridge: If the super structure of bridge is partly above and
partly below the formation level, then it is called as semi-through bridge.

9) Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL)

i) Low Level Bridge: The super structure of bridge is generally below high flood
level. So, whenever floods occurred these are submersed in water. So, these are
also called as submersible bridges. These are generally constructed for
unimportant routes with low cost.
ii) High Level Bridge: High level bridge is non-submersible against floods. It is
well above the high flood level and constructed in important routes.

3.2.21. Dam
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a
reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. These purposes
may be Irrigation, Hydro-power, Water-supply, Flood Control, Navigation, Fishing and
Recreation. Dams may be built to meet the one of the above purposes or they may be
constructed fulfilling more than one. As such, it can be classified as: Single-purpose and
Multipurpose Dam.

Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

1) Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing
a roadway or walkway over the dam.
2) Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on
the crest.
3) Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
4) Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
5) Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for
the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
6) Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right
end of dam are fixed to.
7) Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.34

These are generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage
holes. These may also be used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the
performance of dam.
8) Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir.

Upstream side Downstream side

Parapet walls
MWL Spill way (Inside
Max level dam)

Normal Crest
water level
Free Board Sluice
way
Gallery

Heel
Toe
Figure: Illustration of Dam-Ports in a Typical Cross Section

9) Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top
of the structure.
10) Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.
11) Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to
bypass the dam construction site. The hydraulic structures are built while the river
flows through the diversion tunnel.

3.2.22. Classification of Dams

Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification i.e.
types of dams are mentioned below:

Based on the functions of dams, it can be classified as follows:

1) Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when
there is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for
later use in dry summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or
improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage dams are the most
common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified
otherwise.

2) Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water
of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure
for pushing water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter
dams are used for irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage
reservoir.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.35

It is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The
diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and has a small
storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used synonymously.

3) Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam
retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood
water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained
in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according to the
carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area
downstream of the dam is protected against flood.

4) Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and
drift wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam
is relatively clear.

5) Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude

water so that the construction can be done in dry. A coffer dam is thus a temporary
dam constructed for facilitating construction. These structures are usually constructed
on the upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel)
during the construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during construction of
hydraulic structures is not much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and
pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.

3.2.23. Water Supply

Water supply system is a network of pipelines of various sizes with control valves for
carrying water to all streets and supplying water to the consumers.

Water Supply
System

Continuous – Water Intermittent –Water is

is available 24 hours supplied for few
a day and seven hours every day or
days a week alternate days

Figure 1.4: Objectives of

Water Supply System

Objectives of Water Supply System

The quintessential objective of water supply system is to supply water equitably to the
consumers with sufficient pressure so as to discharge the water at the desired location
within the premises.

Components of Water Supply Project or Water Supply Scheme

There are four components of water supply project or water supply scheme, which are
discussed below:
1) Collection Works: In collection works, water is collected from the source. There are
two major source of water.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.36

i) Surface water and

ii) Ground water

In order to collect surface water, dams and barrages are constructed whereas to
collect ground water, tube wells are used.

2) Treatment Works: In treatment works, water obtained through the source is treated.
Most of the surface water need treatment as it is contaminated by suspended
particles. Ground water may or may not need treatment. One of the problems with
ground water is high salt concentration. It is more expensive to treat this. In such case
surface water is used, when ground water contains high salt concentration. Ground
water may also contain elements like iron, magnesium.

If collected water is contaminated with pathogens, it must be treated to kill the germs.
So treatment works may or may not be the part of water supply project.

3) Transmission Works: If source of water is away from the community, transmission

work is required to transport water the treatment plant and then the treated water
from treatment plant to the community. In some cases, transmission work may be
eliminated.

4) Distribution Works: In Distribution works, treated water is supplied to the

consumers at the point of use from overhead tanks.

Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply System

1) City/General
Source (River)
Intake
Pump
Transmission
Water Treatment Main

Reservoir

Consumer Distribution
Area System

Figure :

2) Hilly Area/Rural Area

Spring (Source)

BPC/BPT-Break
Pressure Tank/Chamber

Reservoir

Public Stand Post/Public

Tap Stand

Figure:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.37

3) Terai Area

Well
(Source)

Pump

Reservoir

Figure:

Source of Water
Water is an essential for life on earth. In fact, around two thirds of the human body is
made up of water – that is how important it is for us.

There are various different sources of water out there in the world, and below you will
find in depth information on our main water sources.
1) Rivers and Streams: Rivers and streams are a source of fresh (i.e. not salty) water.
Collecting water from rivers is still a widespread practice. Often it will need to be
treated to be safe for drinking. The rivers that we see above ground originate
underground, and burst through to the surface of the earth as springs.

2) Lakes: Lakes are still bodies of (usually fresh) water. They are replenished by the
rain and often by rivers and streams, too. Some lakes are natural lakes, forming in
valleys in hilly or mountainous regions. Others are man-made. A good example of a
man-made lake is a quarry lake. When land is quarried, a large basin remains cut
away from the earth. Once it fills with water, this can form a lake. Again, lakes have
long provided humans with a source of drinking and washing water.

3) Sea: Sea water is salty. Our oceans and seas are, combined, very much the largest
water source on earth. Home to many weird and wonderful creatures and ripe for
exploration, the sea is essential for biodiversity on earth.

4) Rain water: Rainwater falls naturally over all of our planet, except in the very
harshest and driest deserts. Rainwater in rural areas is usually safe to drink, though in
the cities rainwater can be contaminated by the pollutants found in vehicle and
factory fumes rendering it highly acidic. Nevertheless, rainwater is an abundant
source of water for watering plants and crops.

5) Wells: Water from wells tends to be very fresh and clean, and they have been a
source of water for many centuries. Usually man made, wells are deep shafts dug into
the earth until water is found. Well water is generally thought to be clear and
uncontaminated – as long as the well is dug down very deep.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.38

6) Reservoirs: Reservoirs are like artificial lakes created by humans to collect either
rain water or river water. The water in a reservoir is typically treated in a water
treatment plant until it is safe to drink and then piped off to people’s homes for them
to use in the form of tap water.

3.2.24. Quality of Water

Water qualities are measurements of the characteristics of water, which can include
chemical, biological, physical, and radiological characteristics. This is usually
measured relative to human needs, though it can also be looked at in terms of how the
quality of water affects animal and plant ecosystems.
Important Qualities of Water
Followings are the different qualities of water:
1) pH Value: A water sample's pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the water is.
Good quality water should be close to neutral, which is a pH of 7. Numbers bigger
than that are alkaline, and numbers smaller than that are acidic. Strong acids are
caustic, and strong alkalis are corrosive.

Acids burn away at your tissues and cause pain, whereas alkalis get absorbed into
tissues, but either way they cause a lot of damage. Neutral water is easier for the
body to handle. If a water of pH is off, it's because of other things being mixed in the
water. Slightly alkali water is usually due to minerals and is probably fine.
2) Heavy Metals: They are metal that have high density, and usually refers to toxic
heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, arsenic and lead, that have got into the water
due to nearby factories or old lead piping. These toxic materials are really bad for
you, so it's important that water contain as few of them as possible.
3) Radon: It is a radioactive element that is bad for humans, and can sometimes be
found in water supplies. Some radioactive material is natural because it's found in
many rocks underground, and this especially happens when water is supplied from
underground. Radon can cause the development of cancers in humans, and so is best
avoided.
4) Drug Content: It refers to the amount of pharmaceutical drugs found in the water.
These can find their way into water supplies due to factories pumping waste products
into the water, and due to farmers giving drugs to their livestock. They have all kinds
of mixed effects on humans which are often poorly researched and hard to predict.
There are other indicators that might be important in terms of the health of non-
human ecosystems too, like turbidity (transparency), dissolved oxygen, suspended
solids, temperature, and presence of particular kinds of bacteria.
Turbidity and dissolved oxygen are two measures that are particularly important for
water-based animals.
5) Turbidity: It is a measure of how clear the water is: how many particles like sand,
silt, clay, algae and others are found in the water. Some animals prefer clearer water,
and some are healthier in cloudy water. Humans prefer their water clear, and most
governments have rules on how cloudy water can be.
6) Dissolved Oxygen: It is mostly about non-human animals, and determines how easy
it is for fish to breathe through their gills. Entire populations of fish can be killed if
dissolved oxygen gets too low: dissolved oxygen varies with temperature, water
speed and roughness. Since we don't breathe water, it doesn't really affect us, though
we do find water high in oxygen to taste better. Most human water supplies are low
in dissolved oxygen because it damages water pipes over time.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.39

3.2.25. Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting may be defined as process of augmenting the natural infiltration of
rainwater or surface run off into the ground by some artificial methods.

The methods suggested are recharge through pits, trenches, bore well shafts by directly
diverting run off water into existing or disused wells or conserving the rain water by
artificial storing and using the same for human use. The choice and effectiveness of any
particular method is governed by local hydrological and soil conditions and ultimate use
of water.

Need for Rainwater Harvesting

Nature replenishes the ground water resources annually through rainfall; by way of
infiltration though soil layers. In urban areas, due to urbanization, the soil surface exposed
to natural recharge gets reduced. Therefore, natural recharge is diminishing, resulting in
drying of wells. Groundwater source has the benefit of availability where water is needed
and during emergencies and scarcity period, the public at large or NGOs should take
measures to improve the groundwater recharge by rain water harvesting to maintain
reliable and sustainable groundwater resources.

3.2.26. Rain water harvesting techniques

For many countries, particularly those with monsoonal climates and long dry seasons,
water shortages result not from a lack of rainfall but from a seasonally uneven supply.
When annual rainfall is concentrated in a few months, storage is difficult. To illustrate,
India has 2.1 trillion cubic metres of freshwater available each year, and the United States
has 2.5 trillion cubic metres. While rain falls in the United States throughout the year, in
India, which is geographically only one third as large, most of the rainfall comes between
mid-June and mid-September. As a result, most of this deluge runs off and is quickly
carried back to the sea by the country's rivers. Although there are thousands of dams in
India, they can collectively store only a fraction of the rainfall.

The focus on building large dams to capture and store surface water before it runs off
dominated most of the last century. But because sites were becoming scarce and because
the construction of large dams often inundates large areas, displacing local populations
and irreversibly altering local ecosystems, this era has now largely run its course. More
and more countries are turning to local water harvesting to ensure adequate supply.

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater:

1) Surface runoff Harvesting: In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff.
This runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate
methods.
2) Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls.
In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected
from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to
artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if
implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area

There are two main techniques of rain water harvesting:

1) Storage of rain water on surface for future use
2) Recharge to ground water
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.40

The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional technique and structures used were
tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. recharge to ground water is a new concept of rain
water harvesting and the structures generally used are:
1) Pits: Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer.
2) Aquifer: The aquifer is porous, water saturated layers of sand, gravel or bed rock
that can yield significant or usable amount of water. These are constructed 1 to 2 m
wide, 1 to 1.5 m deep which are back filled with boulders, gravels, coarse sand.
3) Trenches: These are constructed when the permeable rock is available at shallow
depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m wide, 1 to 1.5 m deep and 10 to 20 m long
depending upon the availability of water. These are back filled with filter materials.
4) Dug Wells: Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure and water
should pass through filter media before putting into dug well.
5) Hand Pumps: The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the
shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass
through filter media to avoid chocking of recharge wells.
6) Recharge Wells: Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm diameter are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter
media to avoid choking of recharge wells.
7) Recharge Shafts: For recharging the shallow aquifer which is located below clayey
surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m diameter and 10 to 25 m deep are constructed
and back filled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand.
8) Lateral Shafts with Bore Wells: For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquifers
lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m wide and 10 to 30 m long depending upon availability of
water with one or two bore wells is constructed. The lateral shaft is back filled with
boulders, gravels and coarse sand.

Benefits of Rain Water Harvesting

Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows:
1) Increases water availability
2) Check the declining water table
3) It is environmentally friendly
4) Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and
salinity
5) Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas.

3.2.27. Introduction of Highway

The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient times.
Roads in Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many directions
helping them in military operations. Thus they are considered to be pioneers in road
construction. In this section we will see in detail about Ancient roads, Roman roads,
British roads, French roads etc.
1) Ancient Roads: The first mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways
would have been developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams
for drinking water etc. The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for
transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded animals required more
horizontal and vertical clearances than the walking man, track ways emerged.

The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the development of

animal drawn vehicles. Then it became necessary that the road surface should be
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.41

capable of carrying greater loads. Thus roads with harder surfaces emerged. To
provide adequate strength to carry the wheels, the new ways tended to follow the
sunny drier side of a path.

These have led to the development of foot-paths. After the invention of wheel,
animal drawn vehicles were developed and the need for hard surface road emerged.
Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient civilization dated as
old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian
empire constructed about 1900 BC.

2) Roman Roads: The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans
who constructed an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from
Rome. They were a remarkable achievement and provided travel times across
Europe, Asia minor, and north Africa. Romans recognized that the fundamentals of
good road construction were to provide good drainage, good material and good
workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some are still existing.

Roman roads were always constructed on a firm - formed subgrade strengthened

where necessary with wooden piles. The roads were bordered on both sides by
longitudinal drains. The next step was the construction of the agger. This was a raised
formation up to a 1 meter high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials
excavated during the side drain construction. This was then topped with a sand
leveling course. The agger contributed greatly to moisture control in the pavement.
The pavement structure on the top of the agger varied greatly. In the case of heavy
traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal flag stones were provided.

A typical cross section of roman road is given in Figure 2:1 The main features of the
Roman roads are that they were built straight regardless of gradient and used heavy
foundation stones at the bottom. They mixed lime and volcanic puzzolana to make
mortar and they added gravel to this mortar to make concrete. Thus concrete was a
major Roman road making innovation.

Figure in Typing
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.42

3) French Roads: The next major development in the road construction occurred
during the regime of Napoleon. The significant contributions were given by
Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross section of this road is given in Figure 2:2. He
developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and locally unsuccessful
revival of Roman practice.

The pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried stone of a more compact form and
shaped such that they had at least one flat side which was placed on a compact
formation. Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces
between larger stones to provide a level surface. Finally the running layer was made
with a layer of 25 mm sized broken stone. All this structure was placed in a trench in
order to keep the running surface level with the surrounding country side. This
created major drainage problems which were counteracted by making the surface as
impervious as possible, cambering the surface and providing deep side ditches. He
gave much importance for drainage. He also enunciated the necessity for continuous
organized maintenance, instead of intermittent repairs if the roads were to be kept
usable all times. For this he divided the roads between villages into sections of such
length that an entire road could be covered by maintenance men living nearby.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.43

Figure in typing

4) British Roads: The British government also gave importance to road construction.
The British engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first
scientific road construction method. Stone size was an important element of
Macadam recipe.

By empirical observation of many roads,he came to realize that 250 mm layers of

well compacted broken angular stone would provide the same strength and stiffness
and a better running surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone
blocks. Thus he introduced an economical method of road construction. The
mechanical interlock between the individual stone pieces provided strength and
stiffness to the course. But the inter particle friction abraded the sharp interlocking
faces and partly destroy the effectiveness of the course.

This effect was overcome by introducing good quality interstitial finer material to
produce a well-graded mix. Such mixes also proved less permeable and easier to
compact. A typical cross section of British roads is given in Figure 2:3.

5) Modern Roads: The modern roads by and large follow Macadam’s construction
method. Use of bituminous concrete and cement concrete are the most important
developments. Various advanced and cost-effective construction technologies are
used. Development of new equipment helps in the faster construction of roads.

Many easily and locally available materials are tested in the laboratories and then
implemented on roads for making economical and durable pavements. Scope of
transportation system has developed very largely. Population of the country is
increasing day by day. The life style of people began to change. The need for travel
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.44

to various places at faster speeds also increased. This increasing demand led to the
emergence of other modes of transportation like railways and travel by air.

While the above development in public transport sector was taking place,the
development in private transport was at a much faster rate mainly because of its
advantages like accessibility, privacy, flexibility, convenience and comfort. This led
to the increase in vehicular traffic especially in private transport network. Thus road
space available was becoming insufficient to meet the growing demand of traffic and
congestion started. In addition, chances for accidents also increased.

This has led to the increased attention towards control of vehicles so that the
transport infrastructure was optimally used. Various control measures like traffic
signals, providing roundabouts and medians, limiting the speed of vehicle at specific
zones etc. were implemented. With the advancement of better roads and efficient
control, more and more investments were made in the road sector especially after the
World wars. These were large projects requiring large investment. For optimal
utilization of funds, one should know the travel pattern and travel behavior. This has
led to the emergence of transportation planning and demand management.

3.2.28. Introduction of Railway

First railway was built between Mumbai and Thane in 1852 and First passenger train ran
between the two stations Boribunder and Thane, covering a distance of 34 km, on April
16, 1853.

About 40 per cent of the railway lines were in the newly created Pakistan. Many lines had
to be rerouted through Indian Territory and new lines had to be constructed to connect
important cities such as Jammu.

A total of 42 separate railway systems, including 32 lines owned by the former Indian
princely states existed at the time of independence spanning a total of 55,000 km. These
were amalgamated into the Indian Railways.

In 1952, it was decided to replace the existing rail networks by zones. A total of six zones
came into being in 1952.

Locomotives and rolling stock are two main components of the train.

IR has been procuring goods wagons from the market however coaches and locomotives
both Diesel and electrical are manufactured by IR with its production units.
On 6 September 2003 six further zones were made from existing zones for administration
purpose and one more zone added in 2006. ϖ The Indian Railways now has 17 zonal
Railways.

S.No NAME OF THE ZONAL DIVISIONS

RAILWAY HEADQUARTER
ZONE
1 Central Railway Mumbai Bhusawal, Nagpur, Mumbai(CST),
Solapur,Pune
2 Eastern Railway Kolkata Malda, Howarh, Sealdah, Asansol
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 3.45

3 Northern Railway New Delhi Ambala, Ferozpur, Lucknow,

Moradabad, Delhi
4 North Eastern Gorakhpur Lucknow, Varanasi, Izatnagar
Railway
5 Northeast Frontier Guwahati Katihar, Lumding,Tinsukhia,
Railway Alipurduar, Rangiya
6 Southern Railway Chennai Chennai, Madurai, Palghat,Trichy,
Trivandrum
7 South Central Secunderabad Secunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal,
Railway Vijaywada, Guntur, Nanded
8 South Eastern Kolkata Kharagpur, Chakradharpur, Adra,
Railway Ranchi
9 Western Railway Mumbai Bhavnagar, Mumbai Central, Ratlam,
Rajkot, Vadodara, Ahemdabad
10 East Central Hajipur Danapur, Dhanbad,Sonepur,
Railway Mughalsarai, Samastipur
11 East Coast Railway Bhubaneswar Khurda Road, Waltair, Sambalpur
12 North Central Allahabad Allahabad, Jhansi, Agra
Railway
13 North Western Jaipur Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Ajmer
Railway
14 South East Central Bilaspur Nagpur, Bilaspur, Raipur
Railway
15 South Western Hubli Bangalore, Mysore, Hubli
Railway
16 West Central Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota
Railway
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.1

Internal Comustion
UNIT 4
Engines and Power Plant

4.1. POWER PLANT

4.1.1. Introduction
A power station or power plant is a facility for the generation of electric power.
‘Power plant’ is also used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large
vehicles. Some prefer to use the term energy center because it more accurately
describes what the plants do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy,
like chemical energy, gravitational potential energy or heat energy into electrical
energy.

However, power plant is the most common term in the U.S., while elsewhere
power station and power plant are both widely used, power station prevailing in
many commonwealth countries and especially in the United Kingdom.

At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn
the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available
and the types of technology that the power company has access to.

4.1.2. Classification of Power Plants

Power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the fuel of prime mover
installed.
1) By Fuel: In Thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat
engine, which transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel,
into rotational energy. In nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor’s heat to
operate a steam turbine generator.

Fossil fuel powered plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the
case of Natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine. Geometrical
power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.
Renewable energy plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal
solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.

In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although

low-energy-density, fuel. Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.2

concentrated enough to use for power generation, usually in a stream boiler

and turbine.

2) By Prime Mover: Steam turbine plants use the pressure generated by

expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine. Gas turbine plants use the
heat from gases to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled turbine
plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply “peak” energy during
periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.

Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a
steam boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas
turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of
the plant, and most new base load power plants are combined cycle plants
fired by natural gas.

Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for

isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants.
Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also
use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are
usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.

Micro-turbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines

are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas,
digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

3) Other Source of Energy: Other power stations use the energy from wave or
tidal motion, wind, sunlight or the energy of falling water, hydroelectricity.
These types of energy sources are called renewable energy.

4.1.3. Internal Combustion Engine

As the combustion takes place internally inside the cylinder (a part of working
fluid circuit), the engine is called internal combustion engine. It is an engine in
which combustion of fuel take place inside the engine. When the fuel burns inside
the engine cylinder, it generates a high temperature and pressure.

This high pressure force is exerted on the piston (A device which free to moves
inside the cylinder and transmit the pressure force to crank by use of connecting
rod), which used to rotate the wheels of vehicle. In these engines we can use only
gases and high volatile fuel like petrol, diesel. These engines are generally used in
automobile industries, generation of electric power etc.

4.1.3.1. Advantages of I.C. Engine

1) It has overall high efficiency over E.C. engine.
2) These engines are compact and required less space.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.3

3) Initial cost of I.C. engine is lower than E.C. engine.

4) This engine easily starts in cold because of it uses high volatile fuel.

4.1.3.2. Applications of I.C. Engines

The I.C. engines are generally used for:
1) Road vehicles (e.g., scooter, motorcycle, buses etc.)
2) Air craft
3) Locomotives
4) Construction in civil engineering equipment such as bull-dozer, scraper,
power shovels etc.
5) Pumping sets
6) Cinemas
7) Hospital
8) Several industrial applications.

Note: Prime movers in all construction equipment are invariably I.C, engines,
unless of course, when drive is electric. Use of steam source for this equipment is
almost absolete.

4.1.4. External combustion (E.C.) Engine

It is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place outside of the engine. In
this type of engine heat, which is generated by burning of fuel is use to convert
the water or other low boiling temperature fluid into steam. This high pressure
steam used to rotate a turbine. In this engine we can use all solid, liquid and gases
fuel. These engines are generally used in driving locomotive, ships, generation of
electric power etc.

4.1.4.1. Advantages of E.C. Engine

1) In these engines starting torque is generally high.
2) Because of external combustion we can use cheaper fuels as well as solid
fuel.
3) They are more flexible compare to internal combustion engines.

4.1.4.2. Applications of E.C. Engines

An external combustion engine burns fuel externally, or outside the engine. The
burning fuel releases thermal energy, which is used to heat water and change it to
steam. The pressure of the steam moves a piston back and forth inside a cylinder.
The kinetic energy of the moving piston can be used to turn a vehicle’s wheels, a
turbine, or other mechanical device.

4.1.5. Types/Classification of I.C Engine

The types/classification of I.C engine are depends upon the various aspects:
Basically two types of engine used in automobile:
An automobile engine may be classified in many manners.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.4

1) According to Number of Stroke

i) Two Stroke Engine: In a two stroke engine a piston moves one time up
and down inside the cylinder and complete one crankshaft revolution
during single time of fuel burn. This type of engine has high torque
compare to four stroke engine. These are generally used in scooters,
pumping sets etc.
ii) Four Stroke Engine: In a four stroke engine piston moves two times up
and down inside the cylinder and complete two crankshaft revolutions
during single time of fuel burn. This type of engines has high average
compare to two stroke engine. These are generally used in bikes, cars,
truck etc.
2) According to Design of Engine
i) Reciprocating Engine (Piston Engine): In reciprocating engine the
pressure force generate by combustion of fuel exerted on the piston (A
device which free to move in reciprocation inside the cylinder). So the
piston starts reciprocating motion (too and fro motion). This
reciprocating motion converts into rotary motion by use of crank shaft.
So the crank shaft starts to rotate and rotate the wheels of vehicle. These
are generally used in all automobile.
ii) Rotary Engine (Wankel Engine): In rotary engine there is a rotor
which frees to rotate. The pressure force generate by burning of fuel is
exerted on this rotor so the rotor rotate and starts to rotate the wheels of
vehicle. This engine is developed by Wankel in 1957. This engine is not
used in automobile in present days.

3) According to Fuel Used

i) Diesel Engine: These engines use diesel as the fuel. These are used in
trucks, buses, cars etc.
ii) Petrol Engine: These engines use petrol as the fuel. These are used in
bikes, sport cars, luxury cars etc.
iii) Gas Engine: These engines use CNG and LPG as the fuel. These are
used in some light motor vehicles.
iv) Electric Engine: It is eco-friendly engine. It doesn’t use any fuel to burn.
It uses electric energy to rotate wheel.

4) According to Method of Ignition

i) Compression Ignition Engine: In these types of engines, there is no
extra equipment to burn the fuel. In these engines burning of fuel starts
due to temperature rise during compression of air. So it is known as
compression ignition engine.
ii) Spark Ignition Engine: In these types of engines, ignition of fuel start
by the spark, generate inside the cylinder by some extra equipment. So it
is known as spark ignition engine.

5) According to Number of Cylinder

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.5

i) Single Cylinder Engine: In this type of engines have only one cylinder
and one piston connected to the crank shaft.
ii) Multi-Cylinder Engine: In this type of engines have more than one
cylinder and piston connected to the crank shaft.

6) According to Arrangement of Cylinder

i) In-line engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are positioned in a
straight line one behind the other along the length of the crankshaft.

Figure 5.9: Inline Engine

ii) V-type Engine: An engine with two cylinder banks inclined at an angle
to each other and with one crankshaft known as V-type engine.

Figure 5.10: V Type Engine

iii) Opposed Cylinder Engine: An engine with two cylinders banks

opposite to each other on a single crankshaft (V-type engine with
180o angle between banks).

Figure 5.11: Opposite Cylinder Engine

iv) W-type Engine: An engine same as V-type engine except with three
banks of cylinders on the same crankshaft known as W-type engine.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.6

v) Opposite Piston Engine: In this type of engine there are two pistons in
each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the centre between the
pistons. In this engine a single combustion process causes two power
strokes, at the same time.

vi) Radial Engine: It is an engine with pistons positioned in circular plane

around the central crankshaft. The connecting rods of pistons are
connected to a master rod which, in turn, connected to the crankshaft.

Figure 5.12: Opposite Piston Engine

Figure 5.13: Redial Engine

7) According to Air Intake Process

i) Naturally Aspirated: In this types of engine intake of air into cylinder
occur by the atmospheric pressure.
ii) Supercharged Engine: In this type of engine air intake pressure is
increased by the compressor driven by the engine crankshaft.
iii) Turbocharged Engine: In this type of engine intake air pressure is
increase by use of turbine compressor driven by the exhaust gases of
burning fuel.

Compression Ratio for the Fuel

In the case of SI engines, the compression ratio of the fuel is in the range of 6 to
10 depending on the size of the engine and the power to be produced. In CI
engines, the compression ratio for air is 16 to 20. The high compression ratio of
air creates high temperatures, which ensures the diesel fuel can self-ignite.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.7

4.1.6. Three Common Working Cycles of Internal

Combustion Engines
The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of the
cycles are compression ratio, peak pressure, heat addition, heat rejection and the
net-work. In order to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual
combustion cycles, some of the variable factors must be fixed.

A comparison of these three cycles is made for the same compression ratio, same
heat addition constant maximum pressure and temperature, same heat rejection
and net-work output. This analysis will show which cycle is more efficient for a
given set of operating conditions.

Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heal Addition: The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-
1, the Diesel cycle 1-2-3′-4′-1 and the Dual cycle l-2-2″-3″-4″-l are shown in p-V
and T-θ diagram in figure (a) and (b) respectively the same compression ratio
and heat input.

3
3 Constant Pressure
3″
2′
2′ 3″ 3′
2
Temperature

4′
Pressure

2 3′
4′ 4"
4
4″ 1
4 Constant Volume

1
Isentropic Process
5 6 6″ 6′
Entropy
Volume
Figure (a) Figure (b)

From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3′-6′ = Area 5-
2-2″-3″-6″ as this area represents the heat input, which is the same for all cycles.
All the cycles start from the same initial state point 1 and the air is compressed
from state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same.

It is seen from the T-s diagram for the same heat input, the heat rejection in Otto
cycle (area 5-1-4-6) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel cycle (5-l-4’-6’) is
maximum. Consequently, Otto cycle has the highest work output and
efficiency. Diesel cycle has the least efficiency and Dual cycle having the
efficiency between the two.

One more observation can be made, i.e., Otto cycle allows the working medium
to expand more whereas Diesel cycle is least in this respect. The reason is heat is
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.8

added before expansion in the case of Otto cycle and the last portion of heat
supplied to fluid has a relatively short expansion in case of the Diesel cycle.

Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection

3
3

Temperature
Constant Volume 3'
Pressure

2 3′ 2
Constant Pressure
4
4
1 Constant Volume
Isentropic Process 1 1
Entropy
Volume
Figure (b)
Figure (a)

QR
Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by, ηotto = 1−
QS
Where, Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the
curve 2-3 on the T-s diagram (figure b). The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is
given by,
Q
ηDiesel = 1 − R
Q'S
Where Qs is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the
curve 2-3′ on the T-s diagram (figure b). From the T-s diagram in figure, it is
clear those Qs>Q′s, i.e., heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the
Diesel cycle. Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater
than the efficiency of the Diesel Cycle for a given compression ratio and heat
rejection.

Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection: Figure
(a) and (b) show the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle1-2′-3-4 on p-V and T-s
coordinates, where the peak pressure and temperature and the amount of heat
rejected are the same.
Q
The efficiency of the Otto cycle, ηotto = 1− R
QS
Where, Qs in the area under the curve 2-3 in figure (b). The efficiency of the Diesel
QR
cycle, 1-2-3′-3-4 is, ηDiesel = 1 −
Q'S
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.9

It is evident from figure that Qs>Q′s. Therefore, the Diesel Cycle efficiency is greater than
the Otto cycle efficiency when both engines are built to withstand the same thermal and
mechanical stresses.

3
2' 3 Constant Pressure

Temperature
Isentropic 2'
Pressure

Process
Constant Volume 4
2
2

Isentropic 4 1
Process Constant Volume
1
5 6
Volume Entropy
Figure (a) Figure (b)

Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input

3
2′ 3′ 3′
Constant
3 Pressure
Temperature

2′
Isentropic
Pressure

Process
2 Constant 4
Pressure
4′
2 4
Isentropic 1 Constant
Process 4′ Volume
1
5 6′ 6
Entropy
Volume
Figure (b)
Figure (a)

For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and Diesel
cycle (l-2′-3′-4′-l) are shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in figure (a) and (b)
respectively. It is evident from the figure that the heat rejection for Otto cycle
(area 1-5-6-4 on T-s Gas Power Cycles Prof. U.S.P. Shet, Prof. T. Sundarajan and
Prof. J.M. Mallikarjuna Indian Institute of Technology Madras diagram) is more
than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (l-5-6′-4′).

Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle for the condition of same
maximum pressure and heat input. One can make a note that with these
conditions, the Diesel cycle has higher compression ratio than that of Otto cycle.
One should also note that the cycle which is having higher efficiency allows
maximum expansion. The Dual cycle efficiency will be between these two.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.10

Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output

The efficiency, η it can be written as:
Work done Work done
η= =
Heat supplied Work done + Heat rejected

Refer to T-s diagram in figure (b), for same work output the area 1-2-3-4 (work
output of Otto cycle.) and area l-2′-3′-4′ (work output of Diesel cycle) are same.
To achieve this, the entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3’. It is clear
that the rejection for Otto cycle is more than that of Diesel Cycle. Hence, for
these conditions, the Diesel Cycle is more efficient than the Otto Cycle. The
efficiency of Dual cycle lies between the two cycles.

4.1.7. Working of Two Stroke Petrol Engine

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events, i.e., suction,
compression, power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e.,
one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas
movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase
of the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.
Spark Plug
or Injector

Cylinder

(a) (b)

Piston Figure: Two Stroke Cycle

(c) (d)

Figure

Upward Stroke of the Piston (Suction + Compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and
transfer port, which are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the
charge of air-fuel mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further upward
movement of the piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.11

Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the
end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited by spark plug (figure 2c
and d). Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression events are
completed.

Downward stroke (power + Exhaust)

Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which forces
the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the
suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the
previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first
the exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase
moves in to the cylinder through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown
deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in driving
out the exhaust gases. During the downward stroke of the piston power and
exhaust events are completed.

4.1.8. Four-Stroke Cycle Diesel/Gasoline Engine

The four-stroke diesel engine is similar to the four-stroke gasoline engine. They
both follow an operating cycle that consist of intake, compression, power, and
exhaust strokes. They also share similar systems for intake and exhaust valves.
The components of a diesel closed so that all the force is exerted on the piston.
The engines are shown in figure 1-6.
Injector
Exhaust
Intake
Port
Port
Exhaust
Valve
Piston Intake
Valve
Connecting
Rod

Crankshaft
Figure: Four-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

Principles and Working of Four-Stroke Gasoline/Diesel Engine

In four stroke cycle engines the four events namely suction, compression, power
and exhaust take place inside the engine cylinder. The four events are completed
in four strokes of the piston (two revolutions of the crank shaft). This engine has
got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust gases. The
opening and closing of the value is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The
camshaft is driven by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains. The
camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.12

The events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows:

1) Suction Stroke: During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston
moves downward. Only air or a mixture of air and fuel are drawn inside the
cylinder. The exhaust valve remains in closed position during this stroke. The
pressure in the engine cylinder is less than atmospheric pressure during this
stroke (figure 1a).
2) Compression Stroke: During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both
valves are in closed position. The charge taken in the cylinder is compressed
by the movement of piston. If only air is compressed, diesel is injected at the
end of the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place due to high
pressure and temperature of the compressed air. If a mixture of air and fuel is
compressed in the cylinder, as in case of petrol engine, the mixture is ignited
by a spark plug (figure 1b).
3) Power Stroke: After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is
generated, causing very high pressure in the cylinder which pushes the piston
downward (figure 1c). The downward movement of the piston at this instant
is called power stroke. The connecting rod transmits the power from piston
to the crank shaft and crank shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be taped at
the rotating crank shaft. Both valves remain closed during power stroke.
4) Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust value
opens and exhaust gases go out through exhaust valves opening. All the burnt
gases go out of the engine and the cylinder becomes ready to receive the fresh
charge. During this stroke inlet valve remains closed (Figure 1d).

Thus it is found that out of four strokes, there is only one power stroke and three
idle strokes in four stroke in four cycle engine. The power stroke supplies
necessary momentum for useful work.

Suction Stroke Compression Stroke

Inlet Valve
Opened
Piston

Crankcase

(a) Spark Plug or Injector (b)

Cylinder Wall
Connecting Rod

Figure: Four-Stroke Cycle Engine

(c) (d)
Power Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Four Stroke Cycle Engine

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.13

4.1.9. Working Principle of a 2 Stroke Diesel Engine

A two-stroke diesel engine (figure 1-13) shares the same operating principles as
other internal combustion engines. It has all of the advantages that other diesel
engines have over gasoline engines. A two-stroke diesel engine does not produce
as much power as a four-stroke diesel engine; however, it runs smoother than the
four-stroke diesel.

This is because it generates a power stroke each time the piston moves
downward; that is, once for each crank shaft revolution. The two-stroke diesel
engine has a less complicated valve train because it does not use intake valves.
Instead, it requires a supercharger to force air into the cylinder and force exhaust
gases out, because the piston cannot do this naturally as in four-stroke engines.

The two-stroke diesel takes in air and discharges exhaust through a system
called scavenging. Scavenging begins with the piston at bottom dead centre. At
this point, the intake ports are uncovered in the cylinder wall and the exhaust
valve is open. The supercharger forces air into the cylinder, and, as the air is
forced in, the burned gases from the previous operating cycle are forced out
(figure 1-14).
Injector
Exhaust
Supercharger
Port
Exhaust
Valve

Inlet Port

Piston

Connecting
Rod

Crankshaft
Figure 1.13: Two-Stroke Diesel Engine

1) Compression Stroke: As the piston moves towards top dead centre, it covers
the intake ports. The exhaust valves close at this point and seals the upper
cylinder. As the piston continues upward, the air in the cylinder is tightly
compressed (figure 1-14). As in the four-stroke cycle diesel, a tremendous
amount of heat is generated by the compression.
2) Power Stroke: As the piston reaches top dead centre, the compression stroke
ends. Fuel is injected at this point and the intense heat of the
compression causes the fuel to ignite. The burning fuel pushes the piston
down, giving power to the crank shaft. The power stroke ends when the
piston gets down to the point where the intake ports are uncovered. At about
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.14

this point, the exhaust valve opens and scavenging begins again, as shown in
figure 1-14.
3) Valve Train: The operation of the valves in a timed sequence is critical. If
the exhaust valve opened in the middle of the intake stroke, the piston would
draw burnt gases into the combustion chamber with a fresh mixture of fuel
and air. As the piston continued to the power stroke, there would be nothing
in the combustion chamber that would.

Air Air

1) Scavenging 2) Compression

Exhaust

3) Power Air 4) Exhaust

Air Fuel Mixture
Exhaust
Figure 1.14: Two-Stroke Diesel Cycle

Special Features of Diesel Engine

1) Engine has high compression ration ranging from 14:1 to 22:1.
2) During compression stroke, the engine attains high pressure ranging from 30
to 45kg/cm2 and high temperature of about 500°C.
3) At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the cylinder
through injectors (atomizers) at a very high pressure ranging from 120 to
200kg/cm2.
4) Ignition takes place due to heat of compression only.
5) There is no external spark in diesel engine.
6) Diesel engine has better slogging or lugging ability i.e. it maintains higher
torque for a longer duration of time at a lower speed.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.15

4.1.10. Difference between 2 Stroke and 4 Stroke Engines

Table below shows the difference between 2 Stroke and 4 Stroke Engines
Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine
1) It has one power stroke for every It has one power stroke for each
two revolutions of revolution of the crankshaft.
the crankshaft.
2) Heavy flywheel is required and Lighter flywheel is required and
engine runs unbalanced because engine runs balanced because turning
turning moment on the moment is more even due to one
crankshaft is not even due to one power stroke for each revolution of
power stroke for every two the crankshaft.
revolutions of the crankshaft.
3) Engine is heavy Engine is light
4) Engine design is complicated Engine design is simple due to
due to valve mechanism. absence of valve mechanism.
5) More cost. Less cost than 4 stroke.
6) Less mechanical efficiency due More mechanical efficiency due to
to more friction on many parts. less friction on a few parts.
7) More output due to full fresh Less output due to mixing of fresh
charge intake and full burnt charge with the hot burnt gases.
gases exhaust.
8) Engine runs cooler. Engine runs hotter.
9) Engine is water cooled. Engine is air cooled.
10) Less fuel consumption and More fuel consumption and fresh
complete burning of fuel. charge is mixed with exhaust gases.
11) Engine requires more space. Engine requires less space.
12) Complicated lubricating system. Simple lubricating system.
13) Less noise is created by engine. More noise is created by engine.
14) Engine consists of inlet and Engine consists of inlet and exhaust
exhaust valve. ports.
15) More thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.
16) It consumes less lubricating oil. It consumes more lubricating oil.
17) Less wear and tear of moving More wear and tear of moving parts.
parts.
18) Used in cars, buses, trucks etc. Used in mopeds,
scooters, motorcycles etc.

4.1.11. Carburettor
A carburettor is a device that enables fuel to mix with air in the precise ratio,
while being throttled over a wide range. Jets are calibrated orifices that take the
form of parts such as pilot/slow jets, pilot air screw, throttle valve/slide, jet
needle, needle jet/spray bar, air jet and main jet. Fuel jets have matching air jets
and these jets are available in many sizes to fine tune the air-fuel mixture to the
optimum ratio for the two stroke engine, which is 12.5:1.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.16

Main Function of a Carburettor

1) Setting the ratio of air and fuel mixture.
2) Making the mixture into the mist.
3) Increase or decrease the amount of the mixture according to engine speed and
load changing.

In the modern type of carburettor, the mixture control to work automatically, the
ratio of air and gasoline mixture 15: 1. Gasoline and air mixture is too thin can
lead to:
1) Quickly became a hot motor.
2) Exhaust valves to burn.
3) Lubrication on the cylinder walls is not good, a lot of oil was burned.

Motor energy decreases. Then it occurred to boom in the carburettor that can
cause fires.

Gasoline and air mixture is too wasteful, can lead to:

1) Motor heat
2) Black exhaust.
3) To cause an explosion, an explosion in or on the exhaust pipe tip.
4) Fuel is too wasteful.

Ideal speed screw Ideal mixture screw

Choke plate
Throttle plate

Clean air
Fuel/air enters throat
mixture flows
to engine

Float Fuel line

Float bowl
Fuel filter
Jet Fuel entere fuel line from
Pedestal
fuel tanks and pump
Figure: Carburetor and Fuel System

Advantages of Carburettor
1) Carburettor parts are not expensive as that of fuel injectors, especially EFI,
which would give you large savings.
2) With the use of carburettor you get more air and fuel mixture.
3) In terms of road test, carburettors have more power and precision.
4) Carburettors are not restricted by the amount of gas pumped from the fuel
tank which means that cylinders may pull more fuel through the carburettor
that would lead to denser mixture in the chamber and greater power as well.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.17

Disadvantages of Carburettor
1) At a very low speed, the mixture supplied by a carburettor is so weak that it
will not ignite properly and for its enrichment, at such conditions some
arrangement in the carburettor is required.
2) The working of carburettor is affected by changes of atmospheric pressure.
3) It gives the proper mixture at only one engine speed and load, therefore,
suitable only for engines running at constant speed increase or decrease.
4) More fuels are consumed since carburettors are heavier than fuel injectors.
5) More air emissions than fuel injectors.
6) Maintenance cost of carburettor is higher than with fuel injection system.

4.1.12. Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine

Compression of Diesel Engine with Petrol Engine
Diesel Engine Petrol Engine
1) It has got no carburetor, ignition 1) It has got carburetor, ignition coil
coil and spark plug. and spark plug.
2) Its compression ration varies from 2) Its compression ratio varies from 5
14:1 to 22:1. : 1 to 8 : 1.
3) It uses diesel oil as fuel. 3) It uses petrol (gasoline) or power
kerosene as fuel.
4) Only air is sucked in cylinder in 4) Mixture of fuel and air is sucked
suction stroke. in the cylinder in suction stroke.
5) It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and 5) It has got no fuel injection pump
injector. and injector, instead it has got
carburetor and ignition coil.
6) Fuel is injected in combustion 6) Air fuel mixture is compressed in
chamber where burning of fuel the combustion chamber when it is
takes places due to heat of ignited by and electric spark.
compression.
7) Thermal efficiency varies from 32 7) Thermal efficiency varies from 25
to 38%. to 32%.
8) Engine weight per horse-power is 8) Engine weight per horsepower is
high. comparatively low.
9) Operating cost is low. 9) Operating cost in high.
10) Compression pressure inside the 10) Compression pressure varies from
cylinder varies from 35 to 45kg/cm2 6 to 10kg/cm2 and temperature is
and temperature is about 500°C. above 260°C.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.18

4.1.13. Steam Power Plant

The steam power plant is the important source to produce the electricity. The
major portion of electricity demand is fulfilled by the steam power plant. It is also
called as thermal power plant. It provides the electricity requirement to different
areas. In this article we will study about the construction, working, efficiency,
advantages and disadvantages of steam power plant.

Construction or Layout of Steam Power Plant

There are so many components present in the steam power plant which performs
their specialized function for the efficient working.

Figure in typing

The various component of the steam power plant are discussed below:
1) Coal Storage: It is the place where coal is stored which can be utilised when
required.
2) Coal Handling: Here the coal is converted into the pulverised form before
feeding to the furnace. A proper system is designed to transport the
pulverised coal to the boiler furnace.
3) Boiler: It converts the water into high pressure steam. It contains the furnace
inside or outside the boiler shell. The combustion of coal takes place in the
furnace.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.19

4) Air-preheater: It is used to pre-heat the air before entering into the boiler
furnace. The pre heating of air helps in the burning of fuel to a greater extent.
It takes the heat from the burnt gases from the furnace to heat the air from the
atmosphere.
5) Economiser: As its name indicates it economises the working of the boiler. It
heats the feed water to a specified temperature before it enters into the boiler
drum. It takes the heat from the burnt gases from the furnace to do so.
6) Turbine: It is the mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of the
steam to the mechanical energy.
7) Generator: It is coupled with the turbine rotor and converts the mechanical
energy of the turbine to the electrical energy.
8) Ash Storage: It is used to store the ash after burning of the coal.
9) Dust Collector: It collects the dust particle from the burnt gases before it is
released to the chimney.
10) Condenser: It condensate the steam that leaves out turbine. It converts the
low pressure steam to water. It is attached to the cooling tower.
11) Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains cold water. Cold water is
circulates to the condenser for the cooling of the residual steam from the
turbine.
12) Chimney: It is used to release the hot burnt gases or smoke from the furnace
to the environment at appropriate height. The height of the tower is very high
such that it can easily throw the smoke and exhaust gases at the appropriate
height. And it cannot affect the population living near the steam power plant.
13) Feed Water Pump: It is used to transport the feed water to the boiler.

4.1.14. Working Principle of Steam Power Plant

In the steam power plant the pulverised coal is fed into the boiler and it is burnt in
the furnace. The water present in the boiler drum changes to high pressure steam.
From the boiler the high pressure steam passed to the super heater where it is
again heated up-to its dryness. This super-heated steam strikes the turbine blades
with a high speed and the turbine starts rotating at high speed.

A generator is attached to the rotor of the turbine and as the turbine rotates it also
rotates with the speed of the turbine. The generator converts the mechanical
energy of the turbine into electrical energy. After striking on the turbine the steam
leaves the turbine and enters into the condenser. The steam gets condensed with
the help of cold water from the cooling tower.

The condensed water with the feed water enters into the economiser. In the
economiser the feed water gets heated up before entering into the boiler. This
heating of water increases the efficiency of the boiler. The exhaust gases from the
furnace pass through the super heater, economiser and air pre-heater.

The heat of this exhaust gases is utilised in the heating of steam in the super
heater, feed water in the economiser and air in the air pre-heater. After burning of
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.20

the coal into the furnace, it is transported to ash handling plant and finally to the
ash storage.

4.1.15. Gas Power Plant

A special type of power generating station where gas turbine is used as the prime
mover. This power generating plant is called a gas turbine power plant.
Matter in Typing
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.21

Working of a Gas Turbine Power Plant

Here the air is first compressed at desired pressure then it is brought to a
combustion chamber where the compressed air is heated up by means of fuel
combustion. Then this highly compressed hot air is released from the combustion
chamber through the nozzle to a turbine, called gas turbine. During expansion of
pressurized and hot air, mechanical work is done to rotate the turbine. As the
turbine rotates, the alternator also rotates, since a common shaft is shared by both
turbine and alternator in the gas turbine power plant.

In Gas Turbine power plant not only the turbine and alternator, the air compressor
is also fitted on the same shaft. This is because the mechanical power developed
by the gas turbine can be shared by the air compressor for its operation along with
the alternator. The mechanical energy required to compress the air must be more
than the mechanical energy developed by the compressed air. But here the
mechanical energy developed in the gas turbine by compressed air contributes
both for compressing the air and producing the electricity.

In the gas turbine power plant, compressed air only acts as a fluid. This type of
power plant is not used for producing electrical power in commercial scale but
normally used as standby plants in a hydroelectric station for supplying auxiliary
electricity during starting of the main power plant.

Figure in Typing
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.22

Advantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant

The advantages of gas turbine power plant are discussed below:
1) There is no need of boiler as in the case of a steam power generating plant.
As the boiler is not used the auxiliaries associated with the boiler are also
absent in the gas turbine power plant hence the design is much simpler than
the steam power plant.
2) For the same reasons as mentioned above, the size of the gas turbine power
plant is much smaller than that of a same capacity steam power plant.
3) The manufacturing, engineering, installation and commissioning costs are
much lower. The running cost is also less than that of same rated steam
power plant.
4) As the design and construction are simpler than a same capacity steam power
plant, the maintenance cost also smaller in the gas turbine power plant.
5) Gas turbine itself is much simpler in design and construction than a steam
turbine.
6) This power plant can be started much quickly even in cold condition.
7) In steam power plant the boiler is kept operative even at off-load condition
because restarting a boiler is much expensive and time-consuming process.
But in the case of a gas turbine power plant entire plant can be kept
inoperative at offload condition. Hence, this system is free from standby
losses.

Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant

The advantages of gas turbine power plant are discussed below:
1) For running the gas turbine system, compressed air is required. When the
plant runs, the compressor runs and supplies the required compressed air. But
when the plant just starts its operation, there is no compressed air previously
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.23

available but this required compressed air cannot be produced before the
compressor is run. The drawback of the system can be overcome by running
the compressor by some external means before actual starting the plant.
2) In this system, a major part of the mechanical power developed by the gas
turbine is utilized to run the compressor which causes the low output of the
system.
3) A major portion of the heat energy of fuel combustion is lost to exhaust air.
The exhaust heat cannot be reutilized efficiently like as in the case of a steam
power plant.
4) The internal temperature of the combustion chamber is very high. This highly
tempted part of the system reduces the overall life span of a gas turbine
power plant compared to other forms of a power plant.

4.1.16. Hydro-electric Power Plant

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. The
energy of water is utilized to drive the turbine which in turn, runs the generator to
produce electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into
mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the
turbine into electrical energy.
The hydro or water power is important only next to thermal power. Nearly 20 per
cent of the total power of the world is met by hydroelectric power stations.

Working of Hydro Electric Power Plants

For construction of hydro power plant first we choose the area where the water is
sufficient to reserve and no crisis of water and suitable to build a dam. The main
function of dam is to stop the flow of water and reserve the water in reservoir.
Mainly dam is situated at a good height to increase the force of water. Reservoir
holds lots of water which is employed to generate power by means of turbines.
Penstock, the pipe which is connected between dam and turbine blades and most
important purpose of the penstock is to enlarge the kinetic energy of water that is
why this pipe is made up of extremely well-built material which carries on the
pressure of water. The schematic diagram of hydro power plant is shown in
figure 2.2:

Hydroelectric Dam

Reservoir
Long Distance Power
Powerhouse Lines
Intake
Generator

Turbine
River

Figure 2.2: Schematic Diagram of Hydro Power Plants

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.24

To control the pressure of water means increase or decrease water pressure

whenever required, a valve is used. Storage tank become useful when due to
some reasons the pressure of water in reservoir decreases. It is directly connected
to penstock and is used only in emergency situation. After that turbine and
generator are employed. Turbine is the main part, when water comes through the
penstock with high kinetic energy and falls on turbine blades, turbine rotates at
high speed.

The turbine is an engine that transfers energy of fluid into mechanical energy
which is coupled with generator and generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy which is utilized at the end. In hydro power plant switchgears
and protections are also used which control and protect the whole process inside
the plant. The control equipment consist control circuits, control devices,
warning, instrumentation etc. and connects to main control board. After
generating electricity at low voltage, step up transformer is used to enlarge the
level of voltage (generally 132KV, 220KV, 400KV and above) as per
requirement.

After that the electric power is transmitted to the load centre, and then the voltage
for industrial and large consumer is stepped down and again the voltage is
stepped down to distribute electricity at domestic level which we used at home.
This is the whole process of generating electricity by the means of hydro (hydro
power plant) and then transmitting and distributing electricity.

Advantages of Hydro-electric Power Plants

The advantages of hydropower plant are discussed below:
1) Hydro power is a fuelled by water, so it is a clean fuel source. Hydropower
does not pollute the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or
natural gas.
2) Hydropower is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States.
3) Hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is driven by the sun, thus it is a
renewable power source.
4) Hydropower is generally available as needed; engineers can control the flow
of water through the turbines to produce electricity on demand.
5) Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity.
Impoundment hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of
recreational opportunities, notably fishing, swimming, and boating. Most
hydropower installations are required to provide some public access to the
reservoir to allow the public to take advantage of these opportunities. Other
benefits may include water supply and flood control.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.25

Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Power Plants

The disadvantages of hydropower plant are discussed below:
1) Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is high.
2) Hydro-station has special requirement of site which usually is an isolated area
with difficult access.
3) Power generation by the hydro-plant is only dependent on the quality of
water available, which in turn depends on rain.
4) During the dry year, the power production may be curtailed or even
discontinued. This availability of power from such plants is not much
reliable.
5) The site of hydroelectric station is selected on the basis of water availability
at economical head. Such sites are usually away from the load centers. The
transmission of power from PowerStation to the load center requires long
transmission lines. This substantially increases the capital expenditure and
also there is loss of power in such transmissions.
6) 5. It takes long time for its construction as compared to thermal plants.

4.1.17. Thermal Power Plant/Station

A thermal power plant or station is a power plant in which heat energy is
converted to electric power. In most of the places in the world the turbine is
steam-driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which
drives an electrical generator. Thermal power generation plant or thermal power
station is the most conventional source of electric power. Thermal power plant is
also referred as coal thermal power plant and steam turbine power plant.

4.1.18. Working of Thermal Power Plant

The working of thermal power station is very simple. A power generation plant
mainly consists of alternator runs with help of steam turbine. The steam is
obtained from high pressure boilers. Generally in India, bituminous coal, brown
coal and peat are used as fuel of boiler. The bituminous coal is used as boiler fuel
has volatile matter from 8 to 33 % and ash content 5 to 16 %.

To increase the thermal efficiency, the coal is used in the boiler in powder form.
In thermal power plant, the steam is produced in high pressure in the steam boiler
due to burning of fuel (pulverised coal) in boiler furnaces. This steam is further
supper heated in a super heater. This supper heated steam then enters into the
turbine and rotates the turbine blades. The turbine is mechanically so coupled
with alternator that its rotor will rotate with the rotation of turbine blades.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.26

Boiler
Steam

Coal
hopper

Turbine Alternator
Feed water

Pulveriser
Furnace Condense

Chimney

Dust Preheated air

Feed water pump
Collector
or Precipitator

Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of Thermal Power Plant

After entering in turbine the steam pressure suddenly falls and corresponding
volume of the steam increases. After imparting energy to the turbine rotor the
steam passes out of the turbine blades into the condenser. In the condenser the
cold water is circulated with the help of pump which condenses the low pressure
wet steam. This condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater
where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water, it is
again heated in high pressure. The schematic diagram of thermal power plant is
shown in figure 2.1.

The working is summarised as follows:

1) First the pulverised coal is burnt into the furnace of steam boiler.
2) High pressure steam is produced in the boiler.
3) This steam is then passed through the super heater, where it further heated up.
4) This super-heated steam is then entered into a turbine at high speed.
5) In turbine this steam force rotates the turbine blades that means here in the
turbine the stored potential energy of the high pressured steam is converted
into mechanical energy.
6) After rotating the turbine blades, the steam has lost its high pressure, passes
out of turbine blades and enters into a condenser.
7) In the condenser the cold water is circulated with help of pump which condenses
the low pressure wet steam.
8) This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water heater
where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water, it
is then again heated in a high pressure heater where the high pressure of
steam is used for heating.
9) The turbine in thermal power station acts as a prime mover of the alternator.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.27

Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant

Overall efficiency of steam power plant is defined as the ratio of heat equivalent
of electrical output to the heat of combustion of coal. The overall efficiency of a
thermal power station or plant varies from 20% to 26% and it depends upon plant
capacity.
Installed Plant Capacity Average Overall Thermal Efficiency
up to 1MW 4%
1MW to 10MW 12%
10MW to 50MW 16%
50MW to 100MW 24%
above 100MW 27%

Advantages of Thermal Power Plant

The advantages of thermal power station are:
1) Economical for low initial cost other than any generating plant.
2) Land required less than hydro power plant.
3) Since coal is main fuel and its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so
generation cost is economical.
4) Maintenance is easier.
5) Thermal power plant can be installed in any location where transportation
and bulk of water are available.

Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plant

The disadvantages of thermal power station are:
1) The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due to
fuel, maintenance, etc.
2) Large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station is
responsible for Global warming.
3) The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse effect
on the aquatic lives in the water and disturbs the ecology.
4) Overall efficiency of thermal power plant is low like less 30%.

4.1.19. Nuclear Power Plants

A nuclear power plant or nuclear power station is a thermal power station in
which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional
thermal power stations the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam
turbine connected to an electric generator which produces electricity. Nuclear
plants, like plants that burn coal, oil and natural gas, produce electricity by
boiling water into steam.

This steam then turns turbines to produce electricity. The difference is that
nuclear plants do not burn anything. Instead, they use uranium fuel, consisting of
solid ceramic pellets, to produce electricity through a process called fission.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.28

Nuclear power plants obtain the heat needed to produce steam through a physical
process. This process, called fission, entails the splitting of atoms of uranium in a
nuclear reactor. The uranium fuel consists of small, hard ceramic pellets that are
packaged into long, vertical tubes. Bundles of this fuel are inserted into the
reactor.

Nuclear fuel consists of two types of uranium, U-238 and U-235. Most of the
uranium in nuclear fuel is U-238, but U-235 splits or fissions easily. In U-235
atoms, the nucleus, which is composed of protons and neutrons, is unstable. As
the nuclei break up, they release neutrons.

When the neutrons hit other uranium atoms, those atoms also split, releasing
neutrons of their own, along with heat; these neutrons strike other atoms, splitting
them. One fission triggers others, which triggers still more until there is a chain
reaction. When that happens, fission becomes self-sustaining.

Rods inserted among the tubes holding the uranium fuel control the nuclear
reaction. Control rods, inserted or withdrawn to varying degrees, slow or
accelerate the reaction. Water separates fuel tubes in the reactor. The heat
produced by fission turns this water into steam. The steam drives a turbine, which
spins a generator to create electricity.

4.1.20. Components of Nuclear Power Plants

A nuclear power station has mainly four components which are explained as
follows:
1) Nuclear Reactor: In nuclear reactor, Uranium 235 is subjected to nuclear
fission. It controls the chain reaction that starts when the fission is done. The
chain reaction must be controlled otherwise rate of energy release will be
fast, there may be a high chance of explosion. In nuclear fission, the nuclei of
nuclear fuel, such as U235 are bombarded by slow flow of neutrons. Due to
this bombarding, the nuclei of Uranium is broken, which causes release of
huge heat energy and during breaking of nuclei, number of neutrons are also
emitted.

These emitted neutrons are called fission neutrons. These fission neutrons
cause further fission. Further fission creates more fission neutrons which
again accelerate the speed of fission. This is cumulative process. If the
process is not controlled, in very short time the rate of fission becomes so
high, it will release so huge amount of energy, there may be dangerous
explosion. This cumulative reaction is called chain reaction.

This chain reaction can only be controlled by removing fission neutrons

from nuclear reactor. The speed of the fission can be controlled by changing
the rate of removing fission neutrons from reactors.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.29

A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical shaped stunt pressure vessel. The fuel rods
are made of nuclear fuel, i.e., Uranium moderates, which are generally made
of graphite cover the fuel rods. The moderates slow down the neutrons before
collision with uranium nuclei. The controls rods are made of cadmium
because cadmium is a strong absorber of neutrons.
The control rods are inserted in the fission chamber. These cadmium controls
rods can be pushed down and pull up as per requirement. When these rods are
pushed down enough, most of the fission neutrons are absorbed by these rods,
hence the chain reaction stops.
Again, while the controls rods are pulled up, the availability of fission
neutrons becomes more which increases the rates of chain reaction. Hence, it
is clear that by adjusting the position of the control rods, the rate of nuclear
reaction can be controlled and consequently the generation of electrical
power can be controlled as per load demand. In actual practice, the pushing
and pulling of control rods are controlled by automatic feedback system as
per requirement of the load. It is not controlled manually. The heat released
during nuclear reaction, are carried to the heat exchanger by means of coolant
consist of sodium metal.
2) Heat Exchanger: In heat exchanger, the heat carried by sodium metal, is
dissipated in water and water is converted to high pressure steam here. After
releasing heat in water the sodium metal coolant comes back to the reactor by
means of coolant circulating pump.
3) Steam Turbine: In nuclear power plant, the steam turbine plays the same
role as coal power plant. The steam drives the turbine in same way. After
doing its job, the exhaust steam comes into steam condenser where it is
condensed to provide space to the steam behind it.
4) Alternator: An alternator, coupled with turbine, rotates and generates
electrical power, for utilisation. The output from alternator is delivered to the
bus-bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.

4.1.21. Working of Nuclear Power Plants

Electrical power can be generated by means of nuclear power. In nuclear power
station, electrical power is generated by nuclear reaction. Here, heavy radioactive
elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear
fission. This fission is done in a special apparatus called as reactor. Before going
to details of nuclear power station; in fission process, the nuclei of heavy
radioactive atoms are broken into two nearly equal parts.

During this breaking of nuclei, huge quantity of energy is released. This release
of energy is due to mass defect. That means, the total mass of initial product
would be reduced during fission. This loss of mass during fission is converted
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.30

into heat energy as per famous equation E = mc2, established by Albert Einstein.
The schematic diagram of nuclear power plant is shown in figure 2.3.

Containment Chimney
Building

Turbine Altemator

Reactor Control Rods

Vessel Steam

Fuel Hot Water

Rods

Cool
Water
Coolant Pump Water
Condenser Cooling Tower
Heat Exchanger or Steam Generator

Figure 2.3: Schematic Diagram of Nuclear Power Plant

The basic principle of nuclear power station is same as steam power station. Only
difference is that, instead of using heat generated due to coal combustion, here in
nuclear power plant, heat generated due to nuclear fission is used to produce
steam from water in the boiler. This steam is used to drive a steam turbine. This
turbine is the prime mover of the alternator. This alternator generates electrical
energy.

Although, the availability of nuclear fuel is not much but very less amount of
nuclear fuel can generate huge amount of electrical energy. This is the unique
feature of a nuclear power plant. One kg of uranium is equivalent to 4500 metric
tons of high grade coal. That means complete fission of 1kg uranium can produce
as much heat as can be produced by complete combustion of 4500 metric tons
high grade coal.

This is why, although nuclear fuel is much costlier, but nuclear fuel cost per unit
electrical energy is still lower than that cost of energy generated by means of
other fuel like coal and diesel. To meet up conventional fuel crisis in present era,
nuclear power station can be the most suitable alternatives.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.31

Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants

The advantages of nuclear power plant are discussed below:
1) The fuel consumption in this power station is quite low and hence, cost for
generating single unit of energy is quite less than other conventional power
generation method. Amount of nuclear fuel required is also less.
2) A nuclear power station occupies much smaller space compared to other
conventional power station of same capacity.
3) This station does not require plenty of water; hence it is not essential to
construct plant near natural source of water. This also does not required huge
quantity of fuel; hence it is also not essential to construct the plant near coal
mine, or the place where good transport facilities are available. Because of
this, the nuclear power station can be established very near to the load centre.
4) There are large deposits of nuclear fuel globally therefore such plants can
ensure continued supply of electrical energy for coming thousands years.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants

The disadvantages of nuclear power plant are:
1) The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.
2) Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
3) Erection and commissioning of this plant is much complicated and
sophisticated than other conventional power station.
4) The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high
radioactive pollution.
5) The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear
power plant is quite higher since specialist trained people are required.
6) Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
7) As the by-products of nuclear reaction is high radioactive, it is very big
problem for disposal of this by products. It can only be disposed deep inside
ground or in a sea away from sea shore.

4.1.22. Diesel Power Plants

A Diesel power station (also known as stand-by power station) uses a diesel
engine as prime mover for the generation of electrical energy. This power station
is generally compact and thus can be located where it is actually required. This
kind of power station can be used to produce limited amounts of electrical
energy. In most countries these power stations are used as emergency supply
stations.

The diesel burns inside the engine and the combustion process moves a fluid that
turns the engine shaft and drives the alternator.

The alternator in turn, converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This
type of electricity generating power station will probably be used a long time into
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.32

the future, due to a need for reliable stand-by electrical source for emergency
situations.

4.1.23. Components of Diesel Power Plants

Following are the components of diesel power plant:
1) Diesel Engine: Diesel engines or compression ignition engines as they are
called are generally classified as two stroke engine and four stroke engines.
In diesel engine, air admitted into the cylinder is compressed, the
compression ratio being 12 to 20. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is
injected.

It burns and the burning gases expand and do work on the position. The
engine is directly coupled to the generator. The gases are then exhausted from
the cylinder to atmosphere.

2) Engine Starting System: This includes air compressor and starting air tank.
The function of this system is to start the engine from cold supplying
compressed air.

3) Fuel System: Pump draws diesel from storage tank and supplies it to the
small day tank through the filter. Day tank supplies the daily fuel need of
engine. The day tank is usually placed high so that diesel flows to engine
under gravity. Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by
the fuel injection pump. The fuel is supplied to the engine according to the
load on the plant.

4) Air Intake System: Air filters are used to remove dust from the incoming
air. Air filters may be dry type, which is made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil
bath type filters, the sir is swept over a bath of oil so that dust particles get
coated.

5) Exhaust System: In the exhaust system, silencer (muffler) is providing to

reduce the noise.

6) Engine Cooling System: The temperature of burning gases in the engine

cylinder is the order of 1500 to 2000°C, to keep the temperature at the
reasonable level, water is circulated inside the engine in water jackets which
are passage around the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber, etc. hot water
leaving the jacket is sent to heat exchanger. Raw water is made to flow
through the heat exchanger, where it takes up the heat of jacket water. It is
then cooled in the cooling tower and recirculates again.

7) Engine Lubrication System: It includes lubricating oil tank, oil pump and
cooler. Lubrication is essential to reduce friction and wear of engine parts
such as cylinder walls and piston.
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.33

Lubricating oil which gets heated due to friction of moving parts is cooled before
recirculation. The cooling water used in the engine is also used for cooling the
lubricant. The schematic of diesel engine power plant is shown in figure 2.4.

Air Filter Silencer

Day Tank
Diesel Engine Jacket water
pump
Fuel Injection
Filter Pump

S
Starting
Air tank

Oil Cooler
Air compressor Lubricating Oil pump Cooling

Coolant
Oil tank tower
Filter
Pump
Heat exchanger

Fuel Storage Tank

Raw water Pump
Figure 2.4: Schematic of Diesel Engine Power Plant

4.1.24. Working of Diesel Power Plants

For generating electrical power, it is essential to rotate the rotor of an alternator
by means of a prime mover. The prime mover can be driven by different
methods. Using diesel engine as prime mover is one of the popular methods of
generating power. When prime mover of the alternators is diesel engine, the
power station is called diesel power station. The mechanical power required for
driving alternator comes from combustion of diesel.

As the diesel costs high, this type of power station is not suitable for producing
power in large scale in our country. But for small scale production of electric
power, and where, there is no other easily available alternatives of producing
electric power, diesel power station are used. Steam power stations and hydro
power plants are mainly used to produce maximum portion of the electrical load
demands. But for steam power station, sufficient supply of coal and water are
required.

For hydropower station, plenty source of water and big dams are required. But
where all these facilities are not available, such as no easy way of coal
transportation and no scope of constructing dam, there diesel plant is
established. Diesel power plants are also popularly used as standby supply of
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.34

different industries, commercial complexes, hospitals, etc. During power cut,

these diesel power generators are run to fulfil required demand.

Advantages of Diesel Power Plants

The advantages of diesel power plants are:
1) Plant layout is simple. Hence it can be quickly installed and commissioned,
while the erection and starting of a steam power plant or hydro-plant takes a
fairly long time.
2) Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
3) Location of the plant is near the load centre.
4) The load operation is easy and requires minimum labours.
5) Efficiency at part loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
6) Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
7) The plant is smaller in size than steam power plant for same capacity.
8) Diesel plants operate at high overall efficiency than steam.

Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plants

The disadvantages of diesel power plants are:
1) Plant capacity is limited to about 50 MW of power.
2) Diesel fuel is much more expensive than coal.
3) The maintenance and lubrication costs are high.
4) Diesel engines are not guaranteed for operation under continuous, while
steam can work fewer than 25% of overload continuously.

4.1.25. Applications of Diesel Power Plants

Followings are the different applications of diesel power plants:
1) Peak Load: We can notice the combination of the hydro plant and thermal
plant in the diesel engine as a peak load unit. To meet the peak demand they
stopped and started the engine easily.
2) Mobile Plant: Diesel plants fixed on trailers can be pre owned for emergency
or temporary purposes like providing power to huge civil engineering
workings.
3) Standby Unit: If it cannot handle up with the demand or main unit fails then
the diesel plant can supply the required power source.
4) Emergency Plant: During the time of power disruption in an energetic unit
like industrial plant or a hospital, a diesel electric plant can be used to
generate the power.
5) Nursery Station: In the absence of the key grid for power supply a diesel
plant is installed in the town. When the power is required in the other stations
in that case they transport the power from one place to the other. It means
they transfer to the small plants. So this is known as nursery station.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.35

6) Starting Stations: The main purpose of the diesel station is used to run the
induced draft fans, forced draft fans. Boiler feed is required for the larger
steam power plants.
i) They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used
in transportation systems consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles and
aero-planes.
ii) They can be used for electrical power generation in capacities from 100
to 5000 H. P.
iii) They can be used as standby power plants.
iv) They can be used as peak load for some other types of power plants.
v) Industrial concerns where power requirement are small say of the order
of 500kW, diesel power plants become more economical due to their
higher overall efficiency.

4.1.26. Heat Engines

An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form
with its associated conversion efficiency.

Heat, microscopically, is particle motion- atoms vibrating, molecules bouncing

off each other, or electrons "sloshing around" in an electrical conductor. Matter
normally expands, when it is heated; this expansion can be used to do useful
work.
In thermoelectric devices, such as those used to power deep space probes, heat is
converted directly into electric current.

4.1.27. Types of Heat Engines

Heat engine classification can be done into two types. They are listed below:
1) External Combustion Engine (EC Engine): External combustion engines
are those in which combustion takes place outside the machines. Heat
produced during external combustion is used for inducing useful mechanical
motion in the cylinder of the engine.

Steam Engine, Stirling Engine, Steam Turbine, Closed cycle gas turbine are
the types of External Combustion Engines.

2) Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine): Internal combustion engines are

those in which combustion takes place within the engine. Chemical energy of
the fuel is converted to thermal energy, and thermal energy is converted to
mechanical energy, which moves the piston up and down inside the cylinder.
Power from the piston is transmitted to the crankshaft which is ultimately
transmitted to the wheels via a transmission system. Modern automobiles use
internal combustion engines for propulsion.

Gasoline Engine, Diesel Engine, Wankel Engine, Open Cycle Gas Turbine
are the types of Internal Combustion Engines.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.36

4.1.28. Comparison between S.I and C.I engines in detail

S.no Parameter SI Engine CI Engine
It is and engine in which heat
It is an engine in which the of compressed air is used to
spark is used to burn the burn the
1. Definition fuel. fuel.
2. Fuel used Petrol is used as fuel. Diesel is used as fuel.
3. Operating cycle It operates on Otto cycle. It operates on Diesel cycle.
4. Compression ratio Low compression ratio. High compression ratio.
5. Thermal efficiency High thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.
Spark plug is used to
produce spark for the Heat of compressed air is
6. Method of ignition ignition. used for the ignition.
7. Engine Speed High speed engines. Low speed engines.
Low pressure is generated High pressure is generated
8. Pressure generated after combustion. after combustion.
Constant parameter
9. during cycle Constant volume cycle. Constant pressure cycle.
10. Intake Air + fuel. Only air.
11. Weight of engine Si engine has less weight. CI engine are heavier.
12. Noise production It produces less noise. It produces more noise.
Production of Less Hydrocarbon is More hydrocarbon is
13. hydrocarbon produced. produced.
Starting of SI engine is Starting of CI engine is
14. Starting easy. difficult.
15. Maintenance cost Low High
16. Vibration problem Less Very High
17. Cost of engine Less cost High cost
Volume to power
18. ratio Less High
19. Fuel supply Carburettor Injector
It is used in light It is used in heavy duty
commercial vehicles like vehicles likes bus, trucks,
20. application motorcycle, cars etc. ships etc.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.37

4.1.29. Comparison between Thermal and Hydro Power

Plants
The comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of thermal and hydro
power plants based upon various parameters are shown in the following table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Comparison between Thermal and Hydro Power Plants
Parameters Thermal Power Plant Hydro Power Plant
Principle of It works on Modified Rankine Potential energy of water is
operation Cycle. converted to Kinetic energy
and used to rotate a turbine.
Location It is located at a site where Located where a large
coal, water and transportation amount of water can be
facilities are available easily. collected easily in a reservoir
It is located near load centres. by constructing a dam.
Usually in a hilly area at high
altitude.
Requirement of Need a large space due to coal Very large space required. A
Space storage, turbine, boiler and dam is huge.
other auxiliaries.
Efficiency Overall efficiency is least As high as 85% to 90%
compared to other plants.
(30%-32%)
Fuel Used Coal (mostly) or oil. Water
Availability of Coal reserves are present all Availability of water is
Fuel over the world. However, coal unreliable because it depends
is non-renewable and limited. on the weather (rainfall.)
Cost of Fuel High. As Coal is heavy and Water is free.
has to be transported to the
plant.
Initial Cost of Lower than Hydroelectric and Very high. Construction of a
Plant Nuclear power plants. dam and reservoir is
expensive.
Running Costs Higher than Hydroelectric and Zero, because no fuel is
Nuclear power plants. needed.
Maintenance High as Skilled engineers and Low
Costs staff are needed.
Transmission Low. It is usually located near High. It is located in remote
and Distribution load centres. areas, away from load
Cost centres.
Standby Losses More than hydroelectric and None.
nuclear power plants. Boiler
flame has to be kept burning,
so some amount of coal is
used constantly, even when
the turbine is not in operation.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.38

Cleanliness Less clean. Smoke and ash are Clean.

produced.
Environmental Air pollution occurs and leads Affects marine life. People in
Considerations to acid rain. Greenhouse gases the region have to be
are also produced. relocated.

Ques 1) Give a comparison between nuclear and diesel power plants.

Ans: Comparison between Nuclear and Diesel Power plants

The Comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear and diesel
power plants based upon various parameters are shown in the following table 2.2:

Table 2.2: Comparison between Nuclear and Diesel Power Plants

Parameters Nuclear Power Plant Diesel Power Plant
Principle of Thermonuclear fission. Combustion of diesel
operation
Location Located away from heavily Away from residential areas
populated areas.
Requirement of Requires minimum space Require more capacity than
Space compared to other plants of the nuclear power plant.
same capacity.
Efficiency Higher than Thermal Power Depends upon engine
Station. About 55% efficiency
Fuel Used Uranium (U235) and other Diesel fuel
radioactive metals.
Availability of Fuel Deposits of nuclear fuel are Diesel is obtained from
present all over the world. Also, crude oil beneath the earth
uranium can be extracted from crust.
sea water, but it’s a complicated
and complex process.
Cost of Fuel Fuel (uranium) itself is not too Costlier than steam and
costly. However, if enriched water.
uranium is used, then the cost of
fuel increases considerably. A
small amount of fuel is used, so
transportation costs are less.
Initial Cost of Plant Highest. A nuclear reactor is Lies between thermal and
complex and requires the most nuclear.
skilled engineers.
Running Costs Small amount of fuel used, so Running cost is less.
running cost is low.
Maintenance Costs Very high. Skilled personnel are Less as compared to
needed. nuclear plant.
Transmission and Quite low. Such plants can be High if these plants are
Distribution Cost located near the load centres. away from the refineries.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.39

Standby Losses 7% to 10% of unit capacity. More than 10%

Cleanliness Radioactive waste is produced. Greenhouse gasses are
produced
Environmental Disposal of radioactive wastes Air pollution occurs and
Considerations may affect the environment, leads to acid rain.
especially if it is buried
underground. Underwater
contamination may occur.

4.1.30. Steam Boiler

Steam boiler or simply a boiler is basically a closed vessel into which water is
heated until the water is converted into steam at required pressure.

4.1.31. Working Principle of Boiler

The basic working principle of boiler is very simple and easy to understand. The
boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is stored. Fuel (generally
coal) is bunt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced.
These hot gasses come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these hot
gases transfer to the water and consequently steam is produced in the boiler. Then
this steam is piped to the turbine of thermal power plant.
There are many different types of boiler utilized for different purposes like
running a production unit, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to
warm up the surroundings etc.

4.1.32. Types/Classification of Boiler

There are large numbers of boiler designs, but boilers can be classified according
to the following criteria:
1) According to Relative Passage of Water and Hot Gases:
i) Water Tube Boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through a number
of small tubes which are surrounded by hot combustion gases,
e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Benson boilers, etc.
ii) Fire-tube Boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler
tubes, which are surrounded by water, e.g., Lancashire, Cochran,
locomotive boilers, etc.
2) According to Water Circulation Arrangement
i) Natural Circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density
difference of hot and water, e.g., Babcock and Wilcox boilers, Lancashire
boilers, Cochran, locomotive boilers etc.
ii) Forced Circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path,
therefore, the steam generation rate increases, Example: Benson, La
Mont, Velox boilers, etc.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.40

3) According to the Use

i) Stationary Boiler: These boilers are used for power plants or processes
steam in plants.
ii) Portable Boiler: These are small units of mobile and are used for
temporary uses at the sites.
iii) Locomotive: These are specially designed boilers. They produce steam
to drive railway engines.
iv) Marine Boiler: These are used on ships.
4) According to Position of the Boilers: Horizontal, inclined or vertical
boilers.
5) According to the Position of Furnace
i) Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell, e.g., Cochran,
Lancashire boilers, etc.
ii) Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell,
e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling boilers, etc.
6) According to Pressure of Steam Generated
i) Low pressure boiler: a boiler which produces steam at pressure of 15-20
bar is called a low-pressure boiler. This steam is used for process heating.
ii) Medium-Pressure Boiler: It has a working pressure of steam from 20
bar to 80 bar and is used for power generation or combined use of power
generation and process heating.
iii) High-Pressure Boiler: It produces steam at a pressure of more than 80
bar.
iv) Sub-Critical Boiler: If a boiler produces steam at a pressure which is
less than the critical pressure, it is called as sub-critical boiler.
v) Super Critical Boiler: These boilers produce steam at a pressure greater
than the critical pressure. These boilers do not have an evaporator and the
water directly flashes into steam and thus they are called once through
boilers.
7) According to Charge in the Furnace.
i) Pulverized fuel,
ii) Supercharged fuel and
iii) Fluidized bed combustion boilers.

4.1.33. Steam Boiler Efficiency

The percentage of total heat exported by outlet steam in the total heat supplied by
the fuel (coal) is called steam boiler efficiency.
Heat export by outlet steam
Steam Bioler Efficiency (%) =
Heat supplied by the fuel
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.41

It includes with thermal efficiency, combustion efficiency and fuel to steam

efficiency.
Steam boiler efficiency depends upon the size of boiler used.
A typical efficiency of steam boiler is 80% to 88%. Actually there are some
losses occur like incomplete combustion, radiating loss occurs from steam boiler
surrounding wall, defective combustion gas, etc. Hence, efficiency of steam
boiler gives this result.

Requirements of Boiler
Basically boiler is a device which coverts water into steam.
1) Furnace, where the fuel is burnt
2) Water space, where the water is held, a cylindrical shell or a water wall.
3) Steam space, to store the steam generated and
4) A heating surface to heat the water stored either a water wall or a flue tube
through the water stored.

Hence the process of transfer of heat, produced by the combustion of fuel to

water to produce steam m is achieved.

4.1.34. Working of Boiling Water Reactor with Neat

Sketch
The boiler system comprises of feed water system, steam system and fuel system.
The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically
to meet the steam demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and
repair. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler.
Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use.

Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked
with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to
provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel
system depends on the type of fuel used in the system. A typical boiler room
schematic is shown in figure 2.1.

Safety Stock in Vent

Valve process Exhaust Gases
Condensate
Yeats
Return Furze
Dege- Process
narator
Safety Economiser
Valves
FGR Pumps
Vent
Water
Resource Water Source
Blowdown
separator
Fuel
Softeners
Brine
Chemical Feed
Figure 2.1: Boiler Room Schematic
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.42

The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water.
The two sources of feed water are:
1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes and
2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler
room and plant processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, the feed water is
preheated by economiser, using the waste heat in the flue gas.

4.1.35. Difference between Fire Tube and Water Tube

Boilers

Fire Tube boiler Water Tube Boiler

1) Hot flue gases flow inside the tube Water flows inside the tube and the
and the water outside the tube. flue gases outside the tube.

2) This boiler pressure is limited up to This boiler pressure is up to 70-100

20 bars. These boilers are generally bars. So these boilers are generally
low or medium pressure boiler. high pressure boiler

3) Fire tube boiler have lower rate of It has higher rate of steam production.
steam production compare to water
tube.

4) These boilers are almost internally These boilers are generally externally
fired. Furnace is placed at the one fired.
end of fire tube.

5) It is suitable for the production It is suitable for large power plant.

work like sugar mill, textile
industries.

6) Risk of explosion is lower due to Risk of explosion is higher due to

low pressure. high pressure boiler.

7) This boiler occupies large floor It occupies less floor space compare
space. to fire tube boiler.

8) It required less skill to operate. It required a skilled operator.

9) It is difficult to repair and cleaning. It is easily clean and repairable due to

externally fired.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.43

10) It required large shell diameter It required small shell diameter.

because the fire tube situated inside
the shell.

11) This boiler is difficult to construct. This is simple in construction.

12) The efficiency of fire tube boiler is This boiler is more efficient.
less compare to water tube. It will
increase by using other accessories.

13) The maintenance of this boiler is This boiler is easy to maintain.

costly. It is required regular
inspection.

14) The treatment of water is not The water flows through small
necessary. diameter tube. So water is treated
before entering into the tube
otherwise it will jam the tube.

15) Example Lancashire boiler Example Babcock and Wilcox boiler

4.1.36. Cochran Boiler

Cochran boiler is a vertical, coal or oil fired, fire-tube boiler. It is the
modification of a simple vertical boiler with increase in surface area.

4.1.36.1. Working Principle of Cochran Boiler

Cochran boiler works as same like other fire tube boilers. It can be understand by
following points. Coal is fed into the grate through the fire hole and burnt. Ash
formed during burning is collected in the ashpit provided just below the grate and
then it is removed manually.

The host gases from the grate pass through the flue pipe to the combustion
chamber. The hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the
horizontal fire tubes and transfer the heat to the water by convection.

The flue gases coming out of fire tubes pass through the smoke box and are
exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.

Smoke box is provided with a door for cleaning the fire tubes and smoke box.
Cochran boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with its top in a spherical shape. The
furnace of the Cochran boiler is in hemispherical shape. The grate is placed at the
bottom of the furnace and the ash-pit is located below the grate. The coal is fed
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.44

into the grate through the fire door and ash formed is collected in the ash-pit and
coal is removed manually. The furnace and the combustion chamber are
connected through a pipe. The back of the combustion chamber is lined with fire
bricks.

The hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the nest of horizontal
fire tubes. The passing through the fire tubes transfers a large amount of the heat
to the water through convection. The flue gases exhausting out by fire tubes to the
atmosphere through chimney.
Steam
stop valve Steam out

Pressure gauge Dead weight

safety valve
Manhole
Anti-priming
Feed check valve pipe Chimney

Water in Steam

Water level
indicator
Fusible plug Water

Combustion
Chamber
Doors
Fire brick lining
Fire Tubes
Smoke Box

Boiler shell
Blow off cock Fire Box
Fire door
Mud and water out
during blow off Ash-pit
Air in
Water Steam Fire and hot gases

Figure: Schematic Diagram of a Cochran Boiler

The spherical top and spherical shape of firebox are the special features of
Cochran boiler. For constructing this shapes requires least volume material. The
hemi-spherical head of the Cochran boiler shell gives maximum strength to
withstand the pressure of the steam inside the boiler. The hemi-spherical crown of
the fire box is advantageous for resisting intense heat and for the absorption of
the radiant heat from the furnace.

Coal or oil can be used as a fuel in Cochran boiler. If oil is selected as fuel, no
grate is required but the bottom of the furnace is lined with fire bricks. Oil
burners are fitted at a suitable location below the fire door. A manhole near the
top of the spherical shell is made for cleaning of boiler. Also a number of hand-
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.45

holes are provided around the outer shell for cleaning purposes. The smoke box
in is provided inside the boiler with doors for cleaning inside the fire tubes.

The flow of air through the grate is caused by means of the draught created by the
chimney. A damper is usually placed inside the chimney to manage the discharge
of hot gases from the chimney and thereby the supply of air to the grate is
controlled. The chimney may be additionally supplied with a steam nozzle to
discharge the flue gases quicker through the chimney. The steam to the nozzle is
provided from the boiler.

4.1.36.2. Functions of Cochran Boiler

Boiler is provided with all required mountings. The function of each mounting is
briefly described below:
1) Pressure Gauge: Pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the steam in the
boiler.
2) Water Level Indicator: Water level indicator is used to indicate the water
level in the boiler The water level in the boiler should not fall below a critical
level otherwise the boiler will be overheated and the tubes may damage.
3) Safety Valve: The function of the safety valve is used to prevent the increase
of steam pressure in the holler above its design pressure. When the pressure
increases above design pressure, the valve opens and discharges the steam to
the atmosphere. When this pressure falls just below design pressure, the valve
closes automatically. Usually the valve is spring controlled.
4) Fusible Plug: If the water level within the boiler falls below a predetermined
level, the boiler shell and tubes will be overheated. And if this is continued,
the tubes may get damaged, as the water cover will be removed. It can be
prevented by stopping the burning of fuel on the grate. When the temperature
of the shell increases above a particular level, the fusible plug, which is
mounted over the grate, melts and forms an opening. The high-pressure steam
pushes the remaining water through this hole on the grate and the fire is
extinguished.
5) Blow-off Cock: The water supplied to the boiler always has impurities like
mud, sand and, salt. Due to heating of water, they get deposited at the bottom
of the boiler and if they are not removed, they are accumulated at the bottom
of the boiler and reduces its capacity and heat transfer rates. Also the salt
content in water can goes on increasing as a result of evaporation of water.
These deposited salts are removed with the blow-off cock mounting.
The blow-off cock is located at the bottom of the boiler as shown in the
above figure and is operated only when the boiler is running. When the blow-
off cock is opened during the boiler operation, the high-pressure steam
pushes the water and the collected waste material at the bottom is sent out.
Blowing some water out also reduces the concentration of the salt. The blow-
off cock is usually operated for few minutes after every 5 to 6 hours of boiler
working. Blow-off cock helps to keep the boiler clean.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.46

6) Steam Stop Valve: Steam step stop valve regulates the flow of steam supply
outside. The steam from the boiler first enters into an ant-priming pipe where
most of the water particles associated with steam are removed.
7) Feed Check Valve: The high pressure feed water is supplied to the boiler
through this valve. Feed check valve opens towards the boiler only and feeds
the water to the boiler. If the feed water pressure is less than the boiler steam
pressure then this valve remains closed and prevents the back flow of steam
through the valve.

The outstanding features of Cochran boiler are listed below:

1) In Cochran boiler any type of fuel can be used.
2) It is best suitable for small capacity requirements.
3) It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and about 75% thermal
efficiency with oil firing.
4) The ratio of grate area to the heating surface area varies from 10: 1 to 25: 1.

4.1.36.3. Advantages of Cochran Boiler

1) Cochran boiler is very compact and requires minimum floor space.
2) Construction cost is low.
3) It is semi-portable and hence easy to install and transport.
4) Because of self-contained furnace no brick work setting is necessary.

4.1.36.4. Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler

1) It requires high head room space.
2) The capacity is less due to its vertical design.
3) Due to its vertical design, it often presents difficulty in cleaning and
inspection.

4.1.37. Turbine/Hydraulic Turbine

The hydraulic turbine is a mechanical device that converts the potential energy
contained in an elevated body of water (a river or reservoir) into rotational
mechanical energy.
1) Impulse Turbines
2) Reaction Turbines

4.1.37.1. Impulse Turbines

The steam jets are directed at the turbine’s bucket shaped rotor blades where the
pressure exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocity of the steam
to reduce as it imparts its kinetic energy to the blades. The blades in turn change
the direction of flow of the steam however its pressure remains constant as it
passes through the rotor blades since the cross section of the chamber between the
blades is constant. Impulse turbines are therefore also known as constant
pressure turbines.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.47

The next series of fixed blades reverses the direction of the steam before it passes
to the second row of moving blades.

4.1.37.2. Reaction Turbines

The rotor blades of the reaction turbine are shaped more like aero-foils, arranged
such that the cross section of the chambers formed between the fixed blades
diminishes from the inlet side towards the exhaust side of the blades. The
chambers between the rotor blades essentially form nozzles so that as the steam
progresses through the chambers its velocity increases while at the same time its
pressure decreases, just as in the nozzles formed by the fixed blades.

Thus the pressure decreases in both the fixed and moving blades. As the steam
emerges in a jet from between the rotor blades, it creates a reactive force on the
blades which in turn creates the turning moment on the turbine rotor, just as in
steam engine. (Newton’s Third Law – For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction).

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

Moving
buckets Rotor
Fixed Rotating
nozzle nozzle
Moving
Rotating
buckets
nozzle
Fixed Rotor
nozzle
Stator

Rotation
Steam Pressure Steam Pressure

Steam Velocity Steam Velocity

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.48

4.1.38. Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbines

Table: Differences between Impulse and Reaction Turbines
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1) In impulse turbine all hydraulic In reaction turbine only some amount of the
energy is converted into kinetic available energy is converted into kinetic
energy by a nozzle and it is the jet so energy before the fluid enters the runner.
produced which strikes the runner
blades.
2) The velocity of jet which changes, the Both pressure and velocity changes as fluid
pressure throughout remaining passes through a runner. Pressure at inlet is
atmosphere. much higher than at outlet.
3) Water-tight casing is not necessary. The runner must be enclosed within a
Casing has no hydraulic function to watertight casing.
perform. It only serves to prevent
splashing and guide water to the tail
race.
4) Water is admitted only in the form of Water is admitted over the entire
jets. There may be one or more jets circumference of the runner.
striking equal number of buckets
simultaneously.
5) The turbine does not run full and air Water completely fills at the passages
has a free access to the bucket. between the blades and while flowing
between inlet and outlet sections does work
on the blades.
6) The turbine is always installed above Reaction turbine are generally connected to
the tail race and there is no draft tube the tail race through a draft tube which is a
used. gradually expanding passage. It may be
installed below or above the tail race.
7) Flow regulation is done by means of a The flow regulation in reaction turbine is
needle valve fitted into the nozzle. carried out by means of a guide-vane
assembly. Other component parts are scroll
casing, stay ring runner and the draft tub.
8) Example of impulse turbine is Pelton Examples of reaction turbine are Francis
wheel. turbine, Kaplan and Propeller Turbine, De-
riaz Turbine, Tubular Turbine, etc.
9) Impulse turbines have more hydraulic Reaction turbines have relatively less
efficiency. efficiency.
10) Impulse turbine operates at high water Reaction turbine operates at low and
heads. medium heads.
11) Water flow is tangential direction to Water flows in radial and axial direction to
the turbine wheel. turbine wheel.
12) Needs low discharge of water. Needs medium and high discharge of water.
13) Degree of reaction is zero. Degree of reaction is more than zero and
less than or equal to one.
14) Impulse turbine involves less Reaction turbine involves more
maintenance work. maintenance work.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.49

4.1.39. Working Principle of Simple Impulse Turbine

Impulse turbine works on the basic principle of impulse. When the jet of water
strikes at the turbine blade with full of its speed, it generates a large force which
used to rotate the turbine. The force is depends on the time interval and velocity
of jet strikes the blades. This turbine used to rotate the generator, which produces
electric power.
Dam

Penstrock Turbine
Nozzle Vans

Tail Race
Figure

In Impulse Steam Turbine, there are some fixed nozzles and moving blades are
present on a disc mounted on a shaft. Moving blades are in symmetrical order.
The steam enters the turbine casing with some pressure. After that, it passes
through one or more numbers of fixed nozzles into the turbine. The relative
velocity of steam at the outlet of the moving blades is same as the inlet to the
blades. During Expansion, steam’s pressure falls. Due to high-pressure drop in
the nozzles the velocity of steam increases.

Working Principle of Parson’s Reaction Turbine

The reaction turbine is composed of moving blades (nozzles) alternating
with fixed nozzles. In the reaction turbine, the steam is expanded in fixed nozzles
and also in the moving nozzles. In other words, the steam is continually
expanding as it flows over the blades. There is pressure and velocity loss in the
moving blades. The moving blades have a converging steam nozzle. Hence, when
the steam passes over the fixed blades, it expands with decrease in steam pressure
and increase in kinetic energy.

In reaction turbines, the steam expands through the fixed nozzle, where the
pressure potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The high-velocity steam
from fixed nozzles impacts the blades (nozzles) changes its direction and undergo
further expansion. The change in its direction and the steam acceleration applies a
force.

The resulting impulse drives the blades forward, causing the rotor to turn. There
is no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both
pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor. In this type of turbine the pressure drops take place in a number of stages,
because the pressure drop in a single stage is limited.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.50

The main feature of this type of turbine is that in contrast to the impulse turbine,
the pressure drop per stage is lower, so the blades become smaller and the number
of stages increases. On the other hand, reaction turbines are usually more
efficient, i.e. they have higher “isentropic turbine efficiency”. The reaction
turbine was invented by Sir Charles Parsons and is known as the Parsons
turbine.

In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for electricity generation, a
reaction turbine would require approximately double the number of blade rows as
an impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this
makes the reaction turbine much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a
reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same
thermal energy conversion.

Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same
unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to
its periphery. The rotor blades are usually designed like an impulse blade at the
rot and like a reaction blade at the tip.
Reaction Turbine
Steam velocity
pressure

Co-ordinate
Figure

4.1.40. Gas Turbine

A Gas turbine is a combustion engine that can convert natural gas or other liquid
fuels to mechanical energy. This energy then drives a generator that produces
electrical energy.

It is a type of ‘internal combustion engine’. And it consists of an upstream

‘rotating compressor’ coupled with the downstream ‘turbine’ and a ‘combustion
chamber’.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.51

4.1.41. Classification of Gas Turbine

1) Open Cycle Gas Turbine
2) Closed Cycle Gas Turbine:
3) Semi Closed gas Turbine Cycle

4.1.41.1. Open Cycle Gas Turbine

Open cycle gas turbine, air is strained into compressor as of the atmosphere.
Compressed air is intense with directly flaming the fuel in air at stable pressure
within the combustion chamber. High pressure hot gases as of combustion
chamber drive turbine with the power is develop as the turbine shaft rotate. The
gas turbines are not character starting. Starting motor take the compressor till fuel
is inject in the combustion chamber, one time the turbine starts fast speed the
starting motor is detached. Piece of power develop through the gas turbine (about
60%) is use to drive compressor with the remains is use to drive a generator or
other mechanism.

In open cycle the working fluid specifically air with the fuel has to be change
constantly as they are exhausted into atmosphere. Therefore the entire flow
comes as of atmosphere with is return to the atmosphere, thus it is call open
cycle. Fuel Exhaust

Combustor

Gas Turbine
Electricity
Generator
Compressor Turbine

Intake Air
Figure

4.1.41.2. Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

In Closed cycle the dense air as of the atmosphere is excited in air heater (heat
exchanger). Heat is added to air heater as of various outside sources (oil or coal)
at stable pressure. High pressure work fluids increase through turbine with power
is developing. The exhaust work fluid is chilled in a pre-cooler before the similar
fluid is sent into compressor again.

Closed cycle gas turbine the similar working fluid is constantly circulated. The
fuel required for addition heat as of an external source can several fuels range as
of kerosene, to heavy oil with even peat and coal slurry with no reducing
efficiency.

Heat
Exchanger

Shaft
Power Power
Compressor Shaft Turbine
Turbine

Inlet Exhaust
Heat Exchanger
to Cool Exhaust
Gases

Figure:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.52

4.1.41.3. Semi Closed gas Turbine Cycle

The advantages of the open cycle plant, viz. quick and easy starting and the
closed cycle plant, viz. constant efficiency at all loads and higher unit rating
permitting the use of higher back pressure, are combined in a semi-closed cycle
gas turbine power plant. Here, part of the compressed air is heated by the gases
exiting the combustion chamber (CC) and then expanded in an air turbine which
drives the compressor, thus operating in a closed cycle.

The remaining air is used in the CC to burn fuel, and the combustion products
after heating the air expand in a gas turbine to drive the generator before
exhausting to the atmosphere (figure 11.47a).

Water out

Pre cooler

H.P.
Compressor Compressor
Water in
Turbine
Auxiliary
compressor

Fuel
Air from
Atmosphere
Combustion
chamber

Heat
exchanger

Generator To generator
turbine
Exhaust to
Figure 11.47a: atmosphere

4.1.42. Working Principle of a Closed Gas Turbine

Closed cycle gas turbine engines are usually used in nuclear power stations and
also used as standby power unit for the hydro-electric power stations.
Compressor, Turbine, heat exchanger for heating the working fluid termed as
heating chamber and heat exchanger for cooling the working fluid termed as
cooling chamber are the main components of closed cycle gas turbine engine.

Open cycle gas turbine engine could be modelled as closed cycle gas turbine
engine. Combustion process will be replaced here by constant pressure heat
addition from an external source in heating chamber and discharge process will
be replaced by constant pressure heat rejection in cooling chamber.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.53

Let us see the arrangements of various components of closed cycle gas turbine
engine qin

Heat
exchanger
3
2
wnet
Compressor Turbine

1 4
Heat
exchanger

qout

Figure

Air will enter into the compressor, where pressure and temperature of air will be
increased. Now air at high pressure and high temperature will enter to the heating
chamber as shown in above figure.

Working fluid i.e. high pressure and high temperature air will be heated from an
external source in heating chamber. High temperature nuclear rods are used here
for heating the working fluid i.e. air. Hence working fluid i.e. air will have high
pressure and high temperature at the discharge of the heating chamber.

High pressure and high temperature air will enter in to the turbine, where high
pressure and high temperature air will be expanded through the turbine. Pressure
and temperature of the air, both will be dropped here.

There will be drop in temperature of air but still temperature of air will be high,
while pressure of air will be reduced up to the pressure at which air will enter in
to the cooling chamber.

Air will be cooled in to the cooling chamber at constant pressure up to its original
temperature with the help of continuous circulating cold water and hence heat
will be rejected here at constant pressure. Again cold air coming from cooling
chamber will enter to compressor for repeating the cycle.

As we can observe here that exhaust air is not rejected to atmosphere but also
exhaust air re-circulated to the cooling chamber and therefore this cycle will be
termed as closed cycle gas turbine engine.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.54

Work energy will be generated from the turbine during the expansion of high
pressure and high temperature air and some part of this generated work will be
used to drive the compressor and hence compressor and turbine are assembled
with common shaft as shown in above figure.

Let us see the processes involved in closed cycle gas turbine engine
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression process, air entering in to the compressor
will be compressed here at high pressure and high temperature. Pressure will be
increased from P1 to P2 and volume will be decreased here from V1 to V2.
Temperature will be increased from T1 to T2 and entropy will remain constant as
this process will be isentropic process.

Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in to the heating chamber. Air will
be heated from an external source in heating chamber. Temperature of working
fluid i.e. air will be increased here from T2 to T3 and entropy will also increased
from S2 to S3.

P T 3
QH 3 QH
2 P = const.
Isentropic 2
4
Isentropic QL
1 QL 4 1 P = const. s
PV and TS Diagram for Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion process, high pressure and high temperature air
will be expanded through the turbine. Pressure of working fluid i.e. air will be
reduced here from P3 to P4 and volume will be increased here from V3 to V4.
Temperature will also be reduced from T3 to T4 and entropy will remain constant
as this process will be isentropic process.

Process 4-1: This process indicates the constant pressure heat rejection process,
where Air will be cooled in to the cooling chamber at constant pressure up to its
original temperature with the help of continuous circulating cold water. Working
fluid, i.e., air will be cooled here from T4 to T1 and entropy will also reduced
from S4 to S1.

4.1.43. Degree of Reaction

In turbo machinery, Degree of reaction or reaction ratio (R) is defined as the ratio
of static pressure drop in the rotor to the static pressure drop in the stage or as the
ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the stage.

Degree of reaction (R) is an important factor in designing the blades of a turbine,

compressors, pumps and other turbo-machinery. It also tells about the efficiency
of machine and is used in proper selection of machine for the required purpose.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.55

Various definitions exist in terms of enthalpies, pressures or flow geometry of the

device. In case of turbines, both impulse and reaction machines, degree of
reaction (R) is defined as the ratio of energy transfer by the change in static head
to the total energy transfer in the rotor i.e..
" Isentropic enthaply change in rotor"
R
" Isentropic enthalpy change in stage"

For a gas turbine or compressor it is defined as the ratio of isentropic heat drop in
the moving blades (i.e., the rotor) to the sum of the isentropic heat drops in the
fixed blades (i.e., the stator) and the moving blades i.e.,
" Isentropic heat drop in rotor"
R=
" Isentropic heat drop in stage"

Impulse and Reaction Principles

Turbo machines are classified as impulse and reaction machines depending on the
relative proportions of the static and dynamic heads involved in the energy
transfer. To aid this, we define a term referred to as degree of reaction Rd.

Degree of reaction Rd can be defined as the ratio of static head to the total head
in the energy transfer.

Rd = 2
( ) (
U12 − U 22 − Vr12 − Vr22 )
( ) ( ) (
V1 − V22 + U12 − U 22 − Vr21 − Vr22 )
Degree of reaction can be zero, positive or negative.

Rd = 0, characterizes a close turbo machine for which a static head is equal to

zero.

In the most general case, this will happen if U1 = U2 and Vr1 = Vr2.

These classes of turbo machines are referred to as impulse machines. In most

practical situations Vr2 may be less than Vr1 even though r1 = r2.

This is generally due to frictional losses. Even then a machine is referred to as an

axial flow turbines and pumps would have r1 = r2 and if Vr1 = Vr2, then they
become examples of pure impulse machines.

Pelton Wheel, tangential flow hydraulic machines is also example of impulse

machine.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.56

Velocity Triangles for Impulse Machine: Velocity triangle for axial flow
impulse machine is shown in the following figure.

vu1

Vax1 V1
vr1

Rotor blade
Vr2
V2 Vax2

u Vu2

The velocity of whirl at exit is to be calculated by general expression,

Vw 2 = U 2 − Vr 2 cos β 2

If the value obtained is negative, then it suggests that

Vr 2 cos β 2 > U 2

If VW2 is positive, then Velocity Triangle would appear as follows:

U2

VW2

Vr2 Va2 V2

If V2 = 0, then the Velocity Triangle would look like

U2

Vr2
Va2 = V2
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.57

4.1.44. Pump
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by
mechanical action. Pumps operate by some mechanism
(typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical
work by moving the fluid.

Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity,
engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical
applications to large industrial pumps.

Types of Pumps
There are different types of pumps, which are discussed below:
1) Positive Displacement Pumps
2) Impulse Pumps
3) Centrifugal Pumps
4) Gravity Pumps

4.1.44.1. Positive Displacement Pumps

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. Liquid flows into the
pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the
discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant through each cycle of
operation.
Discharge
Vane

Suction
Figure 4.9: Positive Displacement Pump

A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the

mechanism used to move the fluid:
1) Rotary Type Positive Displacement Pumps: These pumps move fluid
using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that captures and draws
in the liquid. For example, Internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible
vane or sliding vane, circumferential piston, and flexible impeller, helical
twisted roots (e.g. the Wendelkolben pump) or liquid-ring pumps.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.58

Intake

Rotary
Vane
Pump

Discharge
Figure 4.10: Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps

2) Reciprocating Type Positive Displacement Pumps: Reciprocating

pumps move the fluid using one or more oscillating pistons, plungers, or
membranes (diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the
desired direction.

Figure 4.11: Simple Hand

Pump (Reciprocating)

For example, Piston or diaphragm pumps

3) Linear-Type Positive Displacement: Devised in China as chain
pumps over 1000 years ago, these pumps can be made from very simple
materials: A rope, a wheel and a PVC pipe are sufficient to make a
simple rope pump. Rope pump efficiency has been studied by grass roots
organizations and the techniques for making and running them has been
continuously improved.

Figure 4.12: Rope Pump

For example, Rope pumps and Chain pumps

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.59

4.1.44.2. Impulse Pumps

Impulse pumps use pressure created by gas (usually air). In some impulse pumps
the gas trapped in the liquid (usually water), is released and accumulated
somewhere in the pump, creating a pressure that can push part of the liquid
upwards.
Types of impulse pumps include:
1) Hydraulic Ram Pumps: kinetic energy of a low-head water supply is stored
temporarily in an air-bubble hydraulic accumulator, then used
2) Pulsar Pumps: run with natural resources, by kinetic energy only.
3) Airlift Pumps: run on air inserted into pipe, which pushes the water up when
bubbles move upward

4.1.44.3. Centrifugal Pumps

Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump converts rotational energy, often from a
motor, to energy in a moving fluid. A portion of the energy goes into kinetic
energy of the fluid. Fluid enters axially through eye of the casing, is caught up in
the impeller blades, and is whirled tangentially and radially outward until it
leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the diffuser part of the
casing.

The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing through the impeller.
The doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing decelerates the flow
and further increases the pressure.
Pressure
Side
Downstream
Pipe Flange
Rotating
Direction
Driveshaft
Indicator
flange
Pump
casing
Volute
chamber

Suction Impeller
Side
Upstream Pipe
Flange

Figure 4.13: Centrifugal pump

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.60

4.1.44.4. Gravity Pumps

Gravity pumps include the syphon and Heron’s fountain. The hydraulic ram is
also sometimes called a gravity pump; in a gravity pump the water is lifted by
gravitational force.
Layout of Design Solution

Siphon
chamber
Inverted
U-tube

Well/ground
water source
Outlet to field/farm

One-way valve

Figure 4.14: Gravity Pump

4.1.45. Applications of Pump

Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. An early application
includes the use of the windmill or watermill to pump water.
1) Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air
conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical
movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc.

2) Because of the wide variety of applications, pumps have a plethora of

shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling gas to
handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high
volume to low volume.

4.1.46. Reciprocating Pump

Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. The given pump is single
acting single cylinder pump with air vessel. It can be used for less discharge at
higher heads. Priming is not required because it is a positive displacement pump.
Reciprocating pumps are used in pumping water in hilly areas. Reciprocating
pumps has lower efficiency compared to centrifugal pumps.

If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by sucking the liquid
into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating, which exerts the thrust on the
liquid and increases its hydraulic energy is known as reciprocating pump.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.61

A reciprocating pump is a positive plunger pump. It is often used where relatively

small quantity of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite
large.

Main parts of Reciprocating Pump

The Main Parts of Reciprocating Pump are:
1) Cylinder: It is made of cast iron or steel alloy. The piston reciprocates inside
the cylinder. The movement of piston is obtained by a connecting rod which
connects piston and rotating crank.
2) Suction Pipe: It connects the source of water and cylinder, the water is
sucked.
3) Delivery Pipe: Water sucked by pump is discharged into delivery pipe.
4) Suction Valve: It adjusts the flow from the suction pipe into delivery pipe.
5) Delivery Valve: It admits the flow from the cylinder in to delivery pipe.
6) Air Vessel: It is a cast iron closed chamber having an opening at its pass
through which the water flows into vessel.

4.1.47. Types/Classification of Reciprocating Pump

Follow are the three fields in which the reciprocating are classified:

According to the Contact between Water and Plunger

1) Single Acting Reciprocating Pump
2) Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

4.1.47.1. Single Acting Reciprocating Pump

A single acting reciprocating pump, which consists of a piston which moves
forwards and backwards in a close fitting cylinder; the movement of the piston is
obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by means of a connecting rod. The
crank is rotated by means of an electric motor. Suction and delivery pipes with
suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the cylinder.

The suction and delivery valves are one way valves or non-return valves, which
allow the water to flow in one direction only. Suction valve allows water from
suction pipe to the cylinder which delivery valve allows water from cylinder to
delivery pipe.

The rotation of the crank brings about an outward and inward movement of the
piston ‘P’ in the cylinder ‘C’. During the suction stroke the piston is moving
towards right in the cylinder, this movement of piston causes vacuum in the
cylinder. The pressure of the atmosphere acting on the sump water surface forces
the water up in the suction pipe ‘S’; The forced water opens the suction valve V1
and the water enters the cylinder.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.62

Delivery Pipe

Delivery Valve

hd Cylinder Connecting Crank

Piston Rod θ {r}

θ e
A
Piston Rod
hs Suction Valve D
Suction Pipe L=2r
Sump Level

Figure
Single Acting Reciprocating Pump

The piston from its extreme right position starts moving towards left in the
cylinder. The movement of the piston towards left increases the pressure of the
liquid inside the cylinder more than atmospheric pressure. Hence suction valve
closes and delivery valve V2 opens. The liquid is forced into the delivery pipe and
is raised to a required height.

For one revolution of the crank, the quantity of water raised up in the delivery
pipe is equal to the stroke volume in the cylinder in the single acting pump and
twice this volume in the double acting pump.

To find out the Discharge through a Single Acting Reciprocating Pump let,
D = diameter of the cylinder
A = cross section are of the piston or cylinder
r = radius of crank
N = r.p.m of the crank
L = Length of the stroke = 2 × r
hs = Suction head or height of the axis of the cylinder from water surface in
sump.
hd = Delivery head or height of the delivery outlet above the cylinder axis.

Discharge of water in one revolution = Area × Length of stroke

=A×L

Number of revolution per second = N/60

Discharge of the Pump per Second (Q) = Discharge in one revolution × No. of
revolution per second
N ALN 2
= A× L× = m / sec
60 60
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.63

Work done by single acting reciprocating pump,

Work done per second = weight of water × total height

= ρg × Discharge per second × Total height

ρgLN
W= (h s + h d )
60

4.1.47.2. Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

In a Double-acting reciprocating pump, each stroke of the piston carries out both
the functions, suction as well as delivery. Thus it requires two suctions pipes and
two delivery pipes for double-acting pump. When there is a suction stroke on one
side of the piston, there is at the same time a delivery stroke on the other side of
the piston. Thus for one complete revolution of the crank there are two delivery
strokes and water is delivered to the pipes by the pump during these two delivery
strokes.

Delivery
Pipes

D1 D2 Piston Rod

S1 S2
Sump Level
Piston Cylinder

Suction
Pipes
Figure:

Discharge through a Double-Acting Reciprocating Pump

2ALN 3
Q= m / sec
60
The above equation gives the discharge of a double-acting reciprocating pump.
This discharge is two times the discharge of a single-acting pump.

Work done by double acting reciprocating pump,

Work done per second = weight of water × total height

= ρg × Discharge per second × Total height
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 4.64

2ρgLN
W= (h s + h d )
60

1) According to the Number of Cylinders

i) Single Cylinder Pump: Single cylinder pump is one in which there is
only cylinder connected to a single shaft. It could be a single acting or
double acting pump.
ii) Double Cylinder Pump: Double cylinder pump is one which has two
cylinder attached to a single shaft. Separate suction and delivery valve is
provided to each cylinder. Crank of the pump is set at an angle of 180°.
iii) Triple Cylinder Pump: When the pump has three cylinders attached to a
single shaft then the pump is called triple cylinder pump. Crank is set at
an angle of 120°.

2) According to the Air Vessel

i) With air vessel: Some reciprocating pump is provided with a separate
air vessel attach to the suction and delivery valve. Its main function is
to accumulate excess quantity of water by compressing the air in the
vessel
ii) Without Air vessel: Some pump lack the air vessel because of the nature
of their work. For example the reciprocating boiler feed pumps does not
have air vessel because they may introduce air into the deaerated water.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.1

UNIT 5 Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning System

5.1. REFRIGERATION
5.1.1. Introduction
Basic principle of refrigeration is simple. Just pass a colder liquid continuously around
the object which is to be cooled. This will take heat out from the object. In the example
shown below a cold liquid is made to pass over an Apple, which is to be cooled. Due to
the temperature difference apple rejects heat to the refrigerant liquid. The refrigerant is in
turn gets heated up due to heat absorption. The whole process of refrigeration is discussed
through figure 1 below.

Heat

Cold Liquid
In

Figure 1: Basic Principle of Refrigeration

is illustrated in this Figure
Properties of an Ideal Refrigeration
Following are the different properties of an ideal refrigeration:
1) The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
2) It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific heat
decreases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent heat at low
temperature increases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.
3) The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser should be
low enough to reduce the material cost and must be positive to avoid leakage of air
into the system.
4) It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power
requirements.
5) It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
6) It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in
evaporator and condenser.
7) It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
8) It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when any leak
develops in the system.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.2

9) It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have reacting
properly with lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
10) It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is necessary to
reduce the running cost of the system.
11) It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.

5.1.2. Refrigeration Systems

Refrigeration systems are used to remove heat from one area and transfer it to another
location.

Following are the some well-known types of refrigeration system:

i) Vapour Compression Refrigeration System,
ii) Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System,
iii) Vapour Ejection Refrigeration System,
iv) Air Cycle Refrigeration System, and
v) Cascade Refrigeration System.
Following are the various components in refrigeration systems:
1) Throttling Device: The throttling device obstructs the flow of liquid; cold liquid is
produced with the help of this device. In this case, the throttling device is a capillary
tube. The capillary tube has an approximate length of 2m and an inside diameter of
around 0.6mm, so it offers considerable resistance to the flow.
~ 45 deg. C
~ 8 bar

~ – 20 deg. C
~ 0.6 bar

Figure 3.1: Throttling Device

2) Evaporator-Heat Absorption Process: The next phase is simple: this cold liquid is
passed over the body that has to be cooled. As a result, the refrigerant absorbs the
heat. During the heat absorption process, the refrigerant further evaporates and
transforms into pure vapour. A proper heat exchanger is required to carry the cold
refrigerant over the body. This heat exchanger is known as an evaporator.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.3

QABSORPTION

Figure 3.2: Cold liquid is passed through a

heat exchanger know as evaporator for
absorbing heat from the refrigerator

So we have produced the required refrigeration effect. If we can return this low-
pressure vapour refrigerant to the state before the throttling process (that is the high-
pressure liquid state), we will be able to repeat this process. So first step, let’s raise
the pressure.

3) Compressor: A compressor is introduced for this purpose. The compressor will raise
the pressure back to its initial level. But since it is compressing gas, along with
pressure, temperature will also be increased. This is unavoidable.

8 bar
~ 90°C
Compressor

~ .20°C
0.6 bar

Figure 3.3: Compressor is used to Raise Pressure

of the Refrigerant

Now the refrigerant is a high-pressure vapour. To convert it to the liquid state, we

must introduce another heat exchanger.
4) Condenser-Heat Rejection Process: This heat exchanger is fitted outside the
refrigerator, and the refrigerant temperature is higher than atmospheric temperature.
So heat will dissipate to the surroundings. The vapor will be condensed to liquid, and
the temperature will return to a normal level. So the refrigerant is back to its initial
state again: a high-pressure liquid.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.4

QREJECTED

Condenser

Figure 3.4: Condenser Heat Exchanger is

fitted Outside the Refrigerator so it will
reject heat to the Surroundings

5.1.3. Tonne of Refrigeration

A tonne of refrigeration is commonly abbreviated as TR it is a unit of power of air
conditioner. It describes the heat-extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning
equipment. It is equivalent to the rate of heat transfer needed to produce 1 tonne of ice at
0°C from water at 0°C in one day, i.e., 24 hours. It is found to be 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW.
1 TR = mL
= 1000 × 335/24 × 60 = 235kJ/min

STD 1 TR = 210 kJ/min

Or
1 TR = 3.5kJ/sec

5.1.4. Methods of Refrigeration

Following are the different methods of refrigeration system:
1) Dry Ice Refrigeration: Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) is called dry ice and it has a
peculiar characteristic that it changes from solid state to vapour state without getting
converted into intermediate liquid state (sublimation). Due to the change of state, it
absorbs heat equivalent to enthalpy of vaporisation. The sublimation temperature of
dry ice at atmospheric pressure is –78°C.

Dry ice is used to preserve foodstuff during transportation. Nowadays it is

universally used to preserve food in air-transportation. Dry ice slabs are usually
packed in frozen food cartons on either side or on the top of the food packages, dry
ice absorbs heat from the foodstuff and preserve them in the frozen state.

2) Evaporative Refrigeration: Evaporative refrigeration makes use of the principle

that when a liquid evaporates, it absorbs heat equivalent to its latent heat of
vaporisation from the surroundings, thereby cooling it.

Cooling of water in the earthen pitcher – the water coming out of the pores of the
pitcher evaporates when it comes in contact with dry air, thereby cooling the water in
the pitcher. When a drop of spirit is put on the palm of hand, it evaporates producing
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.5

cooling effect. Evaporation cooling may be defined as the adiabatic transfer of heat
from air to water.

It is utilised in cooling towers where condenser water is cooled by spraying it from

top and forcing a current of air from below. Another application is evaporative type
of condensers. Yet another application is in desert coolers or room coolers. Dry air is
passed through wet pads. Due to evaporation, air gets cooled. The principle is also
utilised in making artificial snow.

3) Thermoelectric Refrigeration: Thermoelectric refrigeration type employs Peltier’s

effect. When two dissimilar metals are joined on either ends and a direct current is
circulated through it, one joint gets cooled while the other gets heated.

Antimony (Sb) and Bismuth (Bi) are commonly used metals as they are electro-
chemically opposite in their polarity. If the cold end is placed in a closed space, it
gets cooled. If the magnitude of current is increased and a series of such strips are
placed together a good cooling effect can be produced.

4) Steam Jet Refrigeration: The principle of steam jet refrigeration is that the boiling
point of water can be reduced by reducing the pressure. At standard atmospheric
pressure, the boiling point of water is 100°C. If the atmospheric pressure is lowered,
the boiling point is considerably reduced. For example, at pressure of 6.5cm of
water, the boiling point of water is considerably reduced to 5cm of water; its boiling
point reduces to 6°C.

The schematic diagram of a steam jet refrigeration system is shown in the figure. The
pressure reduction in the system is achieved by a steam nozzle and ejector assembly.
Due to the extremely high velocity of steam in ejector assembly all the gases and
vapours present in the flash chamber are removed thereby creating partial vacuum.
This results in the reduction of the boiling point of water.

Due to the evaporation of water at low temperature, the remaining water in the flash
chamber gets cooled which is circulated to the refrigerated space and the warm water
received from it is sprayed in the flash chamber.

A make-up water connection is provided in the flash chamber to make good any
water lost in evaporation. The steam is supplied to the nozzle from a boiler. The
condenser condenses the steam and water vapour received from flash chamber. The
condensate from the condenser is taken back to the boiler.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.6

Control valve

Steam Nozzle
Thermo-compressor
Steam
boiler Ejector

Water returned
AC-Plant
Vapour
Spray Condenser

Flash chamber
Pump
Cold water
to AC-Plant
Pump
Make-up-water

Figure: Schematic Diagram of Steam Jet Refrigeration

5) Liquid Gas Refrigeration: Liquid gases which can be utilised for producing
refrigeration should be non-toxic. Due to this limitation only nitrogen and liquid
carbon dioxide can be utilised for the purpose. Due to the evaporation of cooling gas,
cooling is accomplished.

Liquid gas is filled in a well-insulated cylinder and its quantity regulated by means of
a value. Liquid gas is sprayed in the refrigerated space. Due to its evaporation, the
temperature in the refrigerated space is lowered. This method is used for cooling the
vehicles transporting food stuff. It may also be utilised for cold storage’s.

6) Vertex Tube System of Refrigeration: Vertex tube is a simple straight piece of tube
into which compressed air flows tangentially and is so throttled that the central core
of the air steam can be separated from peripheral flow. The central core of the air is
separated either by uni-flow or counter flow method. The central core of the air
steam in cold as compared to the hot gases at the periphery.

5.1.5. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

This refrigeration cycle is approximately a Rankine cycle run in reverse. A working fluid
(often called the refrigerant) is pushed through the system and undergoes state changes
(from liquid to gas and back).
The latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is used to transfer large amounts of heat
energy, and changes in pressure are used to control when the refrigerant expels or absorbs
heat energy.
However, for a refrigeration cycle that has a hot reservoir at around room temperature (or
a bit higher) and a cold reservoir that is desired to be at desired to be at around 34° F, the
boiling point of the refrigerant needs to be fairly low. Thus, various fluids have been
identified as practical refrigerants.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.7

The most common include ammonia, Freon (and other chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants,
aka CFCs), and HFC-134a (a non-toxic hydro-fluorocarbon).

5.1.6. Working of Vapour-Compression

Refrigeration System
The vapour-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which
absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat
elsewhere. Depict a typical, single-stage vapour-compression system.
All such systems have four components: a Compressor, a condenser, a thermal
expansion valve (also called a throttle valve or metering device), an evaporator.

Warm
Environment
QH

Condenser

Win
Expansion
Valve
Compressor
Evaporator

QL
Cold
Refrigerated Space
Figure 3.5: Working Principle of Vapour
Absorption Refrigeration System

A low pressure, low temperature liquid is converted to vapour in the evaporator, thus
absorbing heat from the refrigerated space and keeping that space cool. The fluid is driven
around the cycle by the compressor, which compresses the low temperature, low pressure
vapour leaving the evaporator to high pressure, high temperature vapour.

That vapour is condensed to liquid in the condenser, thus giving off heat at a high
temperature to the surrounding environment. Finally, the high pressure, high temperature
liquid leaving the condenser is cooled and reduced in pressure by passing it through an
expansion valve.

The work and heat flows shown in the diagram are Win, QH and QL. Win is the
work input to the compressor. The rate of work input to the compressor is most of
the power requirement to run the refrigeration system.

Power will probably be needed to drive one or more fans, but their power
requirement will be small in comparison with that needed to drive the
compressor. Q high temperature heat rejected to the surroundings by the
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.8

condenser. QL is the low temperature heat absorbed from the cooled space by the
evaporator.

5.1.7. Applications of Vapour Compression Refrigeration

It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for
chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars,
and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and
chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many
types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapour-compression refrigeration
systems.

5.1.8. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

In the vapour absorption system the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or lithium
bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets evaporated in the
evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the heat
to the atmosphere via the condenser.

Major Components in Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System are absorber,

generator, condenser Coil, evaporator coil, and pump.

5.1.9. Working principle of Vapour Absorption

Refrigeration System
Ammonia gas from the evaporator enters the absorber at point 1. Water in absorber
absorbs the ammonia gas. This solution can hold a maximum of 30% ammonia. The
pump lifts this rich solution and supplies to generator above where it is heated to generate
(separate) ammonia at high pressure and high temperature.

Heat rejected by the Amonia vapor to the

surrounding at higher temperature
Liquid Amoni 2 Amonia vapor

Heat High Pressure

3 Input Amonia-Water Generator
Condenser Solution

Liquid Liquid
Amonia Receiver

Low Pressure
Evaporator Amonia-Water Absorber
4 Solution
Liquid Amonia Amonia Vapor

Heat absorbed by liquid ammonia from the object

and/or enclosures at lower temperature
Figure 3.6: Block/Schematic Diagram of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.9

This ammonia from the generator reaches condenser at point 2 and the lean ammonia
solution deposits into the separator (below) where from by gravity it goes back to
absorber. The condenser absorbs the latent heat of the ammonia vapour. As a result the
ammonia converts into liquid and falls into the liquid receiver at 3 and then enters the
evaporator at point 4.

Liquid ammonia in the evaporator boils in low temperature and transforms into vapour by
the absorption of heat. This low pressure ammonia gas then enters the absorber and thus
completes the cycle of refrigeration.

5.1.10. Difference between Vapour Absorption and Vapour

Compression Refrigeration Systems
Aspect Vapour Absorption System Vapour Compression Systems
1) Quality of the Low grade energy sources are Vapour compression system needs
Energy Input more than capable of running a high grade energy. It needs electrical
vapour absorption system. or mechanical energy for operating
These sources can be waste compressor which is an essential
heat from furnaces, exhaust part of VC refrigeration system.
steam, etc., Solar power can
also be used for running it.
2) Moving Part The only moving part of vapour In vapour compression the moving
in the System absorption refrigeration system part is the compressor which
is the pump. operated by electric motor or engine.
3) Effect of Very little effect is seen in the The refrigerating effect or
Evaporator refrigeration capacity with the refrigeration capacity decreases with
Pressure lowering evaporator pressure. the lowering evaporator pressure.
4) Workability Load variation does not have Vapour compression system does
at Load any effect on the performance not work well at partial load. The
Varying Load of the vapour absorption performance is very poor.
system.
5) Evaporator In vapour absorption system, if Liquid refrigerant entering
Exit the liquid refrigerant leaves the compressor is not desirable in
evaporator, the refrigerating vapour compression system. It could
effect is reduced but the system damage the compressor. So the
functions well without any refrigerant is superheated before
problem. leaving the evaporator.
6) Lowest When water is used as – 150 degree Celsius or even lower
Temperature refrigeration the temperature can be achieved with the cascading
attained is above 0 degree system.
Celsius.
7) Coefficient of The COP of absorption The COP of vapour compression
Performance refrigeration system is poor. system is very good.
8) Capacity Capacity above 1000 TR is It is difficult to capacity above 1000
easily achievable. TR with single compression system.
9) Refrigerant Ammonia or water can be used Hydrocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons
as refrigerant with a proper and hydro chlorofluorocarbons are
absorber. used as refrigerants.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.10

5.1.11. Improvement of Refrigeration Efficiency

In order to improve the efficiency of a refrigeration system, the following guidelines will
be useful:
1) The refrigerant characteristics should allow for a high condensation temperature for
heat rejection to the surroundings and a low evaporation temperature for heat
absorption from the cooled space.
2) Air filtration through doors and other gaps should be minimized.
3) The pressure drop of the refrigerant in suction and discharge lines should be
minimized.
4) Good lubrication of moving parts needs to be maintained.
5) Pipes of correct size should be used, avoiding unnecessary bends, in order to
minimize the pressure drop.

5.1.12. Refrigeration Capacity

Refrigerator size is one of the most critical decision factor on selecting the right model or
refrigerator. The size mainly depends on the family size and family food habits, space
available in home and budget. Once you have the clarity on the refrigerator size you can
decide which model to choose.

Calculation of Refrigerator Capacity

Refrigerator capacity is often mentioned in two terms that are net capacity and gross
capacity. Knowing the difference is must for right size refrigerator selection.
Gross capacity is the capacity of total refrigerator. The gross capacity is including the
exterior walls as well. This is not the right indicator of inside space.

Net capacity is the actual capacity of inside fridge. Net capacity is the actual space to
store the food. Net capacity is also called as storage volume. In the rest of article referred
size means net capacity.

Fridge Size Based on Family Size

Family Size Suggested Capacity

Bachelors, 1 person 50 Litres – 80 Litres
Family size of 2 to 3 members 150 Litres – 250 Litres
Family size of 4 to 5 members 250 Litres – 330 Litres
Family size of 6 or more members 350 Litres – 490 Litres

5.1.13. Layout/Internal Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator

The internal parts of the refrigerator are ones that carry out actual working of the
refrigerator. Some of the internal parts are located at the back of the refrigerator, and
some inside the main compartment of the refrigerator.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.11

Evaporator
coils
Capillary
Freezer
tube
compartment
Kitchen air
25°C
QL
–18°C QH

Condenser
coils
3°C
Compressor

Figure: Internal Parts of the Domestic Refrigerator

Some internal parts of the domestic refrigerator are discussed below:

1) Refrigerant: The refrigerant flows through all the internal parts of the refrigerator. It
is the refrigerant that carries out the cooling effect in the evaporator. It absorbs the
heat from the substance to be cooled in the evaporator (chiller or freezer) and throws
it to the atmosphere via condenser. The refrigerant keeps on recirculating through all
the internal parts of the refrigerator in cycle.
2) Compressor: The compressor is located at the back of the refrigerator and in the
bottom area. The compressor sucks the refrigerant from the evaporator and
discharges it at high pressure and temperature. The compressor is driven by the
electric motor and it is the major power consuming devise of the refrigerator.
3) Condenser: The condenser is the thin coil of copper tubing located at the back of the
refrigerator. The refrigerant from the compressor enters the condenser where it is
cooled by the atmospheric air thus losing heat absorbed by it in the evaporator and
the compressor. To increase the heat transfer rate of the condenser, it is finned
externally.
4) Expansive Valve or the Capillary: The refrigerant leaving the condenser enters the
expansion devise, which is the capillary tube in case of the domestic refrigerators.
The capillary is the thin copper tubing made up of number of turns of the copper coil.
When the refrigerant is passed through the capillary its pressure and temperature
drops down suddenly.
5) Evaporator or Chiller or Freezer: The refrigerant at very low pressure and
temperature enters the evaporator or the freezer. The evaporator is the heat exchanger
made up of several turns of copper or aluminium tubing. In domestic refrigerators the
plate types of evaporator is used as shown in the figure above. The refrigerant
absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled in the evaporator, gets evaporated
and it then sucked by the compressor. This cycle keeps on repeating.
6) Temperature Control Devise or Thermostat: To control the temperature inside the
refrigerator there is thermostat, whose sensor is connected to the evaporator. The
thermostat setting can be done by the round knob inside the refrigerator
compartment. When the set temperature is reached inside the refrigerator the
thermostat stops the electric supply to the compressor and compressor stops and
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.12

when the temperature falls below certain level it restarts the supply to the
compressor.
7) Defrost System: The defrost system of the refrigerator helps in removing the excess
ice from the surface of the evaporator. The defrost system can be operated manually
by the thermostat button or there is automatic system comprising of the electric
heater and the timer.

5.1.14. Working Principle of a Domestic Refrigerator Unit

To preserve foods/vegetables and drinking cold waters, we normally rely on domestic
refrigerator but do you know how does this machine work? Actually domestic refrigerator
is a heat pump which throws the heat of the foods or stuffs to be cooled to atmosphere by
taking power of compressor. Second law of thermodynamics with its Clausius statement
suggests, to throw heat from low temperature to high temperature, one must put extra
efforts in form of work. The same is done by compressor in domestic refrigerator.

The domestic refrigerator works on ‘Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle (VCRC)’.

The basic working of the cycle is explained as follows:

Construction of Domestic Refrigerator

The vapour compression cycle consists of ‘evaporator’, ‘compressor’, ‘condenser’ and
‘capillary tube’ as main parts. The system works on closed cyclic operation with the help
of heat transfer media called ‘refrigerant’. This refrigerant changes the phase during
passing through evaporator and condenser to exchange the heat.

Working Principle of Domestic Refrigerator

The function of compressor is to raise the pressure of gaseous refrigerant coming from the
evaporator. By raising the pressure boiling point of the refrigerant increases. This high
pressure and high temperature refrigerant, while passes through the condenser, changes
the phase and condenses in high pressure and temperature liquid refrigerant.

The room air is at lower temperature than the refrigerant passing through the condenser,
hence condensation takes place and vapour refrigerant converted to liquid refrigerant.
Thus heat is thrown to the air at this point in the refrigerator. Now resultant liquid
refrigerant which is at high pressure and temperature, passes through the capillary tube
which is made up of copper material and has very small diameter and longer length. As
the high pressure liquid refrigerant passes through the capillary tube, due to throttling
effect, temperature and pressure of the refrigerant decreases. Majority of the cooling is
produced at this point in refrigerator.

This low temperature and low pressure refrigerant now passes through evaporator where
refrigerant in liquid phase takes heat from foods and stuffs. At this point, boiling point of
liquid refrigerant is very low (because of low pressure) in terms of -20 degree C. thus
anything above this temperature makes refrigerant to boil. This low pressure vapour again
circulated to compressor and cycle continuously as long as compressor is in running
condition.

Note: Boiling point of refrigerant is a function of pressure. Thus change in pressure in

compressor and capillary makes it to be able to change the phase.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.13

Some Technical Points of Domestic Refrigerator

1) Compressor used in domestic refrigerator is of reciprocating type and is of
hermetically sealed means compressor and electric motors are a single unit enclosed
in a container.
2) Capillary tube is a simple copper tube having very less diameter in few milli-metre
and longer length in terms of few feet. This low diameter and higher length increases
friction and this is the reason why high pressure liquid refrigerant is converted to low
pressure one due to pressure drop in capillary itself.
3) Except compressor, there are no moving parts in domestic refrigerator, this is the
reason why refrigerator lasts long.
4) Condenser and evaporator are simply heat exchangers where refrigerator changes the
phase by rejecting and accepting heat from condenser and evaporator respectively.
The compressor and capillary tube change the pressure accordingly to get boiling
point in range to be able to change the phase.
5) Refrigerator capacity is defined in ‘Litre’. The litre is volume of storage space.

5.1.15. Refrigerants
A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and
refrigeration cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas
and back again. Many working fluids have been used for such purposes.

Desirable Characteristics of Refrigerants

1) Non-poisonous,
2) Non-corrosive,
3) Non-inflammable,
4) Leaks easily detectable,
5) Low boiling point,
6) Stable gas,
7) Suitable latent heat, and
8) Low specific volume.

5.1.16. Impacts of Refrigerants on Environment

When selecting new refrigerants, comprehensive assessment from various perspectives is
necessary. Any substance must be carefully evaluated for the overall impact on the global
environment. It must also be assessed for energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness, safety and
other factors.
As recent studies have confirmed, there is no one perfect refrigerant adaptable to all
applications. For the above reasons, it is necessary to focus on selecting the right
refrigerants for particular applications based on an overall assessment.
Following factors affects on environment:
1) Ozone-Layer Depletion and Global Warming: In 1987, the Montreal Protocol
was adopted for the purpose of restricting the production, consumption and trade
of particular substances in order to protect the ozone layer. CFCs had been used
as refrigerants for air conditioning equipment and had a significant impact on
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.14

ozone-layer depletion. The CFCs were designated by this protocol as specified

fluorocarbons.
As a result, Non-A5 countries completely abandoned the production of CFCs by the
end of 1995. CFCs were then replaced by less harmful HCFCs, which were,
however, later restricted under the Montreal Protocol. For new equipment, HCFCs
are to be phased out almost entirely by 2020 in non A5 countries and by 2030 in
A5 countries. Also the HCFCs which are used for servicing air conditioning or
refrigeration equipment will be totally phased out by 2040.

A5 countries then started to switch to HFCs, new refrigerants that have no impact on
the ozone layer. The HFC refrigerants adopted then are superior to HCFCs thanks to
their zero ozone depletion potential (ODP), however, they still have global warming
potential (GWP).
With regards to GWP, in November of 2015, it was agreed that an HFC phase down
amendment will be discussed by the parties of the Montreal Protocol. The feasibility
and ways of managing HFCs will be discussed in 2016.
Furthermore, COP21 adopted the “Paris Agreement” in December of 2015, which is
the new international legal framework of the post-2020 period of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Paris agreement
establishes a goal to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well
below 2°C and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C”.

Schedule of Reduction for HCFC Consumption Volumes

Non –A5 countries A5 countries

Baseline: Average of HCFC
Consumption
Baseline
90%

65% 65%

Phase
25% Phase out for
Out for 32.5%
New equipment
10% New equipment
By 2030 2.5%
0.5%
1996 2000 2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Figure 3.30

2) Rapid Increase in Air Conditioners: The demand for air conditioning is increasing
due to the rapid economic expansion of A5 countries.
With continuing economic growth, air conditioners are expected to spread rapidly in
the future, accompanied by a constant increase in refrigerant consumption. A5
countries are still using HCFCs, such as HCFC-22 (here in after called “R-22”), a
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.15

substance that is harmful to the ozone layer although the consumption of HCFCs in
A5 countries was frozen in 2013, and the phase-out of these substances in A5
countries began in 2015. If emerging countries select a refrigerant with more
negative environmental impact in terms of CO2 emissions resulting from greater
energy use and higher GWP than the current refrigerants as an alternative, global
warming will increase significantly even if ODP is reduced.
In addition, the longer we wait to take action, the more severe the negative impact
will be in the future. It is thus an urgent requirement that we find and adopt an
appropriate solution to mitigate future total global warming without wasting any
more time.

GWP-Weighted Emission

60

50

40
550 ppm
30
450 ppm

20 Impact of Montreal HFCs

Protocol HCFCs
10 CFCs High
If we start earlier
Low
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

The sooner we start, the sooner

expected GWP-weighted
emissions will decrease.
Figure 3.31: GWP-Weighted Emissions
Notes
i) To prevent further global temperature rises, CO2 concentrations in the
atmosphere must be stabilized at 450 to 550 ppm or lower (depending on the
targets for individual policies).
ii) The dotted line shows the expectation GWP-weighted emissions will
decrease if the right refrigerants are selected for particular applications. The
dotted line has been added by Daikin Industries, Ltd.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.16

HFC Growth (BAU Senario) for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning and
Impact of A5 Countries
GWP-Weighted Emissions

2,500 Stationary AC
Transport
Emissions (MT Co2-eq)

2,000 Industrial
Commercial
1,500 Domestic
MAC
HFC Emissions in
1,000 2030

500
Non-A5
countries
0
26%
2010 2015 2020 2025 2050
A5 countries
74%

Figure 3.32

5.1.17. Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon which is responsible for
heating the earth surface and atmosphere.

Due to greenhouse effect, the average temperature of earth surface is 15°C and without
greenhouse effect the average temperature would have been – 18°C.

A greenhouse (also called as glasshouse) is a building in which plants are grown. These
structures range in size from small sheds to industrialised buildings.

A greenhouse has different type of covering materials, such as glass or plastic roof and
walls. It accumulates temperature and heats up because incoming visible solar radiation
from the sun is absorbed by plants, soil and other things inside the building.

The absorbed radiation gets accumulated and converted to heat energy (lower frequencies
of infrared thermal radiation). Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gaseous and
water vapours. Some of the heat rays one reflected by the glass panes and again cone back
to the surface. Warning effect found in greenhouse is due to accumulation of heat rays.
Greenhouse warm up is similar to the inside of a car parked in the sun for some time.
(Figure 9.4)

SUN
Outgoing infrared
Solar radiation radiation
reflected
Incoming solar Infrared radiation
radiation absorbed by
(0.2 to 4µm) Atmosphere greenhouse gases

Infrared radiation emitted by

earth’s surface (4 to 100µm)

Figure 9.4: Greenhouse Effect in Keeping the Earth Warm

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.17

The gases which allow the solar radiations to pass through but retain the long wave heat
radiations are called greenhouse gases. The various greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4, CFCS
and N2O and others of minor significance are water vapours and ozone. They prevent a
substantial part of long wave radiations emitted by earth to escape into space.

5.2. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

5.2.1. Introduction
Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A.C., or A/C) is the process of removing heat
from the interior of an occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air
conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments.

This process is most commonly used to achieve a more comfortable interior environment,
typically for humans or animals; however, air conditioning is also used to
cool/dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer
servers, power amplifiers, and even to display and store artwork.

5.2.2. Working Principles of Air-Conditioning

“Every air conditioner (also pronounced as AC, A/C or Air Cooler in certain regions of
the world) has got a compressor inside it. It works to compress and pump the refrigerant
gas. Compression of refrigerant produces heat. To dissipate this heat, compressed
refrigerant is pumped to the condenser coils where a fan blows the heat out to outer
atmosphere.”

During this process, refrigerant takes the liquid form. This liquid refrigerant is pumped
towards expansion valve. Expansion valve has a temperature sensor connected to it which
works in correlation with thermostat settings. Expansion valve releases the appropriate
amount of refrigerant to evaporator (cooling coils) where liquefied refrigerant takes
gaseous form.

Conversion from liquid to gaseous state due to expansion causes cooling because energy
is absorbed from the surrounding. Air when passes through fins (attached to coils) gets
cooled and blown to the room. The gaseous refrigerant in cooling coils then enters the
compressor and gets compressed once again. The cycle continues unless the compressor
is shut down.

In a nutshell, air conditioner draws heat from the indoor and releases it to the outdoor.
Indoor acts as a source and outdoor as a sink for heat.
In vehicle air conditioners, a Receiver-Drier is installed between condenser and expansion
valve. It serves to collect excessive refrigerant when not required for cooling operation. It
also has got a desiccant which absorbs any moisture present in the refrigerant.

5.2.3. Terminologies in Air Conditioning

It is necessary to learn the terms used in the air conditioning industry before a full under-
standing of air conditioning can be reached. The following are the most common
definitions used in air conditions:
1) Dry Air: Dry air contains no moisture. Air naturally contains some moisture.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.18

2) Absolute Humidity: The actual quantity or weight of the moisture in a quantity of

air is termed as absolute humidity. Absolute humidity is expressed in terms of weight
of moisture in grains per pound of dry air. It takes 7000 grains of moisture to weigh
one pound. When there is either a rise or a fall in the temperature of the air, the
quantity of moisture will not be affected as long as the dew point temperature is not
reached.

3) Relative Humidity: The ratio between the moisture present in a quantity of air and
the amount that it could hold under the same pressure and temperature is known as
the relative humidity. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage. Note the
difference between absolute humidity and relative humidity. The relative humidity of
a quantity of air can be calculated by dividing the amount of moisture actually
present by the maximum amount that the air could hold under the same conditions.

Example: If two cubic feet of air hold 8 grains of moisture but are capable of holding
16 grains under the same conditions, what would be the relative humidity?
Absolute humidity 8
RH = = = 50%
Maximum amount air can hold 16

An increase or decrease in the temperature of the air would increase or decrease the
relative humidity of the air. There is one exception and that is if the dew point
temperature is reached. If the air temperature is reduced below this temperature,
moisture will be condensed out of the air. Air is saturated when it contains all the
moisture it can hold at that same temperature and pressure. Saturated air has a
relative humidity of 100%.

4) Humidification: Humidification is the process of adding moisture to the air. The

moisture is usually added with a humidifier.

5) Dehumidification: Dehumidification is the process used to remove moisture from

air. This is a major purpose of the refrigeration system in a cooling system. Moisture
is removed by placing the evaporator coil in the air stream. When the air passes
through the coil its temperature is reduced to below the dew point temperature and
moisture is condensed out of the air.

6) Saturated Air: Air that is holding all of the moisture that it can hold under a set of
conditions is said to be saturated. At this temperature, the dry bulb temperature, the
wet bulb temperature, and the dew point temperature will be the same.

7) Dry Bulb Temperature: The dry bulb temperature is indicated by an ordinary

thermometer. It is a measure of the amount of sensible heat in the air.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.19

8) Wet Bulb Temperature: The wet bulb temperature of a quantity of air is determined
by an ordinary dry bulb thermometer with its bulb covered with a cloth sock (figure
1-5).

Thermometer Thermometer
stem stem

“Sock” “Sock”
Mercury (dampened with
(to hold bulb
water) purified water)

Mercury Bulb
Inside Sock

Figure 1-5: Wet Bulb Thermometer

The cloth sock is wetted with distilled water and then exposed to a rapidly moving air
stream. The temperature indicated by a wet bulb thermometer will usually be lower
than the dry bulb temperature of the same quantity of air. There is one exception;
when the saturation temperature is reached, then they both will read the same
temperature.

To determine when the correct wet bulb temperature has been reached, note when
three consecutive readings are found to be the same. It can then be assumed that the
correct temperature has been reached.

9) Wet Bulb Depression: The wet bulb depression is the difference between the dry
bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature of the air, except when the saturation
point is reached. Then the temperatures will be the same.

10) Dew Point Temperature: The temperature at which the moisture will start to
condense out of the air is known as the dew point temperature. The amount of
moisture in a given quantity or air will always be the same at any dew point
temperature. The dew point temperature can, then, be used to determine the amount
of moisture in a quantity of air.

At the dew point temperature the air is holding all the moisture that it can hold at that
temperature. The dew point temperature will always remain the same when there is
no addition or removal of moisture from the air. When there is no change in the
moisture content of the air, there will be no change in the latent heat content of the
air.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.20

5.2.4. Classification of Air-Conditioning Systems

Air conditioning systems can also be classified according to their construction and
operating characteristics as follows:
1) Individual Room Air Conditioning Systems: Individual room or simply individual
air conditioning systems employ a single, self-contained room air conditioner, a
packaged terminal, a separated indoor-outdoor split unit, or a heat pump. A heat
pump extracts heat from a heat source and rejects heat to air or water at a higher
temperature for heating. Unlike other systems, these systems normally use a totally
independent unit or units in each room.

Individual air conditioning systems can be classified into two categories:

i) Room air conditioner (window-mounted)
ii) Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), installed in a sleeve through the
outside wall

The major components in a factory-assembled and ready-for-use room air conditioner

include the following: An evaporator fan pressurizes and supplies the conditioned air
to the space. In tube and- fin coil, the refrigerant evaporates, expands directly inside
the tubes, and absorbs the heat energy from the ambient air during the cooling
season; it is called a direct expansion (DX) coil. When the hot refrigerant releases
heat energy to the conditioned space during the heating season, it acts as a heat
pump. An air filter removes airborne particulates.

A compressor compresses the refrigerant from a lower evaporating pressure to a

higher condensing pressure. A condenser liquefies refrigerant from hot gas to liquid
and rejects heat through a coil and a condenser fan. A temperature control system
senses the space air temperature (sensor) and starts or stops the compressor to control
its cooling and heating capacity through a thermostat.

Individual air conditioning systems are characterized by the use of a DX coil for a
single room. This is the simplest and most direct way of cooling the air. Most of the
individual systems do not employ connecting ductwork. Outdoor air is introduced
through an opening or through a small air damper. Individual systems are usually
used only for the perimeter zone of the building.

2) Evaporative-Cooling Air Conditioning Systems: Evaporative-cooling air

conditioning systems use the cooling effect of the evaporation of liquid water to cool
an airstream directly or indirectly. It could be a factory-assembled packaged unit or
a field-built system. When an evaporative cooler provides only a portion of the
cooling effect, then it becomes a component of a central hydronic or a packaged unit
system.

An evaporative-cooling system consists of an intake chamber, filter(s), supply fan,

direct-contact or indirect-contact heat exchanger, exhaust fan, water sprays,
recirculating water pump, and water sump. Evaporative-cooling systems are
characterized by low energy use compared with refrigeration cooling. They produce
cool and humid air and are widely used in southwest arid areas in the United States).
3) Desiccant-Based Air Conditioning Systems: A desiccant-based air conditioning
system is a system in which latent cooling is performed by desiccant
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.21

dehumidification and sensible cooling by evaporative cooling or refrigeration. Thus,

a considerable part of expensive vapour compression refrigeration is replaced by
inexpensive evaporative cooling. A desiccant-based air conditioning system is
usually a hybrid system of dehumidification, evaporative cooling, refrigeration, and
regeneration of desiccant.

There are two air streams in a desiccant-based air conditioning system: a process air
stream and a regenerative air stream. Process air can be all outdoor air or a mixture of
outdoor and recirculating air. Process air is also conditioned air supplied directly to
the conditioned space or enclosed manufacturing process, or to the air-handling unit
(AHU), packaged unit (PU), or terminal for further treatment.

Regenerative airstream is a high-temperature airstream used to reactivate the

desiccant. A desiccant-based air conditioned system consists of the following
components: rotary desiccant dehumidifiers, heat pipe heat exchangers, direct or
indirect evaporative coolers, DX coils and vapour compression unit or water cooling
coils and chillers, fans, pumps, filters, controls, ducts, and piping.

4) Thermal Storage Air Conditioning Systems: In a thermal storage air conditioning

system or simply thermal storage system, the electricity-driven refrigeration
compressors are operated during off-peak hours. Stored chilled water or stored ice
in tanks is used to provide cooling in buildings during peak hours when high electric
demand charges and electric energy rates are in effect.

A thermal storage system reduces high electric demand for HVAC&R and partially
or fully shifts the high electric energy rates from peak hours to off-peak hours. A
thermal storage air conditioning system is always a central air conditioning system
using chilled water as the cooling medium. In addition to the air, water, and
refrigeration control systems, there are chilled-water tanks or ice storage tanks,
storage circulating pumps, and controls.

5) Clean-Room Air Conditioning Systems: Clean-room or clean-space air

conditioning systems serve spaces where there is a need for critical control of
particulates, temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, noise, vibration, and space
pressurization. In a clean-space air conditioning system, the quality of indoor
environmental control directly affects the quality of the products produced in the
clean space.

A clean-space air conditioning system consists of a recirculating air unit and a

makeup air unit - both include dampers, pre filters, coils, fans, high-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) filters, duct work, piping work, pumps, refrigeration systems,
and related controls except for a humidifier in the makeup unit

5.2.5. Window Air Conditioner

Window air Conditioner is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms. In
this air conditioner all the components, namely the compressor, condenser, expansion
valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil are enclosed in a single box. This unit is fitted
in a slot made in the wall of the room, or more commonly a window sill.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.22

Windows air conditioners are one of the most widely used types of air
conditioners because they are the simplest form of the air conditioning systems. Window
air conditioner comprises of the rigid base on which all the parts of the window air
conditioner are assembled. The base is assembled inside the casing which is fitted into the
wall or the window of the room in which the air conditioner is fitted.
The whole assembly of the window air conditioner can be divided into two
compartments:
1) The room side, which is also the cooling side and
2) The outdoor side from where the heat absorbed by the room air is liberated to the
atmosphere.

The room side and outdoor side are separated from each other by an insulated partition
enclosed inside the window air conditioner assembly.

In the front of the window air conditioner on the room side there is beautifully decorated
front panel on which the
supply and return air Wall
grills are fitted (the Inside Outside Cabinet
whole front panel itself
is commonly called as Front panel
Damper
front grill). The louvers Cold air
Condenser
fitted in the supply air
grills are adjustable so as Fan motor
to supply the air in Air filter
desired direction. There Drain outlet
is also one opening in Evaporator
the grill that allows
access to the control Propeller fan
Drain pan
panel or operating panel Base pain
Compressor
in front of the window
air conditioner. Blower
wheel Side view
Figure 3.26: Window Air
Conditioner
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.23

The various parts of the window air conditioner can be divided into following categories:
the refrigeration system, air circulation system, ventilation system, control system, and
the electrical protection system. All these have been discussed in details below along with
the front panel and other parts.

5.2.6. Split Air Conditioner

A split air conditioning imply means that the condenser (or sometimes referred to as the
“outdoor unit”) is separated from the “indoor unit”, thus the term “split”. The split air
conditioning has at least one unit that sits inside your room. The compressor sits outside
of the room, sometimes on the ground or on brackets hung to the wall. Some models
come with multiple indoor units that will use one single compressor; this is known as the
multi-split air conditioning system.
The split air conditioner comprises of two parts:
1) The outdoor unit
2) The indoor unit.

The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor,
condenser and expansion valve.

Air flow

Fan

Fan Evaporator
Compressor
Condenser

Outdoor unit Indoor unit

Figure 3.27: Split Air Conditioner

The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling fan. A split air
conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.

The indoor unit of the split air conditioner is a box type housing in which all the
important parts of the air conditioner are enclosed. The most common type of the indoor
unit is the wall mounted type though other types like ceiling mounted and floor
mounted are also used.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.24

5.2.7. Summer Air Conditioning

In most of the places the summer season is hot and humid. Hence, in order to provide
comfortable conditions to the occupants during summer, it is required to supply cold and
dry air to the occupied space. This requires systems wherein the hot and humid air can be
cooled to temperatures lower than the dew point temperature, so that the water vapour in
air can be removed by condensation, and the resulting cold and dehumidified air supplied
to the conditioned space in required quantity for providing thermal comfort. Thus it can
be seen that a typical summer air conditioning system requires a refrigeration system that
reduces the temperature of the air to temperatures much lower than the surroundings.

In some areas such as deserts, the summer is hot and dry. Air conditioning systems for
these hot and dry climates also require cooling of air below the ambient temperatures;
however, instead of removing water vapour it may be required to add water to the air
supplied to the conditioned space.

Room
Distribution

Room
Fresh air
Dehumidi-

inlet Filter for

Fication

Air Air Room

Cleaning Cooling

Room

Recirculated air

Figure 3.28: Summer air Conditioning

Advantages
1) Most people use air conditioners to stay more comfortable in their homes or offices
during hot and humid summer weather. Under extreme conditions, air conditioners
may keep elderly and other vulnerable people safer from heat-induced health
problems.
2) Air conditioners are used in many commercial settings not only for increased comfort
but for decreasing heat stress on delicate machinery such as computers, and reducing
food spoilage in grocery stores and restaurants.

Disadvantages
1) Air conditioners use a lot of electricity. This creates both financial disadvantages for
the people who have to pay for the power, and more generalized environmental
disadvantages caused by power production. Because a large percentage of electricity
is created by coal-burning power plants, air conditioning contributes indirectly to the
release of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.25

2) In addition, according to The Independent, spending too much time in an air-

conditioned environment can contribute to health problems such as asthma, tightness
in the chest and other respiratory ailments.

5.2.8. Winter air conditioning

According to season of the year air conditioning system include Winter Air Conditioning
System. In winter air conditioning, the air is heated, which is generally accompanied by
humidification.
In winter the outside conditions are cold and dry. As a result, there will be a continuous
transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture (latent heat) from the buildings to the outside.
In winter outside temperature is low, hence heating of air needed for comfort.
In Winter air conditioning consists of air cleaning air, heating humidification, air
distribution / circulation.

Distribution
Room
Fresh air
inlet
Humidification

Filter for
Air Air
Room
Cleaning Heating

Room

Recirculated air

Figure 3.29: Winter Air –Conditioning

Advantages of Winter Air Conditioning System:
1) During winter season outside room temperature is low, hence heating of air needed
for comfort.
2) It maintains hot temperature inside room during winter season.
3) It distributes the proper amount of heat in the surrounding area.
4) It increases the humidification.

Disadvantages of Winter Air Conditioning System:

1) It can be only used in winter season.
2) It cannot perform the cooling operation.
3) There is no use of winter air conditioner in hot region like Rajasthan.
4) Dual operation air conditioner can be used in all season, so winter air conditioner
market is less.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.26

5.2.9. Differences between Decentralised/Unitary and

Centralised Air Conditioning Systems
Table:
Centralised Systems Decentralised Systems
Configuration A central system is custom-designed A decentralised system is
for a building and is categorised by essentially off shelf, factory
field assembly of: assembled, compact equipment
consisting of cooling/heat source,
distribution, delivery and control
functions in a single package.
1) Source Components: They are The most common decentralised
comprising of the compressor air-conditioning system includes
(reciprocating, screw, window, split, package and heat
centrifugal or scroll type), pump air conditioning units.
condenser (water cooled shell
and tube or air cooled finned
type), expansion valve, and the
evaporator (chilled water shell
and tube type or direct
expansion finned coil type). All
these components are assembled
in a skid, known as the chiller
package. Refrigerant piping
required to connect these parts is
also enclosed in this skid. The
chiller package is located in a
dedicated plant room.
2) Distribution System: They are For large buildings decentralised
comprising of chilled water and systems may be viewed as
cooling water pumps, air collection of multiple independent
handling units, and ductwork. units placed at different locations in
The pumps are generally located a distributed network with each unit
in the chiller plant room and the working in isolation. Each system
air handling units are installed in is local self-contained unit
separated air handling rooms consisting of its own compressor/s,
distributed at various locations evaporator coil, fan, condensing
of the building. unit and filtration unit.
3) Terminal Elements: They are Decentralised systems maintenance
comprising of grilles, diffusers, tends to be simple but such
ventilation systems, and a maintenance may have to occur
number or elements adjusting directly in occupied spaces.
comfort (local re-heat, humidity
treatment, thermostats, air
filtering, etc.). Heat rejection
system (cooling tower/s or air
cooled condensers) are located
outdoors.
Types There are two types of central air-
conditioning plants or systems:
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.27

1) Direct Expansion (DX) Type: Decentralised systems are

Here, the air is cooled directly essentially direct expansion (DX)
by the refrigerant in the finned type. Depending upon the
type cooling coil of the air capacities required and areas served
handling unit. the decentralised equipment
category includes:
1) Window air conditioners;
2) Residential and light
commercial split systems;
3) Packaged through the wall and
window air conditioners;
4) Self-contained (floor by floor)
package systems; and
5) Commercial outdoor roof top
packaged systems.
2) Chilled Water (CHW) Type: Since in DX systems, the air is
Here, a secondary cooling cooled directly by the refrigerant
medium (chilled water) is used the cooling efficiency is higher.
to deliver cooling to one or more However, it is not always feasible
locations needing it. The to carry the refrigerant piping to the
ordinary water or brine solution large distances (beyond 100ft)
is chilled to very low therefore the DX type system is
temperatures plant and is usually used for cooling the small
pumped to various air handling buildings or the rooms on the single
units. The chilled water flows floor. For this reason, decentralised
through the cooling coil, which systems are essentially floor by
cools the air. floor standalone, self-contained
units each working independent of
each other.
In comparison to DX systems, the
chilled water systems can be easily
networked to have multiple air
handling units distributed throughout
the large distributed buildings while
the main chillier package placed at
one central location.
Chilled water systems are not
constrained by distance criteria.
Chilled water systems provide
greater control flexibility by
modulating the chilled water flow
rate through the cooling coils served
from a single chillier without
compromising control on any
individual unit.
Heat Rejection Central air conditioning systems Most decentralised systems use air
Options expel heat by: cooled condensers to expel heat.
1) Air Cooled: This method uses They have to be generally kept very
finned tube coil condenser. Here close to the evaporator units and for
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.28

the refrigerant flows through the smaller sized equipment; the length
refrigerant piping from should be 30 to 40 feet whereas for
evaporator to the condenser. larger systems it may go up to 3 to
When the refrigerant flows in 4 times this figure.
the refrigeration piping there is
lots of drop in its pressure. Due
to this the length of the
refrigeration tubing and the
distance between the condenser
and the evaporator should be
kept minimum possible.
2) Water Cooled: These systems The paucity of good quality soft
use shell and tube type water makes it imperative to opt for
condenser. Here, the cooling air cooled systems.
water is pumped from tubes of
the condenser to the cooling
tower at high pressure, which is
good enough to carry it to
relatively long distances. The
losses in the pressure of water
are accommodated by the
sufficient capacity of the pump,
which has low capital and
running cost. Central system
with water cooled heat rejection
option thus may virtually be
placed at any distance from the
cooling equipment.

Water cooled units are more

efficient and have good overload
capacity as these are sized to wet
bulb, not dry bulb temperature.
At higher ambient dry bulb
temperatures, the compressor
capacity drops by over 10% for
air cooled machines compared to
water cooled. In general – for
cooling loads below 100-125
tonnes, the chillier(s) shall be
air-cooled. The capital cost and
increased maintenance
requirements for a water-cooled
system are rarely justified on the
cooling loads below.
Applications The central systems are used when Decentralised systems are more
large buildings, hotels, theatres, appropriate for low to mid-rise
airports, shopping malls, etc., are to buildings. Also in a building where
be air conditioned completely. The a large number of spaces may be
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.29

largest capacity of chiller available in unoccupied at any given time, such

market is 2000 tonnes; multiple as a dormitory or a motel,
chillies are installed to cater for decentralised systems may be
higher loads or to create redundancy preferred since these can be totally
in operation. shut off in the unused spaces, thus
providing potential energy savings.
Often a “hybrid system” which is a Decentralised unit capacities range
combination of a central plant and from 0.5 tonnes to 130 tonnes (for
decentralised packaged units/split roof top package units).
units is preferred. For example, a
hotel may use packaged unitary air If decentralised systems are chosen
conditioners (or fan coil units served for large buildings, multiple
with air-water central system) for the package units may be installed to
individual guest rooms, roof top serve an entire building. This may
units for meeting rooms/restaurants, be an advantage, since each system
and a central plant system for the can be well matched to the interior
lobby, corridors and other common space that it serves.
spaces.
Decentralised systems can also be
applied for augmenting the cooling
needs in the central HVAC systems
necessitated due to expansion or
addition of more equipment.

5.2.10. Psychrometry
Psychrometry is the science of study of various properties of air, method of controlling its
temperature and moisture content or humidity and its effect on various materials and
human beings.

The term air conditioning means treating of air or conditioning the air to change its
temperature or the moisture as per the requirements of various applications. Air
conditioners are used throughout the world for a number of applications and one just
cannot imagine the life without them. They are the devices or machine that condition or
alter the state of the air by changing its temperature and the humidity level.

5.2.11. Psychrometric Properties

For comfort air conditioning, properties of air should be known so that we can control the
environment in the space. The study of properties of ambient air is known as
psychrometric.
1) Pressure: This is the effect of a force applied to a surface. Pressure is the amount of
force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is π.
Total pressure of air, p = pv = pa

Where,
pv = Partial pressure of water vapour
ps = Partial pressure of dry air
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.30

Partial pressure of water vapour:

− [p - (p v )wb ](t db − t wb )
p v = ( p vs )wb
1527.4 − 1.3 t wb

1.8 × p( t db − t wb )
or p v = ( p vs )wb
2700

Where,
(pvs)wb = Saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to wet bulb
temperature
p = Atmospheric pressure of moist air
Twb = Wet bulb temperature
Tdb = Dry bulb temperature

2) Dry Air: It is the mixture of gases. Generally O2 and N2 make up the major part of
the combustion. It consists 21% O2 and 79% N2 by volume, and 23% O2 and 77% N2
by mass.
3) Moisture: The water vapour present in the air is called moisture.
4) Moist Air: It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.
5) Absolute Humidity: The weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air is
called absolute humidity.
Weight of water vapour
Absolute humidity =
Volume of air (mixture)

6) Specific Humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in air (mixture) to mass of
dry air in air mixture.
Mass of water vapour in air
Specific humidity =
Mass of dry air in air
w = 0.622

pv  p 
= 0.622  v 
ps  p − pv 

7) Relative Humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume to mass
of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at same temperature.
mv p
φ= ,φ= v
ms p vs

Where, mv and ms are the mass of water vapour and mass of saturated air pv and pvs
are the partial pressure of water vapour and partial pressure of water vapour in
saturated air at same temperature for saturated air relative humidity is 1 or 100%.
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.31

µ): It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a sample of air to

8) Degree of Saturation (µ
mass of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature.
m v / ms w
µ= ,µ =
m vs / m a ws

Where, w and ws, are the specific humidity of air and saturated air.
9) Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): It is the normal temperature of air measured by an
ordinary thermometer.
10) Wet Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature measured by a thermometer when
bulb is covered by wet cloth.

Wet Bulb Depression (WBD) = DBT – WBT

11) Dew Point Temperature (DPT): It is the temperature at which water vapour in air
start condensing.

DBT
(T)
WBT Pv
DPT

S
Figure: DBT, WBT and DPT
i) For unsaturated air, DBTGraphs
> WBT > DPT
ii) For saturated air, DBT = WBT = DPT
12) Dew Point Depression: It is the difference between Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)
and Dew Point Temperature (DPT), i.e.,
DPD = DBT – DPT
13) Enthalpy of Air (h): Enthalpy of air is defined as:
H = Ha = Hv, H = maha + mvhv
ha = Cpa(t)
hv = 2500 + 1800t

mv
h = ha + hv
ma

t = Dry Bulb Temperature in °C

h = Cpatdb + w[2500 + 180°tdbt]kJ/kg dry air

or, h = Cpmtab + w(hg – Cpvtdb)

B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.32

Where,
Cpm = Cpia + Cpv W
Cpa, Cpv, Cpm are the specific heat of dry air water vapour and moist air respectively.
hg → enthalpy of saturated water vapour at DPT in kJ/kg.

5.2.12. Psychrometric Chart

Enthalpy is more or less constant with wet bulb temperature. Enthalpy lines are also
downward from left to right.

Constant specific volume lines are more steeper inclined lines than wet bulb temperate
lines or enthalpy lines adiabatic lines on psychrometric chart are represented along
constant enthalpy lines.

Relative
humidity

Dew Moisture
point content
Wet bulb w
O temperature

Alignment Specific
circle volume
DBT
Figure: Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometric Properties
Followings are the different psychromatic properties:
1) Sensible Heating: It is the process of heating air at constant w.

Air in Air Out

w
Heating coil
heating process t1 t2
Sensible heating

Figure

Q = h 2 − h1 = C pm( t dbt 2 − t dbt 2 )

Where, Cpm = Specific heating moist
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.33

2) Sensible Cooling: It is the process of cooling air at constant w. For sensible cooling,
the coil temperature must be greater than dew point temperature and less than dbt.

2 C w

t2 t1
Sensible Cooling
Figure
3) Humidification: The addition of moisture to air at a constant, Dry Bulb Temperature
(DBT) is knows as humidification. It is the process of increasing w at constant DBT.

2
w2

W1
1

DBT Humidification
Figure

4) Dehumidification: The removal of moisture from air at a constant dry bulb

temperature is called dehumidification. It is the process of decreasing w at constant
DBT.
5) Heating with Humidification: It is the process in which air heated with
humidification. The heating and humidification process line (1-2) as shown in
following figure. In this process, dry bulb temperature and specific humidity of
incoming air increases.

h2 m1 1 2
h1 m2
2 w1 h2
h1 t1
Air in w2
1 2′ w Air out
t2

t1 t2
DBT Heating
h1
coil
water
Figure: Heating with Humidification Process
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.34

Addition of heat Q1-2 = ma[(h1 – h2) – (w1 – w2)ht]

h2 – h1 = Sensible heat (SH)
h2 – h2 = Latent heat (LH)
Sensible heat added
Sensible heat factor =
Total heat added
SH h − h1
= = 2
SH + L H h 2 × h 1

6) Heating with Dehumidification: In this process, air is heated with dehumidification.

1
w2
2
w1

t2 t1
Figure: Heating with Dehumidification Graph
7) Cooling with Humidification: In this process, an air is cooled with humidification.

Adiabatic saturation
temperature 1
w2
2
w1

t2 t1
Figure: Cooling with Humidification Graph

8) Cooling with Dehumidification: In this process, air is cooled below the down point
with dehumidification. It is necessary to maintain. In a cooling with
dehumidification, both the humidity ratio and temperature of most air decrease. Some
water vapour is condensed in the form of liquid water, called a condensate. This
process is shown by a curve in psychrometric chart.

h1
h3 Chilled water
h2
1
2 LH2
2′ Air
2S Air in out
SHL
w

DBT Cooling system

Dehumidification
Figure

Total heat load on cooling coil,

Q1–2 = ma[(h1 – h2) – (w1 – w2)hƒ]
Since, (w1 – w2)h1 = 0
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.35

So, Q1–2 = ma(h1–h2)

h2 − h2
=
h1 − h 2
Sensible heat factor

Where,
h1 and h2 = Enthalpy of moist air entering and leaving the coil
ma = Mass flow rate of the condensate
h2 = Enthalpy of condensate

9) Adiabatic Mixing of Air Steams: Steams of air at different condition are mixed as
shown in figure by mass balance.

ma1, h1, w1

ma3, h3, w3

ma2, h2, w2
Figure: Mixing of Air Streams
m a1 + ma 2 = ma 3
m a1 w 1 + m a 2 w 2 = m a 3 w 3 ( m a w = m v )
m a1 h 1 + m a 2 h 2 = m a 3 h 3
ma1 h3 − h2
=
ma 2 h1 − h 2
ma1 t3 − t 2
=
ma 2 t1 − t 3

10) Chemical Dehumidification: In chemical humidification DBT of air increases while

specific humidity decreases.
h1
h3 1
w1
h2 w
3 w2
w3
2

DBT
Figure: DBT Adiabatic Graph

Saturation
1
line w2 w
w1
2
t1 t2
DBT
Figure: Chemical Humidification
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.36

11) Adiabatic Evaporative Cooling: In adiabatic evaporative cooling, the heat removed
in lowering the dry bulb temperature of the air is absorbed by the moisture which
evaporates and raises the humidity of the air.

n w2S
2S 2
w2 w

w1
1

tab t2 t1
DBT
Figure: Evaporative Cooling Graph

12) By Pass Factor: Let dry bulb temperature of coil surface is tcoil and air temperature at
entry and exit is t1 and t2 respectively.
By pass

1 kg of air t a b t2 1 kg
2
t coil

Figure: By Pass Factor System

By pass factor,
t 2 − t coil  Temperatre drop not achieved 
m=  
t1 − t coil  Temperature drop that could be achieved 

13) Coil Efficiency: It is determined by the mass coming in perfect contact of coil.
η – 1 – m = 1– BPF
t 2 − t1
η=
t 3 − t1

From figure,
t3 − t2
BPF =
t 3 − t1

1 2 3

η
BPF
t1 t3
Figure: Cooling Efficiency
Diagram
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.37

Note: If by pass factor is low then coil efficiency will be better.

Summer air conditioning with ventilation air;
GSHF = The line joining of inlet and exit condition of an A/C equipment.
RSHF = The line joining supply conditions with inside room condition.
The point of interaction of GSHF and RSHF will give supply condition to room.

A/C Ground Sensible

Room Heat Factor 1
(GSHF) L
i
2
i
1 A/C 2
Outside air equipment
Room Sensible
Figure Heat Factor
Figure (RSHF)

14) Apparatus Dew Point (ADP): The temperature at which cooling and humidification
lines meet sat
t 2 − t ADP
BPF =
t 2 − t ADP

ADP 2

tADP t2 t1
Figure: ADP Diagram

15) Comfort Chart: Relative humidity lines are taken from chart. It is found that an
effective temperature of 20°C, 99% of people where comfortable in winter and in
summer this temperature is found to be 21.6°C. The comfortable relative humidity
conditions are 50% to 60% and hence shaded region shows comfort zone for year
round conditioning.

22 70
21.6 60
21 50
WBT

40 (RH)
20

DBT
Figure: Comfort Chart
B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.38

5.2.13. Factors of Comfort Feeling

The most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort is air temperature – it is easy to
use and most people can relate to it. However, air temperature alone is not a valid or
accurate indicator of thermal comfort or thermal stress. It should always be considered in
relation to other environmental and personal factors.

The two factors affecting thermal comfort are environmental and personal. These factors
may be independent of each other, but together contribute to an employee’s thermal
comfort. These factors are further explained as:
1) Environmental Factors: Followings are the different environmental factors on
which comfort feeling depends:
i) Air Temperature: This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body. It is
usually given in degrees Celsius (°C).
ii) Radiant Temperature: Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from a warm
object. Radiant heat may be present if there are heat sources in an environment.

Radiant temperature has a greater influence than air temperature on how we lose
or gain heat to the environment. For example, sun; fire; electric fires; ovens;
kiln walls; cookers; dryers; hot surfaces and machinery, molten metals, etc.
iii) Air Velocity: This describes the speed of air moving across the employee and
may help cool them if the air is cooler than the environment.

Air velocity is an important factor in thermal comfort. For example,

a) Still or stagnant air in indoor environments that are artificially heated may
cause people to feel stuffy. It may also lead to a build-up in odour.
b) Moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through
convection without any change in air temperature.
c) Physical activity also increases air movement, so air velocity may be
corrected to account for a person’s level of physical activity.
d) Small air movements in cool or cold environments may be perceived as a
draught as people are particularly sensitive to these movements.
iv) Humidity: If water is heated and it evaporates to the surrounding environment,
the resulting amount of water in the air will provide humidity.

Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the
air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that air
temperature.

Relative humidity between 40% and 70% does not have a major impact on
thermal comfort. In workplaces which are not air conditioned, or where the
weather conditions outdoors may influence the indoor environment, relative
humidity may be higher than 70%. Humidity in indoor environments can vary
greatly, and may be dependent on whether there are drying processes (paper
mills, laundry, etc.,) where steam is given off.

High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air, which prevents the
evaporation of sweat from the skin. In hot environments, humidity is important
 B. Tech 2nd Semester – (AUT) (Basics of CE & ME Engineering) 5.39

because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high (80% +). The evaporation
of sweat is the main method of heat reduction.

When non-breathable vapour-impermeable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

is worn, the humidity inside the garment increases as the wearer sweats because
the sweat cannot evaporate. If an employee is wearing this type of PPE (e.g.,
asbestos or chemical protection suits, etc.,) the humidity within the PPE will be
high.

2) Personal Factors: Followings are the different personal factors on which comfort
feeling depends:
i) Clothing Insulation: Thermal comfort is very much dependent on the insulating
effect of clothing on the wearer. Wearing too much clothing or PPE may be a
primary cause of heat stress even if the environment is not considered warm or
hot.

If clothing does not provide enough insulation, the wearer may be at risk from
cold injuries such as frostbite or hypothermia in cold conditions.

Clothing is both a potential cause of thermal discomfort as well as a control for it

as we adapt to the climate in which we work. You may add layers of clothing if
you feel cold, or remove layers of clothing if you feel warm. Many companies
inhibit this ability for employees to make reasonable adaptations to their clothing
as they require them to wear a specific uniform or PPE.

It is important to identify how the clothing contributes to thermal comfort or

discomfort. By periodically evaluating the level of protection provided by
existing PPE and evaluating newer types of PPE you may be able to improve the
level of thermal comfort.
ii) Work Rate/Metabolic Heat: The more physical work we do, the more heat we
produce. The more heat we produce, the more heat needs to be lost so we do not
overheat. The impact of metabolic rate on thermal comfort is critical.

A person’s physical characteristics should always be borne in mind when

considering their thermal comfort, as factors such as their size and weight, age,
fitness level and sex can all have an impact on how they feel, even if other
factors such as air temperature, humidity and air velocity are all constant.

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