6 Unconventional Machining Processes 6.1 INTRODUCTION With the development of technology, more and more are faced by the scientists and technologists in the field difficulty in adopting the traditional manufacturing proc mainly to the following three basic sources; (i) New materials with a low machinability, (ii) Dimensional and accuracy requirements, (iii) higher production rate and economy. The many new materials and alloys that have been developed for Possess a very low machinability. Producing complicated geome materials becomes extremely difficult with the usual methods, Als the combination of the material properties and the job dimension the use of the traditfonal processes becomes impossible, Exam types of jobs are machining a complicated turbine blade made o and producing holes and slots (both through and blind) in m as glass and semiconductors. At times, the job becomes difficy the dimensional complications, So, drilling a noneircular hole or a ™icrohol becomes problematic (and sometimes impossible) if the traditional Processes are used. Apart from the situations cited, higher production rate and econonie Fequirements may demand the use of nontraditional (or unconventional) machining processes. To tackle such difficult jobs, two approaches are possible, viz, i) a modification Of the traditional processes (e.g., hot machining), and (ii) the development or new processes. In this chapter, we shall discuss the common “Unconventional machining processes. Such processes are becoming increasingly unavoidable and popular; therefore, a knowledge of these is essential for @ mechanical engineer. The basic objective of all machining operations is to remove the excess material to obtain the desired shape and size. These operations use various types of energies. Table 6.1 shows the possible machining processes using the different types of energies and various methods of material removal Since the unconventional machining processes differ widely in nature and characteristics, we shall not attempt a generalized introduction. Instead, in what follows, we shall take up and discuss each such process separately. challengin, ig of manufacture ms <5 canbe ted Specific tries in us ns ©, Sometimes S i8 such thy ples of these superalloys, naterials such ult because ofUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 317 Unconventional machining processes Mechanics of material Energy source Process Mechanical/fuid Abrasive jet Erosion motion machining (AJM) Ultrasonic machining (USM) ton displace- _Blectric current Electrochemical machining (ECM) ical ’ oe" ment Electric current Electrochemical Plastic shear lc and mechanical _grinding (ECG) estar 2 and ion dis- aecotemie®” placement motion Corrosive Corrosive agent Chemical coon! reaction machining (CHM) Fusion and Electric spark Electric discharge vaporization machining (EDM) High speed Electron beam electrons machining (EBM) ! Powerful radia- Laser beam Therma tion machining (LBM) Ionized substance Ion beam machining (IBM) Plasma are machining (PAM) (2 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) AIM, the material removal takes place due to the impingement of the fine ‘sive particles. These particles move with a high speed air (or gas) stream. Figure 6.1 shows the process along with some typical parameters of the process. Tweabrasive particles are typically of 0.025 mm diameter and the air discharges 4apressure of several atmospheres. 7 MECHANICS OF AJM a ee : “an abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a high velocity,MN MANUPACTURING SCIINCE Hgts speed air + abraiy \ AbTALVO patiolo | (velocity ~ 150-400 nee Nico) ; Novelo tip of tn 5 HMou oy ; "s (or xonie pom) (ey Hb lo tip distance //. 0.00.5 yyy een San oH im) w g > Abrasive and wear ii ¥ ls i fy 0 Workpieve il 6.1 Abmisive jot machining, s ' the impact eauses «tiny brite fracture and the following, giv (gp ¢ anvay the dislodged stall workpiece particle (weur particle), ‘Thin in Siig | Figs.6.2aand 6.2b, Thus, itis obvious that the process is more suitable ceMtin | work material is britte and fragile, A model for estimating the miterig rate (intr) is available! ‘The mer due to the chipping of the work sy impacting abrasive particles is expressed as Dw | D = xzd\( PE Oe a OI, | where Z is the number of abrasive particles impacting per Unit time, dig yg mean diameter of the abrasive grains, v is the velocity af the abrasive pains is the density of the abrasive material, Hy i8 the hardness of the work mae (the flow stress), and X is a constant, Abrasive grain Wear particle carried avay ~ J town tie (or gus) | Workpieee JF Fracture Workpieve Cavity | TARA NAN | WN AX S MQ , MOONY (a) Fracture of work surface (b) Formation of cavity | Fig. 6.2. Scheme of material removal in AJM. 6.2.2. PROCESS PARAMETERS The process characteristics can be evaluated by judging, (i) the wr, (i) the geometry of the cut, (iii) the roughness of the surface produced, and (iv) the rate of nozzle wear, The major parameters which control these quantities ae ‘Pandey, Py 1980, and Shan, HLS., Modern Machining Processes, ‘Tata McGraw-Hill, New DelhiUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 319 sive (composition, strength, size, and mass flow rate), e abe “omposition, pressure, and velocity), 5 (C geometry, material, distance from and inclination to the ane noel? ( h of these parameters as also their effects uss each ives are used, viz., (i) aluminium oxide and (ii) silicon nerally aluminium oxide abrasives are preferred in most ap- not very important, but, isfactory The work surface, these should have sharp edges. AlO, and SiC pminal grain diameter of 10-50 jtm are available, The best j when the nominal diameter is between 15 yim and 20 jum, A ¢ powder is not recommended as the (i) cutting capacity de- ‘st application, and (ii) contamination clogs the small orifices ¢ of the abrasive particles depends on the pres- . ion om with ane fer the flow The mass gen jte of the gas. When the mass fraction of the abrasives in the ce a ite increases, the mr intially inereases, but with a further inorease rising HOT G. it reaches a maximum and then drops (Fig. 63a), When the s, the mrr also increases (Fig. 6.3b). _ mixing © rena the MINI vf the abrasive inerei Material removal rate Material removal rate Mixing ratio Abrasive mass flow rate (b) Variation with abrasive mass | (a) Variation with mixing ratio flow rate Fig. 6.3. Material removal rate characteristics in AJM. | theGas | The AJM units normally operate at a pressure of 0.2 N/mm? to | N/mm’. The | composition of gas affects the mer in an indirect manner as the velocity-pressure ‘tion depends on this composition. A high velocity obviously causes a high | ‘Mreven if the mass flow rate of the abrasive is kept constant. The Nozzle | Tenozzleisone of i ee Sanpzlelsoue ofthe most vital elements controlling the process characteristics, ‘tscontinuously in contact with the abrasive grains flowing ata high speed, a320 MANUFACTURING § the material must be ver significant Wear, Sapphire is used. Fora normal operation, the CFOss-sectiona| between 0.05 mm? and 0.2 im’, The shape of the 0; gular, Two typical nozz ornal area gp rl Wy rifice can b of eho © Cithes «Nile, recta are shown in Fig eae Cireytay lie of a nozzle is very difficult to ascertain. A We Hozale lasts bet: THe ayy 30 he, whereas a sapphire nozzle lasts for 300 br approximately ween 12 ke f. and “_) (a) Right angle head (b) Straight heag Fig. 64 Types of nozzle heads One of the most important factors in AJ) surface and the tip of the nozzle, The NTD affects not only size of the cavity produced increases, the velocity of t increases due IM is the distance normally called the nozzle ea he Yor the mrr from the work surf 60 the sh) . Figure 6.5 shows the effect of Np, When the xt he abrasive particles impinging on the work sure 10 their acceleration afier they leave the novzle, This, in tans Nozzle tip distance Fig. 6.5 Effect of nozzle tip distance. on shape and size of cut. i due increases the mrr. With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity tedues ue to the drag of the atmosphere which initially checks the increase in the finally decreases it. Figure 6,6 shows how the NTD affects the mrr.UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 321 Material removal rae, Nozzle tip distance fect of nozzle tip distance on material removal rate. Fig 66 B , ABRASIVE JET MACHINES 0 rasive jet machines are manufactured and marketed by a single ihe aba gamely, S.8, White Co., New York) tnder the name “Air alates the principal features of an abrasive jet machine. igure 6.7 8 Depressurization valve c _ __Blowott | r 2 . | Mixer L ch Pressure | | vibrator i regulator eee Fier | ey (eacad —T Rheostat Air Voltmeter |_| Fig. 6.7 Schematic diagram of abrasive jet machining equipment. 624 SUMMARY OF AJM CHARACTERISTICS Mechanics of material Brittle fracture by impinging abrasive grains at removal high speed Media Air, CO, Abrasives Al,O,, SiC 0.025 mm diameter, 2-20 g/min, nonrecirculating322. MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ( Velocity 150-300 m/sec Pressure 2-10 atm Nozzle WC, sapphire Orifice area 0.05-0.2 mm? Life 12-300 hr Nozzle tip distance 0.25-75 mm Critical parameters Abrasive flow rate and velocity, from work surface, abrasive inclination Nozale tip ¢ ise Brain size gg and jy Materials application Hard and brittle metals, alloys, and no metal, materials(eg., germanium, silicon, easy emi and mica) mics, Specially suitable for thin sections Shape (job) application _Drilling, cutting, deburring, etching, cleaning Limitations Low metal removal rate (40 mg/min, 15 . y mami embedding of abrasive in workpiece, tayeq™” drilled holes, possibility of stray abreast Sf IVE action 6.3 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) The use of ultrasonics in machining was first proposed by L. Balay The first report on the equipment and technology appeared du By 1954, the machine tools, using the ultrasonic principle, had and constructed. Originally, USM used to be a finishing op. components processed by the electrospark machines, Howev less important because of the developments in electric dis. But, then, withthe boom in solid state electronics, the machining of eesticaly nonconducting, semiconductive, and brittle materials became more and mon important and, for this reason, ultrasonic machining again gained importance and prominence. In recent years, various types of ultrasonic machine tools hie been developed. Of course, the USM technique is still far from perfect. The basic USM process involves a tool (made of a ductile and tough material) vibrating with a very high frequency and a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small gap between the tool and the work surface (Fig. 68). The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force. The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle work surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the form of small wear particles which are carried away by the abrasive slurry. The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a much slower rate. muth in 194s, ring 1951-5) been designe eration forthe er, this use became charge machining 6.3.1 MECHANICS OF USM The physics of ultrasonic machining is neither complete nor uncontroversial The reasons of material removal during USM are believed to be =[UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES: 323 Feed force Ultrasonic vibration fequency = 20 kHz Jamplitude = 15-20 pm Fig. 6.8 Ultrasonic machining. spe hammering of the abresive particles on the work surface bythe @ vgs impact ofthe free abrasive particles onthe work surface, (er erosion due to cavitation, and i) " ‘chemical action associated with the fluid used. ner researchers have tried to develop the theories to predict the aumber °C ultrasonic machining. The model proposed by M.C. Shaw gonetiies accepted and, despite its limitations, explains the materia Y Née reasonably well. In this model, the direct impact of the tool Tn contact with the workpiece (Which is responsible for the F the material removal) is taken into consideration, Also, the (i) the rate of work material removal is proportional to the volume of work material per impact, (ii) the rate of work material removal is proportional to the number of ing impact per cycle, particles maki ate of work material removal is proportional to the frequency (iii) the 1 kn (umber of cycles per unit time), (iv) all impacts are identical, (v) all abrasive grains are identical and spherical in shape. ‘Thus, . Q«vZv, (6.1) where Q= volume of work material removal rate, v=volume of work material dislodged/impact, Z= number of particles making impact/cycle, v= frequency. r _ L2tusnow consider the impact ofa rigid, spherical abrasive grain of diameter onthe work surface. Figure 6.9 shows the indentation caused by such an impact324 MANUFACTURING Abrasive grain A Fig. 6.9 Scheme of idealized grain indentation, atan instant of time. If D is the diameter of the indentation at an: + “ Y instant g the corresponding depth of penetration, we get, from Fig, 6.9, and or DP = d?—(d-2h or D> = 4dh—4tr. Since h is normally very smail as compared with the D=2J dh. (6.2) Assuming the volume of material dislodged per impact to be proportional D*, we get Q = (ahiy’*Zv, 63) Since the mean speed of the tool is low, the mean static feed force F applied to the tool must be equal to the mean force of the tool on the grains. When the duration of an impact is Af and the maximum value of the impact force F, is Fi. the nature of variation of F with time is as shown in Fig, 6.10. Now, i z), HO at where Tis the time period of each cycle. It will not be very much erroneous to assume the nature of variation of F; to be triangular, yielding Falp Am. (64) The various tool positions during a cycle are as shown in Fig, 6.11, The position d indicates the instant the tool face touches the abrasive grain, and the period of movement from A to B represents the impact, The indentations, caused byUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PRocussis 925 T (time for one cycle) Force Time Fig. 6.10 Force during indentation, sition—-—— Top Po: ‘Time required 4 Mean position — tool touches grain’ Bottom position Abrasive grain Time requis Vv * fig. 611 History of one-quarter cycle during ultrasonic machining, Work Fig. 6.12 _Indentations on tool and work surface at bottom position of tool. rain on the tool and the work surface at the extreme bottom position of jt ate shown in Fig. 6.12. If the distance travelled by the tool from the ition 4 to the Position B is h (the total indentation), then b= hy + hy is326 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ‘ where hy, = indentation caused in the work, hy, = indentation caused in the tool. Now, if is the amplitude of oscillation of the tool, then the averag the tool during the quarter eycle Oto B is given by /(T/4), Therefon iy y 1 required to travel from to B is at at Ze a4 Substituting this value of As in relation (6.4), we obtain or mn 8FA ae a - 5) It should be remembered that during the period At, Z number of graing 9. simultaneously in contact. So, the force per grain is a FJZ. | Now, the approximate area of contact on the work surface per grain is | =p? =ndhy. 4 | Therefore, the maximum stress developed in the work surface is given ss Using relation (6.5) in this equation, we get BFA . i HZdhg( hy +h) (66) It is quite reasonable to assume that the depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the flow stress of the material as long as the load and the indenting sphere’s diameter remain the same. Thus, = I/a. So, if Gand 6, are the stresses developed in the tool and the work, the ratio of the corresponding indentation is given as hehe (6.7 Ty 61) Since the flow stress and the Brinell hardness H¥ are the same, equations (66) and (6.7) yield rrp UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 327 3FA__. ane (6.8) 17 gad! assumed that the number of grains acting is inversely jin oa ihe squaze of the diameter of each grain fora given area of the sion ee ‘pherefor wa c£ Lep “ G (69) gee resents the concentration of the abrasive grains in the slurry and % ere nat of proportionality. Substituting Z from equation (6.9) in equation cons in we get ' 8FAd ___8FAd __ Ie GHyCU + a 8FAd ead (6.10) js substituted in the right-hand side of relation (6.3), we get the he i ste fe tne volume rate of material removal from the work surface. Thus, exrssion Ad c ox [dt __Shld —_yopea cy THH,C(L+ A) piaipscls oH Ihistate of material removal is through the direct hammering action of the grains veto the vibrating tool. Some grains, reflected by the fast moving tool face, also impinge on the work face, and we can estimate the indentation caused by such feely moving grains. Figure 6.13 shows a grain reflected by the tool. During vibration, the maximum velocity of the tool face is 27vA. Since the original \ehcity of an abrasive grain is small, its maximum velocity is, obviously, of the oiler of 2nvA. So, the corresponding maximum kinetic energy of the abrasive gains given by . (6.11) (Eda = 4 a py anvay? = dpa v's? (6.12) here P is the density of the abrasive material. If we assume that during the Ii328 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Maximum reflected velocity = 2nvA ‘Work Fig, 6.13 Rebounding abrasive grain during ultrasonic machining. indentation caused by such an impinging grain the contact force incre linearly with the indentation, then "ASes (KE) max © Fie 61 where A isthe depth of indentation. Using the same reasoning as given bef we obtain q Oe dh Therefore, Fl snd, Using equations (6.12) and (6.14) in relation (6.13), we get ” Anpd'VA? = Lndh, Hh (6.14) Finally, the maximum possible value of the depth of indentation caused by a freely moving grain is found from the foregoing equation as 15) Comparing the values of hi, and hy, under normal conditions, we see that hi very small as compared with /y, and so it can be concluded that most of the material is removed by the directly impacting abrasive grains. Relation (6.11) indicates that the rate of material removal is proportional to @*, but actually it is proportional to d. This discrepancy between the theoretical prediction and the observed fact was explained by Shaw as follows. The actual shape of an abrasive grain is not spherical, as shown in Fig. 6.}4 Instead of having a smooth surface, it has projections of average diameter 4, The average diameter of the projections is observed to be proportional to the“— UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES. 329 Idealized spherical abrasive grain rig, 6.14 Spherical projections on abrasive grain, he rominal diameter of the grain (d). So, c sent (6.16) ths of indentations, the effective diameter will be the diameter II dept ox smal ections (d). Therefore, from relation (6.3), we get we jndenting PFO) , Q# (dh) 2¥> on we 8FA at We? Gad, + AD sing te expression for d,, i.e., equation (6.16), in relation (6.17), we finally fad the mrt tO be apc aE A ay. oD gelation (6.18) shows that the mrr is proportional to d, a fact also experimentally confirmed. tye Shaw theory has a number of limitations. For example, it does not conealy predict the effects of variation of A, F, and v. When F is increased, the erincteases, as shown in Fig. 6.15. This is also confirmed by relation (6.18). towever, in practice, Q starts decreasing after some value of F because the shave prains get crushed under heavy load. (6.18) 632 PROCESS PARAMETERS The important parameters which affect the process are the (i) frequency, (ii) amplitude, (iii) static loading (feed force),Yr 330 MANUFACTURING 5 Material removal rate 0 Feeding force Fig, 6.15 Variation of material removal rate with feed force. (iv) hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece, (v) grain size, (vi) concentration of abrasive in the slurry. ) As can be seen from relation (6.18), the mrr increases linea frequency. In practice also, the mrr increases with the frequency (see but the actual characteristic is not exactly linear, The mrr tends to be lower than the theoretically-predicted value. TTY with the 8. 6.169) Somewhat Increasing frequency heoretical Ze Material removal rate 0 Material removal rate Q requeney V Amplitude 4 (a) Variation with frequency (b) Variation with amplitude Fig. 6.16 Material removal rate characteristics in USM. (ii) When the amplitude of vibration is increased, the mar is expected to increase, as can be seen from relation (6.18). The actual nature of the variation is as shown in Fig, 6.16 for different values of the frequency. Again, the actual characteristic is somewhat different from the theoretically-predicted one. The source of diserepaney stems from the Fact that we calculated the duration of penetration Af by considering the average velocity (=A/(7/4)). The cha of variation of dy, given by maiUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 331 h 1a-Dh fom that obtained from the approximate expression, ice. at {ro ready 52 id that with an ine} in static loading (i.e., the ye already ip nave tends to inerea However, in practice, it tends to decreas mgitical value of the force as the grains start getting crushed, tai ton of the mer with the feed force (for various amplitudes) is o a oy a 4 5 4 3 § 2 z Feed force F v eae ‘Tool hardness (a) Variation with Feed rate (b) Variation with hardness ratio fig, 6.17 Material removal rate characteristics in USM ‘the ratio of the workpiece hardness and the tool hardness affects the (i) The cantly, and the characteristic is as shown in Fig. 6.17b, Apart ari atic the brittleness of the work material plays a very dominant Fn 2 indicates the relative material removal rates for different work ae keeping the other parameters the same, Clearly, a more brittle material Machined more rapidly. Table 6.2. Relative material removal rates (V = 16.3 kHz, A= 12.5 qm, grain size = 100 mesh) Work material Relative removal rate Glass 100.0 Brass 6.6 Tungsten 48 Titanium 4.0 Steel 3.9 Chrome steel 14 >.NCE MANUFACTURIN (v) Relation (6.18) indicates that the mrr should rise the mean grain diameter d. However, when d becomes tog [nr iOng the magnitude of the amplitude 4, the crushing tendeney Fan 3 ANd apy Sig a fall in the mer as shown in Fig. 6.18a, ¥ Mereases, SN (vi) Since the concentration directly controls: the nu a producing impact per cycle and also the magnitude of each imbet °F oy expected to depend on C. But relation (6.18) shows that the me the ie be proportional to C'. The actual variation is shown in Fig, 6 isp XPectag SiC abrasives. This is in fairly good agreement with the theory’ Since the mr inerea Cl) the increase in the mtr is crossed 30%. Thus, a further increase in the concentratio is ty OTetiCal Drage ite Lowy age to "does nor hep 88 cal 2 . ‘Theoretical a 3 3 5 = o 30 ‘Mean grain diameter d Abrasive concentration C (a) Variation with grain diameter (b) Variation with concentration Fig, 6.18 Material removal rate characteristics in USM. Apart from the foregoing process parameters, some physical properties (eg, viscosity) of the fluid used for the slurry also affect the mr. Experiments show that the mrr drops as the viscosity increases (Fig. 6.19a). Though the mrris a very important consideration for judging the performance of an USM operation, the quality of finish obtained has also to be considered for a proper evaluation. In an USM operation, the surface finish depends manly on the size of the abrasive grains. Figure 6.19b shows a typical variation of te mean value of the surface unevenness with the mean grain size for both glss and tungsten carbide as the work material. It is clear that the surface fi much more sensitive to the grain size in the case of glass. This is because of the fact that, for a high hardness, the size of the fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not depend much on the size of the impacting particles EXAMPLE 6.1 Find out the approximate time required to machine a S10 hole (5 mm x 5 mm) ina tungsten carbide plate of thickness 4 mm. The abrstt grains are of 0.01 mm diameter. The feeding is done with a constant farce 3.5 N. The amplitude of tool oscillation is about 25 jum, the frequeney bein®* smalUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 333 1.0 0.75 05 0.25 Relative material removal rate 02 +04 06 08 Viscosity (poise) (a) Variation of mmr with viscosity “7 100F 3 E Z 15 8 3 50 3 2 = 2st gop 0 50 100 150 Mean grain diameter (im) (b) Dependence of surface finish on grain size Fig. 6.19 Dependence of material removal rate on viscosity and effect of grain size on surface finish. Liz The fracture hardness of WC can be approximately taken as 6900 N/mm”, The slurry contains 1 part of abrasive to about | part of water. w a - ie ution Since relation (6.18) yields only a qualitative result, let us an ut 38 approximate expression giving the mrr in terms of the other ies. To do this, let us assume that the volume removed per grit indentationMANUFACTURING SCIENCE Abrasive grain Work Fig, 6.20 Volume removed per grit indentation, can be approximated by the hemispherical volume (Fig. 6.20) 3x(Onp D=24/ digo: being the diameter ofa projection as explained in Section g it ‘Thereipes the mr can be approximately expressed as 132 (ahd ZY, where F SFA "SHA a) wt Rd since we have | part of abrasive to | part of water by volume, a being the Se of the square. Let us also assume = Fast = Aya d@=@ — (dand dare in mm). Then, substituting the values, we get Z= 159,155, hy = 0.0006 mm, and ultimately Q= 0.122 mm/sec. Since the volume to be removed is 100 mm’, the approximate time required is 13.66 minutes. The actual time required is more than that obtained. This is because the process is not 100% efficient, i., all the impacts do not produce brittle fractures EXAMPLE 6.2 Determine the percentage change in the machining time for an USM operation cutting WC plates when the tool material is changed from copper to stainless steel. SOLUTION If Q, and Q, are the material removal rates with copper andUNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 335 e tool materials, respectively, then, from relation (6.18), we ye hardness of we “ims argnessof WC 1: Fardness of COPE , harder than both stainless steel and copper, A, and A, both . much is er than unity. Thus, e el ie uch [arg wil Heya & He a and ‘rh, are the hardness values for copper and stainless stecl, weave rassuming H,/H, © we get | Oe 0.44: % | ppandtgare the machining time for copper and stainless steel tools, respectively, Hfiand’s® ‘ten sow, the percentage change in cutting time when the tool is changed from capper to steel is k-4& x 100= a-x 100 = (1 - 0.44) x 100 = 56 (reduction). 633 ULTRASONIC MACHINING UNIT Temain elements of an ultrasonic machining unit are shown in Fig. 6.21. The iaportant components of the machine are (i) the acoustic head, (i) the feeding unit, (i) the tool, (iv) the abrasive slurry and pump unit, (©) the body with work table. Acoustic Head Theacous “ . stic head (Fig. 6. 22) is perhaps the most important part of the machine. Di336 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Feed mechanism Manual drive Position indicator Machine body Acoustic head] Tool____4y ee sR Work Slurry x pump Work table Slurry tt |_-4— tank Fig. 6.21 Ultrasonic drilling machine. Its function is to produce a vibration in the tool. It consists of a generator §, supplying a high frequency electric current, a transducer to convert this ine a mechanical motion in the form of a high frequency vibration, a holder 1, hold the head, and a concentrator to mechanically amplify the vibs 7 transmitting it to the tool. Most transducers work on the magnetostrictive principle because ofthe high efficiency, high reliability inthe 15-30 kHz range, low supply voltage, and simple cooling arrangement. Stampings are used to reduce loss as in transformers, The dimensions are so chosen that the natural frequency coincides with the electric supply frequency. Almost all the modern machines use the magnetostriction transducers made of nickel (stampings of 0.1-0.2 mm thickness). The main purpose of the concentrator is to increase the amplitude to the level needed for cutting. Various types of concentrators are used (Fig, 6.232), Figure 6.23b shows how the amplitude of longitudinal vibration of the transducer-concentrator assembly is amplified. It should be noted that the system has to be held to the main body at a nodal point, as shown, ration While Feed Mechanism The objective of the feed mechanism is to apply the working force during the machining operation, An instrument showing the movement of the tool indicates the depth of machining. The basic types of feed mechanisms are the (i) counterweight type, (ii) spring type, (iii) pneumatic and hydraulic type, (iv) motor type.UNCONVEN ‘TIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 337 ' ‘Transducer or radiator Generator <— Cooling fluid Concentrator Tool Fig. 6.22 Simplified diagram of acoustic head. Vv Exponential Conical Stepped (a) Types of concentrators (b) Mode of longitudinal vibration of the transducer-concentraler assembly, | indicating how vibration 'S amplified ir function. Fig. 6.23 Concentrators and thei338 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Figure 6,24 schematically shows these arrangements. Counterweight Acoustic head Concentrator Counterweight with rope and pulley Lever Core Coil Acoustic head Concentrator Electric solenoid control Control to adjust fluid fs re ON Hyaaalic 4 pneumatic + Le actuator 7 Acoustic head Acoustic head Concentrator i PL Pinion ‘Concentrator Hydraulic (pneumatic) control fulcrum system Counterweight Counteriveigh, Fulerum Lever se i Acoustic head Concentrator Counterweight with lever and fulerum SE . and S E— Spring GS Acoustic head ‘oncentrator Spring control resistance Kf Rack Counterweight |__ Speed reducer pL) Stalled motor fo develop torque Control with stalled motor Fig. 6.24 Different feeding arrangements for USM units.y UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES ned, the tool is made of a strong, but at the 339 ' si same time ductile, me! es els : al y 9 ally: stainless steels and low carbon steels are used for making the 4s Genet .d brass tools wear ten neal Si and five times faster than steel 12 ain metrical features are decided by the cee The dlincet i. Freumscribed about the tool should not be more than 1.5 t02 times ef role c the end of the concentrator, and the tool should be as short and Hie ble When the tool is made hollow, the intemal contour should be 5 POSSI eal one 10 ensure uniform wear, The thickness of any wall should be at least five times. the grain size of the abrasive. In a ection walls should not be made thinner than 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm, When ool! tool, consideration should be given to the side clearance which is sity a the order of 0.06 mm to 0.36 mm, depending on the grain size of sve Slurry ,ommon abrasives are (i) boron carbide (B,C), (ii) silicon carbide xy corundum (AlO3), (iv) diamond, and (¥) boron silicarbide (very N) nose abrasive power is about 10% more than that of BC. ByC is the nt) Mt efficient among the rest but itis expensive. SiC is used on glass nd moe nd some ceramics. The cutting time with SiC is about 20-40% germaihat with B,C. Corundum is much less efficient and the cutting time oan 7.4 times of that with ByC. Diamond dust is used only for cutting Snore and rubies. an simigh water is the most commonly used fluid in the slury, other liquid, mrpenzene, glycerol, and oils, ae also used, It has been found thatthe mr rfp decrease with increasing viscosity. (34. EFFECTS OF USM ON MATERIALS see the cutting force involved is very small, the process produces no appreciable stress and heating. So, the material structure remains unaffected. jiovever, during cutting through a hole, chipping may occur at the exit side of thehole. To avoid this, the workpiece made of a brittle material is fastened to a tse usually made of glass. 635 SUMMARY OF USM CHARACTERISTICS Mechanics of material Brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive grains removal due to tool vibrating at high frequency Medium Slurry Abrasives BAC, SiC, AlOs, diamond 100-800 grit size Vibration Frequency 15-30 kHz340 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Amplitude 25-100 pm Tool Material ° Soft steel Material removal rate 1.5 for WC workpiece, 100 for glass won. Tool wear rate OtkDiecg Gap 25-40 jum Critical parameters Frequency, amplitude, tool material, Rit g; abrasive material, feed force, slury concen’ slurry viscosity ton, Materials application Metals and alloys (particularly hard and by semiconductors, nonmetals, e.g., glass and cg Title), . Tamies | Shape application Round and irregular holes, impressions Limitations Very low mrr, tool wear, depth of holes ang CaViti | small | ies 6.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) | | Electrochemical machining is one of the most potential Unconventional machining processes. Though it is a new process for metal working, the basic Principle had been well-known for along time. This process may be considers as the reverse of electroplating with some modifications. Further, it ig based | on the principle of electrolysis. In a metal, electricity is conducted by the fee electrons, but it has been established that in an electrolyte the conduction | electricity is achieved through the movement of ions. Thus, the How of eure through an electrolyte is always accompanied by the movement of matter The electrolysis principle has been in use for long for electropl the objective is to deposit metal on the workpiece. But since in electrochemical machining the objective is to remove metal, the workpiece is connected tothe Positive, and the tool to the negative, terminal. Figure 6.25 shows a workpiece and a suitably-shaped tool, the gap between the tool and the work being full of a suitable electrolyte, When the current is passed, the dissolution of the anode occurs. However, the dissolution rate is more where the gap is less and vice y jating where Work Work Fig. 6.25 Scheme of electrochemical machining.Ee UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSE Mi current density is inversely proportional to the gap. Now, if the tool eM wnward motion, the work surface tends to ado. endy ¢. . neg tu ne steady state, the gap is uniform, a jut oR pe of the tool is reproduced in the job, ysthe ke the same shape as shown in Fig, 6.25. I gvostomical machining process the tool is provided witha constant Won The electrolyte is pumped ata high pressure through the tool and mr ap between the (ol and the workpiece (Fig, 6.26). The electrolyte is that the anode is dissolved but no deposition takes place on th my The onder of the current and voltage area few thousand amper ele The gap is of the order of 0.1-0.2 mm, In a typical machine, the sa) val rate is about 1600 mm/min for each 1000 amp. Approximately cal needed (0 remove 16 X 10! mm! of metal, which is almost 30 time sana Tequired ina conventional process (of course, when the metal is vachinable). But with ECM, the rate of metal removal is independent piece hardness, So, ECM becomes advantageous when either the a very low machinability or the shape to be machined eal) ™ ot aqie Moy nateril POS seomplivated Constant feed motion Electrolyte J Tool Insulation Low voltage high current dc supply Splashed electrolyte Fig. 6.26 Electrochemical machining. Unlike most other conventional and unconventional processes, here there \spactically no tool wear. Though it appears that, since machining is done dkstrochemically, the tool experiences no force, the fact is that the tool and work eabjected to very large forces exerted by the high pressure fluid in the gap. ‘4.1 ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF ECM PROCESS The electrolysis process Faraday: () The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current, that is, Seamount of any material dissolved or deposited, is proportional to the quantity sidleticity passed. (ii) The amounts of different substances dissolved or deposited by thesame is governed by the following two laws proposed by342 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE quantity of electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent yy; In the quantitative form, Faraday’s two laws state that ‘ights, m« Ite, where 1) m = weight (in grams) of a material dissolved or deposited 7 = current (in amperes), , 1 = time (in seconds), €= gram equivalent weight of the material. Introducing the constant of proportionality F, commonly called (=96,500 coulombs), we find that relation (6.19) becomes araday Ite m= He F (6.29) Using the numerical value of F, we get (621) where J = current (in amperes), = time (in hours), m= weight (in grams), = gram equivalent weight of the metal. When a metallic body is submerged in an electrolyte (Fig. 6.27), the metallic atoms leave the body and become ions and the ions move to the body and become atoms. The process goes on continuously and the equilibrium is maintained. A potential difference exists between a point on the surface of the metallic body A Electrode potential for A . Electrode Ke o* potential for B Electrolyte (a) Material dissolution (b) Cell emf and deposition Fig. 6.27 Electrode dissolution and electrode potential.UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 343 1 adjacent point in the electrolyte. This potential difference is a at trode potential. The electrode potential varies depending on at pe 2 ce combination. If wo different electrodes (A and B) are cle T gifference between these electrodes will exist since the tert with respect f0 the common electrolyte are diferent. This nd Bg the electromotive force (emf) of the cell, generated by slectrolyte. This is explained in Fig. 6.27, For example, ; are dipped in brine (solution of kitchen salt in water) the electrode potentials are ¢ between itt te ‘potentials = 0.713 volt f : alee pthe electrolysis process depends on the electrolyte sed, To se mile Fests realize, lt us onside the aqueous solution of soiam 4 ho 4 Fe Cu Flow of electron NaCl + H,0 : without extra (6) Case with extra source ole ofemt Ssouree of emf Fig. 6.28 Principle of electrolysis. chloride as the electrolyte. When a voltage difference is applied across the flezodes (Fig. 6.28b), the reactions at the anode and the cathode are Fe > Fe’? + 2e (at anode) lite electrode metal (Fe) dissolves, leaving two electrons] 2H,0 + 2e > Hy T+ 2(OHY (at cathode) The water gets two electrons from the electrode and, as a result, the hydrogen sis evolved and hydroxy! ions are produced. The positive metal ions tend to move towards the cathode and the negative hydroxyl ions are attracted towards the anode. Then, the positive metal ions combine with the negatively-charged ydroxyl ions to form ferrous hydroxide as344 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Fett + (0H) > Fe(OH): 7 a ‘This ferrous hydroxide forms an insoluble precipi Ro, ih this kind op electrode metal-electrolyte combination, the anode Ths wean Hy generates at the cathode, leaving the cathode shape unchanged. This is the most importan, characteristic of the trochemistry of the ECM process. It should be Note that for ECM the choice of electrodes and the electrolyte must be Such that ng { either electrode can take place. oe ele wight ofthe meals given by € AZ, where Ais hy atomic weight and Z is the valency of the ions produced. Using this in equation (6.20), we get the rate of mass removal in the form (622) If the density ofthe anode material isp, the volumetric removal rate is given by = cm?sec, (6.23) area where A= gram atomic weight of the metallic ions, 7 = current (amperes), p= density of the anode (g/m), Z= valency of the cation, F = Faraday (=96,500 coulombs). When the anode is made of an alloy instead of a pure metal, the removal rate can be found out by considering the charge required to remove a unit volume of each clement. If the atomic weights and the valencies (of the corresponding ions entering the electrolyte) are 4), 43,43, --- and Z,, Zy, Zs, - -» , respectively, and the composition (by weight) of the alloy is % of element 1, x3% of element 2,..., then a volume vem! of the alloy contains ypx,/100 gram of the i-th element, where p is the overall density of the alloy in g/cm?. The charge required to remove all of the /-th element in volume v is given by vex, ZF 100 4," Thus, the volume of the alloy removed per unit charge is 100 I O= 100, Samp. oF “Eazy em apse or 0.103510, Q=-——— cm’ /amp-sec. (6.24) p 2 (x,Z,/4)UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 345 sn electrochemical machining process with a pure iron eof 5 cmn'/min is desired, Determine the current required. omic weight, valence at which dissolution takes. place, am at 3 1d 7.8 gicm’, respectively. Now, using equation 16,500 .d is given by sx T8X2228EE amp or 12240 amp. 3 6 the process is seldom as ideal as we have described. As a * Joval rate may differ slightly from that obtained theoretically SY, In Fig. 6.29. the theoretical andthe actual removal rates ork material are shown, The theoretical removal rate has actual Tel @ Actual removal rates Removal rate predicted bby equation (6.23) Removal rate (g/min) —o 300 100 200 Current (amp) Fig. 6.29 Removal rate versus current for nickel, teen based on divalent dissolution. When the current is more, i., the dissolution takes place at a higher potential difference, trivalent dissolution also takes place. Therefore, at larger currents, the theoretical value tends to be more than the actual one. Sometimes, the dissolution valence also depends on the electrolytes. For example, copper dissolves in the monovalent form in chloride solutions, whereas in nitrate solutions, the dissolution takes place in the divalent state. Table 6.3 shows the important data on some elements. EXAMPLE 6.4 The composition (% by weight) of the Nimonic 75 alloy is a given here: Ni Cr Fe Ti Si Mn cu RS 195 50 04 10 10 06 >346 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Table 6.3 Atomic weight, valency of dissolution, and density of important elements Valency of Density Gram atomic Metal weight dissolution (g/em’) Aluminium 26.97 3 2.67 Chromium 51.99 2316 7.19 Cobalt 58.93 23 8.85 Copper 63.57 2 8.96 Iron 55.85 23 7.86 Nickel 58.71 23 8.90 Tin 118.69 2/4 7.30 Titanium 419 3/4 4.51 Tungsten 183.85 68 193 Zine 65.37 2 713 Silicon 28.09 4 2.33 Manganese 54.94 28/617 7.43 Calculate the removal rate (in cm*/min) when a current of 1000 amp is passed, Use the lowest valency of dissolution for each element. . SOLUTION From equation (6.24), the removal rate in em*/amp-sec is given by 0.1035x107 a= Ptsxt_t _ Pp £(xZ//A) T First, let us find out the density of the alloy, which can be expressed in the form p= 100 Zep) where p;is the density of the i-th element. So, using the values given in Table 6.3 we get " 100 © 815+ 2.714 0.644 0.09+0.43+0.13 +0.07 = 8.18 g/cm’, Using this value of p in the expression for Q and substituting the values of Z;PP a ost. UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 347 1035.% 107 _ 9,35 x 107 cmsec-amp. 0. re current is used, the removal rate in m/min is 4 1000-ampe 1 whet je sort x 1000 % 60 2:1, es 0.35 ” ntally-observed value is about 2 cm*/min. eperimed C er pip verwexn the voItage applied across the electrodes and the se lt Pot very simple. The total potential profile (see Fig. 630) aa of See following: costo ctrode potential. aa @ overvoltage due to activation polarization. The electrochemical Ui) orm electrode are in equilibrium when no current flows. The electrode aus ta ay barrier to a faster rate of rection. So, an additonal energy ne vipplied to get the required mrr. ‘Anode potential ‘Activation polarization overvoltage Anode Ohmic overvoltage overvoltage Concentration polarization overvoltage Ohmic voltage Concentration polarization overvoltage Cathode Ohmic overvoltage overvoltage Activation polarization overvoltage Cathode potential Fig. 6.30 Voltage drop in gap between electrodes. man Concentration polarization. The ions migrate towards the electrodes of ach ion must S, causing a concentration of ions near the electrode surfaces. teelectrode ae through this concentration barrier to release its charge at face. So, an extra voltage is required for the migration of ions i _348 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE through the concentration layers. ; (iv) Ohmic overvoltage. The films of solid materials forming electrode surface offer an extra resistance (0 the passage of current, ~ ° the (u) Ohmic resistance of electrolyte. The ohmic voltage drop occy, the bulk of the electrolyte. Ths is the main vollage drop and is the the circuit within the electrolyte which obeys Ohm’s law. If the total overvoltage at the anode and the cathode is AV ang the voltage is V, the current / is then given by 2DPliog 8 ae only Pant v-Av I R (6.25) where R is the ohmic resistance of the electrolyte. "The conductivities of the tool and the workpiece are much larger tha conductivity of the electrolyte. The typical electrolyte conductivity jg “ 0.1-1.0 @' em’, whereas that of iron is 10°"! cm", Thus, the surfaces ae tool and the workpiece may be considered as equipotential. The conductivi the the electrolyte is not really constant because of the temperature variation uy iccumalation of bubbles. However, for simple calculations, it may be treater constant. a 6.4.2. KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF ECM Figure 6.31 shows a set of electrodes with plane and parallel surfaces. The wor (the upper electrode) is being fed' with a constant velocity fin the direction ae Work Electrolyte yb flow with 3 5 aa velocity v © Tool Fig. 631 Kinematic scheme of ECM. ~y (normal to the electrode surfaces). The problem is considered to be one- dimensional and the instantaneous distance of the work surface from the tool surface is taken to be y. Considering the workpiece to be of pure metal, the removal rate of the workpiece metal is given by equation (6.23). If the overvoltage is AV, the density of the current flow through the electrolyte is given by ps at 14) (628 — * "The important consideration is the relative motion between the surfaces and not the actual motion of the individual electrodes. So, even though the feed motion is normally giver © the tool, our analysis remains valid.UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 349 etivity of the electrolyte. Now, the removal of work material ine cone ye workpiece to recede (inthe y-direction) with respec o ote the auttace with a velocity given by ©’, where Q” is the volume rate of Soe pal sUelHee “oval per unit area of the workpiece surface, Thus, the rate grote melt! Regyreen the work and the tool surface changes is oy tne g8P ui ye Lf & 4 e (6.26), we find this equation becomes equation 1 wi eaege -s 627 bel pi “ heterm within the square brackets by a constant parameter A, we obtain jocing 1a "Ls (6.28) y . z Q pasie equation representing the dynamics of ECM process, the ‘ ‘i few basic cases. this Fi now investigate a we shal ro Feed vi ive. f= 0, equation (6. ihe feed velocity is Zero, i.e S= 0, equation (6.28) reduces to when wd dt s ss. ‘ irae initial gap 18 Yor the solution of this equation is then given by yey t 2a (6.29) o gute gap increases with time, as indicated in Fig. 6.32. Constant Feed Anever increasing gap is not desirable in an ECM process. So, in practice, te electrode is provided with a constant feed velocity of suitable magnitude. Thus, in equation (6.28), f is constant. Obviously, when the feed rate f equals tievelocity of recession of the electrode surface due to metal removal, the gap remains constant. This gap (which depends on the feed velocity) is called the ‘uilibrium gap (y,). Thus, for the equilibrium gap, equation (6.28) yields a oz 4 Ve f ya4, pat (630) A”350 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE vO : ? ¥ a Yo | 0 Time! (a) Variation of electrode gap with time for zero feed yon4 (b) Plot of j versus 7 Fig. 6.32 Electrode gap characteristics in ECM. Let us now use the nondimensional quantities a, zoe Bo petit (631) ye A vf 4 Then, equation (6.28) takes the form dy My di With the initial condition = Jp, the solution of this equation yieldsaot (6.32) «jg the plot of ¥ versus 7 for different val init shows ferent values of the initial 7 32 onehe gap always approaches the equilibrium value irespective 5e0P ndition- .d to Surface itil ines janotion oe vector is inclined to the surface (Fig, 6.33), thec ; face (Fig. 6.33), the component Fee pa othe surface cos 8. In this case the equilibrium pap is fee! . sity naens a Work Fig. 6.33 Kinematics of ECM when feed direction is not normal to electrode surfaces. jachining Uneven Surface . When an uneven work surface is subjected to ECM, the metal is removed from Uportions of the surface (unlike other machining operations). The portion or peling outwards (the hills) is nearer the tool surface and gets machined more quickly than that projecting inwards (the cavities). Thus, the ECM process rote effect of smoothening out the unevenness. As shown in Fig. 6.34, the miltrium work surface position (7 =I) can be regarded as the desired final workpiece surface. The deviations from this desired surface are the defects characterized by the nondimensional depth or height (6), depending on whether the defect is a valley or a hill. Since = y ~ ye, (6.33) Theoreti IL oretically, it would take an infinite time to remove a defect completely; in Dractic x rose however, as soon as 5 goes below a preassigned allowable value, the ad’ finished. Figure 6.35 shows how the hills and the valleys are smooth- ii352 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Valley Work Tool Fig. 6.34 Electrochemical smoothening of uneven work surface. +++ valleys jum gap units achieve tolerance indicated Depth of ECM in equil z 4 t Initial size of defect 5, Fig. 6.35 Smoothening of hills and valleys. EXAMPLE 6.5 Inan ECM operation with the flat surfaces, a 10-V de supply is used, The conductivity of the electrolyte is 0.2 ohm”! cm, and a feed rate of 1 mm/min is used. The workpiece is of pure iron. Calculate the equilibrium gap. Consider the total overvoltage to be 1.5 V. SOLUTION For iron, A= 55.85 g, Z= 2, and p = 7.86 g/m’, Now, the equi- librium gap is given by A _KAV AV) __ 0.2 55.85 x (10-1.5) f pLEf — 786X2X 96,500 x (0.160) = 0.04 em. Theoretically, the equilibrium gap can have any value, but, in practice, the tool and the work surfaces are never perfectly flat. So, if the equilibrium gap is te small, the surface irregularities of the electrodes may touch each other, causing353 ce irregularities of the electrodes (with flat surfaces) isc surfat s yt oi 66 he se are the heights of the peaks of the asperities as shown 1 ¥ ph 38 pm ork is of pure iron and a de voltage of 12 V is employed, Pym ae pe the 250 le feed rate which can be used. Assume the conductiv- 6.36 gest POSS ‘e same as in Example 6.5. proniage t0 be th Z ste beer work (Fe) ‘Tool Fig. 6.36 Nominal gap between undulating ° work and tool surfaces. The minimum allowable value of the nominal gap so that the uuTiOn TS ich each other is (0.0005 + 0.0008) = 0.0013 em, So, when i pede as the corresponding feed rate is given by roo Cay — AY), _0.255.85(12- 15) = 02ST) _—_ ry fou ZFy, 786% 296,500 x 0.0013 a = 0,059 cm/sec = 35.7 mm/min. machining forces are concemed, it may appear at the frst glance ca fing on the tool and the workpiece are negliible since material aarhe Fores place in the atomic level. But since the electrolyte has to be ree th an adequate rate of flow, normally the pressure is lage, This forte force ating onthe tool and the workpiece may be quite considerable iefeenitude. The electrolyte flow is necessary (i) to avoid the ion concentration, (i) 10 avoid the deposition on the tool, (iii) to remove the precipitation, (iv) to avoid the overheating of the electrolyte. rthese four major objectives, the last one is very important, and an estimate of the equired flow rate of the electrolyte can be worked out on the basis of this. Assuming all the heat, generated by the flow of electric current, o remain in the — (ie., neglecting the conduction through the electrodes), the rise in lmperature (8) in passing a length dx of the gap (Fig. 6.37) is given by go far as the (6.34)354 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ‘ vA Tool V \* L >| t + 1 dx} oes x : Electrolyte Work Electrolyte temperature temperature = 0 =0)+ 40 Fig. 6.37 Increase of electrolyte temperature along flow direction. where J is the current density, «is the conductivity of the electrolyte, flow velocity, p, is the density of the electrolyte, and c, is the specifi the electrolyte. The conductivity « depends on the temperature as x= rll + a(0- 4), (635 where Xo is the conductivity at the temperature Op, Xis the conductivity at temperature 6, and a is a constant. Using equation (6.35) in equation (634), we obtain Vis the heat of _ Pde © Kl +a@- EO)” Rearranging this equation and integrating, we get P de+C, J [1+ a@-0,)]d0 a C being a constant. If the total temperature rise along the total length L of the gap is 6, this equation, after integration and rearrangement, takes the form ye (6.36) Ky(A0 + 549") Pee If the gap is y and the viscosity of the electrolyte is 1, the total pressure required (assuming turbulent flow) to maintain a flow velocity v is given by 03164 pL | py p= are ® 2 1 (6.37) Re being Reynolds number (with the characteristic dimension 2y). In equation (6.37), the first term is the pressure required to overcome the viscous friction and the second term is the pressure required to overcome the inertia, However, the pressure, acting on the tool face, is given by the first term.During an ECM operation on an iron work ® copper 100! (using brine as the electrolyte), both {rate of 2 mn/min is used. The de voltage used is | is 1.5 V. The dimension of the tool perature of the electrolyte is 95 ¢ with a ving a flat 0 V and the ¢ 18 25.4 mm x 25.4mm. ‘ind out the total force acting Use the data viscosity of electrolyte = 0.876 x 10° kg/m-sec, density of electrolyte = 1.088 g/em?, specific heat of electrolyte = 0.997, conductivity of electrolyte = 0.2 2"! em, ambient temperature (initial temperature of electrolyte) = 35°C, xt he variation in electrolyte conductivity due to the temperature change, ele irolyte is fed from one side of the square-shaped tool, the el First, let us find out the equilibrium gap. For iron, A = 55.85 . (ON First, ap. iron, A & soo p= 7.86 g/em*. Using equation (6.30), we find that the equilibrium sap is _ 0.2 x 55.85 x (10- 1.5) x 60 oe ~~ 786%2%96500%0.2 °™ = 0.02 em. The current density with this gap is pe LAY) 028-5 oem? = 85 ample? ve 0.02 Now, the allowable rise in temperature 0 (to avoid boiling) being 95°C — 35°C = 40°C, the required velocity of the electrolyte flow is given by equation (6.36) with a= 0, Thus, SL Ky) A0p.c. ——_____ cm/sec = 1410 cm/sec. 0.2 x 60 x 1.088 x 0.997 With this velocity, Reynolds number with the characteristic dimension 2y, and viscosity m. becomes (using consistent units) pv2y, Ne = 7004, Re Now, from the first term of equation (6.37), the pressure on the tool is found aea_ i} 356 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE to be 0.3164 x 1.088 x 1410? x 2.54 prot ep on Ton TO kN? = 238 kN/m’. The area of the tool face is 2.54* em? = 6.45 cm?, and the tool is given by (assuming a linear drop in the pressure) 4.x 238 10x 6.45 KN = 79 N. force acy OFC acting on 5 643 EFFECTS OF HEAT AND H, BUBBLE GENERATION In our analysis in Section 6.4.2, the different parameters and pro. assumed to be uniform throughout the face of the electrodes, Bar eS We isnot tru. A variation in these properties affects the machining the electrolyte conductivity changes as the electrolyte passes slong to (i) the increase in electrolyte temperature, (ii) the evolution ot 4 8 bubbles, and (ii) the formation of precipitates, the last effect being hydrogen cause of the flow of electricity, the electrolyte temperature graduate and the conductivity changes, resulting in a nonuniformity in the increases sity along the direction of electrolyte flow. Apart from this, bubbles nat since hydrogen is generated during machining. These bubbles are suerte electrolyte, and the concentration of such bubbles tends to increase a ¥ te direction of electrolyte flow. As a result, the overall conductivity and then density vary along the same direction, The resultant effect of these causes equilibrium gap between the electrodes to vary. the Mla, P due 6.4.4 SURFACE FINISH Since, in general, a very good surface finish is desired in the parts machined by ECM, a study of the possibilities that may result in a bad finish is important The surface finish is adversely affected by the (i) selective dissolution, (i) sporadic breakdown of the anodic film, (iii) flow separation and formation of eddies, and (iv) evolution of H gas. Selective Dissolution In alloys, the different constituents have varying electrode potentials. In pure metals too, the dissolution potentials at the grain boundaries are different from those inside the grains. Let us consider the work surface (with two constituen!s A and B) shown in Fig, 6.38a. In this figure, the voltage profile across the gap has also been shown. Let the dissolution potential of the constituent B (Vi) be greater than the dissolution potential of the constituent A (1%,)- So. the required potential difference between a point on the surface and the adjacent electrolye for ECM (o start must be either Vj, oF Vy, depending on the local const Since the whole anode surface is equipotential and the electrolyte potential a across the gap as shown, the surface ofa grain of B must project away from the) UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 357 0 nstituent ‘A (to meet the electrolyte with a lower potential) so that (sce s core, Vy achieved. Thus, in the steady stat, the work surface of gnterenes ; smooth. 1g oven and not very § ape une wil Ja Anode potential —p4 Potential required oS tor Ssolain of Hay Voltage profile o\ Potential required for electrolyte across. dissolution of B, V4, the gap " (a) Unevenness duc 19 difference in dissolution potentials of different phases Work, 4 OR Increased anode potential j Anode potential > A N }¢————+ ry Aa Vat Hag (b) Reduction in unevenness wit increase in anode potential Fig. 6.38 Surface unevenness in multiphase materials. potential gradient is higher, the unevenness is less. Figure 6.38 ‘uations with different potential gradients, the other parameters It is obvious from this figure that the height of the projection stituent B is less when the potential gradient is higher. An ion of the projection height can also be derived as follows. When the shows two silt remaining the same. ofa grain of the con: approximate express From Fig. 6.38b, V-V, 6-8) =V—%y. where V is the anode potential. Rearranging, we obtain Vay roy” (6.38) Sporadic Breakdown of Anodic Film ae Teason for the sporadic breakdown of the anodic film is the gradual the exion bien difference between the work surface and the electrolyte in surface pot ‘ay from the machining area. Figure 6.39 shows the variation of the Potential of the anode in this region. Here, till the point P;, the potential ie...358 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE, is enough to cause the dissolution of all the phases. At , falls below the dissolution potential of one phase, and so the abe Py ing. Beyond P, the anode surface potential continues to drop a Stops gg lig number of phases stop dissolving, resulting in an uneven cue ani a when only a few phases remain active and dissolve, a concentra ima tric field results since the active phases occupy a small proportie” of; ee surface, This field concentration eauses these phases to disoicn tage forming deep pits as shown in Fig. 6.39. Beyond the point py ne °° potential drops to such a low value that no dissolution takes lace Me sur Pi, the ay, TZ Tool i—Insulation a Fig. 6.39 Surface unevenness due to sporadic breakdown of anode Flow Separation and Formation of Eddies The presence of hills and valleys on the anode surface may cause a spate of electrolyte flow and eddy formation. In these eddies, separated ftom the na Stream, a large concentration of the metal ions may build up, resulting ina igh concentration overpotential in the eddies. This introduces a localized variationn the removal rates, and consequently an uneven finished surface, Apar from ke presence of hills and valleys, the flow separation may be caused by an impropr design of the tool and the electrolyte flow path. So, a great care has tobe takes in designing the electrolyte flow path in a tool. Evolution of H, Gas The flowing electrolyte collects the evolving hydrogen gas generated atte cathode. The presence of H, in the electrolyte reduces the specific conductivity of the solution. This effect increases as the H, concentration goes on increasing downstream, and the overall effect is a deterioration of the surface finish | sources af Apart from the foregoing four mechanisms, there are some ates su . surface deterioration, But since their importance is of a lower magi! shall not discuss them. __—_———a