State of the art article

Narrative analysis
Martin Cortazzi University of Leicester
Narrative is one of the most frequently occurring (1993). Yet many developments in narrative analysis
and ubiquitous forms of discourse. Stories of have not been widely applied to language teaching.
personal experience, for example, crop up repeatedly This is perhaps because much of the work is little
in informal conversation, in doctor-patient talk, in known, since it is located in widely dispersed
the proceedings of lawcourts, in psychotherapy sources.
sessions, in newspaper reporting and in social science This article will survey current developments in
research interviews. Many films and books — both narrative analysis integrating a number of discip-
fictional and non-fictional — have a narrative struc- linary perspectives. There will be some focus on
ture, as do many advertisements. Narrative is, of conversational narrative, though much of the
course, an important genre in its own right. It is ground covered is relevant to written narrative and
probably the first to be acquired at home and the literary narrative. It will suggest ways in which
most exploited in the early stages of learning in these developments can be applied to the uses of
school. Certainly it has been the most studied. It is stories in the language classroom, to teacher
increasingly recognised as having a major role in the development and to the use of narrative analysis as
reproduction of culture and society. This genre is a research tool.
widely used in language teaching, for example,
through the story lines which commonly occur in The significance of narrative
textbooks. It is a text type which receives specific
pedagogic attention, particularly for the reading Narrative is now seen by many scholars as being of
and writing of narrative forms. Narrative is also the fundamental importance to our mental and social
basis of the storytelling activities increasingly used life. It is, as Polkinghorne (1988: 11) demonstrates,
in many classrooms to encourage learners' interest, ' the primary scheme by means of which human
to help them develop their own voices, and to raise existence is rendered meaningful'. In a similar vein,
levels of confidence and participation. Bruner (1986, 1987, 1990) has argued convincingly
Narrative has long been of central concern to the for the importance of narrative in education,
study of literature. Advances in the development of distinguishing logico-scientific thinking from nar-
the theory of narrative texts have led some scholars, rative modes of thought. The first deals with
notably structuralists, to promote 'narratology' as observation, analysis and proof while the second
an independent discipline (Todorov, 1969; Prince, handles issues of belief, doubt, emotions, intentions,
1982; Bal, 1985; Chatman, 1988). More usually, and accommodates ambiguity and dilemma. When
researchers have come to regard narrative as a field people tell stories, anecdotes and other kinds of
on which a number of disciplines, each with its own narratives, they organise data into special patterns
focus, converge. Currently, narrative analysis is which represent and explain experience (Hymes,
burgeoning in all branches of the human sciences as 1982; Gee, 1985; Mishler, 1986; Branigan, 1992). In
a major approach to qualitative research. It has telling stories of personal experience, people create
touched on practically every profession through the coherence, endowing their lives with meaning over
study of occupational narratives and life stories. In time (Linde, 1993; Gergen & Gergen, 1993).
one form or another, but with an emphasis on Narrative structures are used to interpret an ever-
recounting past events or personal experiences rather widening range of human experience. In some
than fictional creation, storytelling is receiving much contexts, narrative is taking on metaphorical uses.
attention from researchers not only in linguistics Josselson (1993) cites examples of popularised
and education, but also in psychology, sociology, accounts of advances in science in which stars, black
anthropology and philosophy, as reviewed by holes, nerve cells and neurons are proclaimed as new
Toolan (1988), Polkinghorne (1988) and Cortazzi narratives about nature. Narrative becomes, in
Sarbin's terms (1986: 8-9), a 'root metaphor', an
Martin Cortazzi lectures in applied linguistics and organising principle for thinking and action. Signifi-
education in the University of Leicester, where he cant examples are meta-narratives, such as the early
directs the MA Course in Applied Linguistics and twentieth century accounts of evolution which
TESOL. He has taught in Spain, Switzerland and were presented in narrative form (Landau, 1984,
Iran. Recent teacher training assignments have taken 1986). The theories of Marx, Durkheim and Weber
him to China, Taiwan, Turkey and Lebanon. His have also been seen as meta-narratives, where the
major interests are discourse and cross-cultural com- central ideas of capitalism, social differentiation and
munication. Protestantism have an ambivalent heroic role in
Western culture (Clegg, 1993), as seen in much
Lang. Teach. 27, 157-170. Copyright © 1994 Cambridge University Press 157

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 State of the art: narrative analysis
contemporary political and social rhetoric. As of what an event is. Shuman (1986) sees events as
Martin (1986) has pointed out, our tendency to look categories of experience, some of which are trans-
for an orderly evolution of narrative is itself evidence formed into the sequentially arranged units of
of how narratives work, through the imposition of narratives by imposing order, causality and ration-
a pattern on the past in order to tell a coherent story ality on what might otherwise be a stream of
about it. If narrative is a metaphor on occasion, it is activities. Narratives are thus psychological con-
a powerful one, used with reason: narratives hold structs.
our interest and organise meaning. There is some ambiguity in terminology in the
literature. First, 'story' and 'narrative' are used by
most scholars to cover both the imaginary tellings
What is a story? of fiction and the recounting of real-life factual
The most detailed answers to this question have experience, since the structures and functions of
come from theorists of literature, who studied oral both are similar. Second, there is the distinction,
stories in order to understand basic problems of developed by Chatman (1978) and others, between
narrative (Todorov, 1969, 1977; Hendricks, 1973; 'story' (fabula), the pre-narrative events as they
Bremond, 1973; Prince, 1973,1982; Greimas, 1983). occurred, and 'discourse' (sjuzet), the actual
Some writers have maintained that the study of oral expression through which the events are communi-
narrative reveals fundamental structures and pro- cated. The point of the distinction is that the length
cesses of literary genres (Labov & Waletsky, 1967; and order of telling does not necessarily match those
Toolan, 1988; Maclean, 1988). Conversely, insights of the original events. Genette (1980) and Bal (1985)
from literary theory are helpful in studying oral refine this by adding 'narration', the act or process
narratives, as shown by several surveys (Rimmon- of narrative production and 'narrator', the teller,
Kenan, 1983; Martin, 1986; Cohan & Shires, 1988; in order to develop a complex system of categories
Toolan, 1988). to account for narrative shifts in time and points of
Literary theorists suggest three necessary con- view (see below). This is important because it
ditions for narrative (Prince, 1973; Chatman, 1978; overcomes the temporal restrictions of Labov's
Ricoeur, 1984). The first condition, temporality, (1972: 359) well known definition of narrative as a
draws attention to the sequence of events in time means of representing or recapitulating past ex-
between a beginning state of equilibrium, a middle perience by a sequence of ordered sentences that
action which sets up tension by a dynamic change or match the temporal sequence of events, which, it is
disequilibrium through character action, and a final inferred, actually occurred. This definition is seen as
state of resolution or outcome. The second condition too restrictive since it does not really allow for the
re-ordering of time in the telling.
is causation - the middle action causes the final
state. Given a chronological sequence, causation is Thirdly, however, Polanyi (1989: 16-20) and
often inferred: The car crashed. She died. In the others use 'story' as a sub-type of narrative, distinct
absence of further information most readers would from reports such as plans, directed to the future,
infer that the car crash caused her death. Reversing simultaneous narrations describing or comment-
the sentences raises the possibility that her death (say ing on events in the present, or generic narratives
from a heart attack) caused the crash, which is detailing what usually or always occurs. On this
unlikely in the original order. The third condition, definition, stories are specific, past-time narratives
human interest, allows for a projection of values which tell about a series of events which took place
and motives to characters in a story, where such at specific unique moments in a unique past-time
aspects as change, choice or confrontation are world. Further, a story makes a point about the
interesting, or the occurence of something un- world which teller and story recipients share. Linde
expected, or humorous. (1993: 20-50) extends this by specifying a life story,
Thus a narrative is not simply a succession of which has as its primary evaluation a point about
recounted events but is an interesting intelligible the speaker rather than about the world. Also a life
whole. The three conditions combine to form a story has extended reportability in that it is tellable
minimum plot structure, which as Scholes and and can be retold intermittently over a long period
Kellog (1966) maintain, is the dynamic sequential of time. Genre analysts working with school texts
element in narrative, the most essential but least have divided 'story' into further sub-categories. For
variable element. As Ricoeur (1981) argues, plot example, Rothery and Plum (in Cope & Kalantzis,
transforms events into a story. Leitch (1986: 18) 1993: 235) distinguish the recount, anecdote,
exemplum, fable and narrative.
points out that such distinctive features as sequence,
change, action, etc., are all shared by non-narrative
works. Even apparently straightforward definitions
like Scholes (1981: 205) 'A narration is the symbolic Narrative structure
presentation of a sequence of events connected by As Polanyi points out (1989: 19), even a story told
subject matter and related by time' begs the question in a conversation is as formally constructed as any
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
carefully worked out acknowledged piece of literary incident characterises the class as a whole. Yet the
verbal art. The best known model for analysing oral story is not only about the children's humour,
narrative structure is the sociolinguistically oriented rather it emphasises the teacher's reaction to their
model of Labov et al. (Labov & Waletsky, 1967; humour which the teacher obviously enjoys as part
Labov, 1972, 1981; Labov & Fanshel, 1977) which of the teacher-pupil relationship, as shown by the
examines narrative structural properties in relation colloquial 'it kills me', which is heavily evaluated
to their social functions. by the repetition. By giving this in a narrative the
Labov suggests that a fully formed oral narrative teacher has done more than show a verbal ap-
of personal experience has a six part structure. Each preciation of the children's humour and his en-
part can be seen as the answer to a question. joyment of it. The teller does not simply report the
abstract What was this about?
child as singing, he sings as the child did. There is no
optional element - reporting verb; the teacher starts straight in with the
(summarises the point or states a general song, as the child did. This dramatises, but there is
proposition which the narrative will excmp- more: by imitating the child through narrative
lify) performance the teacher gives him credit and at the
orientation Who? When? What? Where?
(gives details of time, persons, place, situation)
same time gets some himself, as a performer.
complication Then what happened? Labov's model has been applied in literary analysis
(gives the main event sequence and shows a (Platt, 1977; Carter & Simpson, 1982; Maclean,
crisis, problem, turning point) 1988) and stylistics (Carter & Nash, 1990); in
evaluation So what? education, for analysing children's writing (Taylor,
(highlights the point, shows listeners how
they arc to understand the meaning and
1986; Morgan, 1986; Wilkinson, 1986) and teachers'
reveals the teller's attitude by emphasising cultural perceptions (Cortazzi, 1991); in mass
parts of the narrative) communications, for analysing newspaper stories
result What finally happened? (van Dijk, 1984, 1988 a, b; Bell, 1991); in de-
(shows resolution to crisis) velopmental psycholinguistics (Kernon, 1977;
coda (optional way of finishing by returning
listeners to present)
Peterson & McCabe, 1983); and in anthropology
(Watson, 1972).
These elements can occur in various sequences and A more elaborate model, independently derived,
combinations. In principle the evaluation can occur is that of Longacre (1976), which has been widely
anywhere and overlap with any other part, since it used in anthropology:
is a rhetorical underlining of the narrative point,
realised by a wide variety of syntactic or prosodic aperture an optional formulaic opening
devices which mark that section or sections of the stage information about time, place, participants
narrative (Labov, 1972: 370-375; Peterson & episode(s) an inciting moment which gets something
going, a developing conflict which intensifies
McCabe, 1983:222). the situation, and a climax or resolution
An example from Cortazzi (1991: 110) shows denouement a crucial final event after a series of episodes
how this kind of analysis might work. The narrative conclusion optional narrator's comments or interpret-
is a spontaneous anecdote told by a British primary ation
finish a formulaic closing.
teacher who was asked about the children in his
classroom. Longacre (1976: 217-231) suggests that narrators
A I've got quite a nice hunch at the moment. give marked attention to the main points, or Peaks
They've got a very nice sense of humour. (cf Labov's Evaluation), through paraphrase, rep-
O But one ...I think it was one day last term
etition, tense and person shifts, dialogue and
I put a row offossils out, animal fossils,
C and I put ' 120 MILLION YEARS OLD'
dramatisation, or changes in pace and viewpoint. A
R and as one of the kids walked by series of Episodes is common, organised with
he started, [SINGS] 'Happy Birthday to you'. reference to one or more Peaks, as pre-peak, post-
E That's the sort of sense of humour they've got. peak or inter-peak Episodes.
It just sort of kills one. It kills me.
Longacre's model and other anthropologically
The abstract (A) gives advance notice of the main oriented frameworks (e.g. Grimes, 1975) have been
point which the narrative will illustrate. The used to reveal enormous cultural diversity in the use
orientation (O) shows the time and circumstances: of narrative structures around the world (Longacre
a display of fossils in the classroom with what is later & Levinsohn, 1978; Grimes, 1978fl,fo;Brewer,
seen as a Complication (C), the teacher's written 1985). Some examples of this cultural diversity offer
notice showing the age of the fossils. The Resolution a salutary corrective to Western assumptions about
(R) recounts a child's spontaneous reaction to the narrative. Sherzer (1987) shows how the Kuna
notice by singing the Happy Birthday song, as if the narratives of Panama do reflect temporal order but
notice had been a birthday greetings card. The focus much more on aspectual matters, the location,
Evaluation (E) reiterates the main point, that this direction and ways actions are performed. This is
shows the children's sense of humour and that this done so much that Western readers have difficulty
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
following translations as the narrator jumps back contemporary accounts of psychology and language
and forth from place to place. In another contrast, (e.g. Baddeley, 1990; Singer, 1990) usually in
Zhang and Sang (1986) identify two patters of connection with research on memory for narrative.
Chinese narrative: the first starts in the middle of
the story; in the second tellers mention the key
The functions of narratives
point only very briefly and then pass on, going into
great and repeated detail about common experiences Any particular story is likely to have more than one
in shared time and place. Again, Westerners may function. Labov (1972) puts forward two social
well miss the main point here and also fail to functions of oral narratives of personal experience.
appreciate the collective orientation of the shared The referential function gives the audience in-
common experience. formation through the teller's recapitulation of
The Episode structure is more elaborately ana- experience. However, he maintains that report-
lysed by story grammarians in psychological models ability depends more on the second, the evaluative
of narrative. Psychologists using story grammars in function, which gives the meaning of the narrative
the 1970's attempted to write phrase structure by establishing personal involvement through the
grammars and rewrite rules to generate stories, evaluation section. 'Without the concept of report-
derived by analogy with the then current generative ability we cannot begin to understand the things
approaches to syntax. Glenn (1978: 230), for that people do in narratives' (Labov et al., 1968: 30).
example, sees a story as a causal sequence of Socially, the evaluation is the crucial part of the
information, in which Episodes are each composed narrative since it shows what kind of response the
of an initiating Event, which causes an internal teller desires.
response or Goal in the main story character, The analysis of the evaluative function has been
followed by an Attempt to attain the Goal, a developed in three significant directions, each of
Consequence or (non-) attainment of the Goal and which demonstrates how narrative analysis can be
a Reaction or the character's internal response to used as a research tool to investigate culture. First,
the consequence. Similar story grammars have been Cortazzi (1991, 1993) has argued that the evaluation
sketched out by Rumelhart (1975,1977), Thorndyke (or peak) section of a narrative presents the speaker's
(1977), Mandler and Johnson (1977), Stein and perspective on the content. He shows that if the
Nezworski (1978), Stein and Glenn (1979), and evaluations in a large number of stories, told on a
Mandler (1984). More recent attempts to update the specific topic by a particular occupational (or other)
linguistic base of story grammars include Shen's group are isolated, collected and analysed they will
(1988) X-bar story grammar. Many of these
reveal speakers' cultural perceptions on that content.
grammars were assumed to have cognitive reality,
In this way, the differing views of learning given by
i.e. readers or storytellers use such grammars as
British teachers and Chinese postgraduate students
schemata when processing stories. Some were used
have been analysed with reference to their reflections
as a basis for analysing children's oral and written
on incidents of successful learning (Cortazzi, 1991,
narratives (Peterson & McCabe, 1983; Kroll &
1993; Cortazzi &Jin, 1994). Much of the learning is
Anson, 1984) or to help teachers with assessing
reading comprehension (e.g. Whaley, 1981; Mar- seen to be outside the teachers' control.
shall, 1984; Kulleseid & Strickland, 1989). In a second extension of evaluation analysis,
Polanyi (1981, 1982 a, b, 1984,1989) shows how oral
Yet story grammars generated controversy (van narratives of personal experience highlight culturally
Dijk, 1980; de Beaugrande, 1982) and at least five salient material in the evaluation. This material is
criticisms. First, they were not applied to extensive generally agreed by members of the teller's culture
data but only to simple or artificial stories (Brown to be self-evidently and importantly true. Through
& Yule, 1983). Second, while they were intended to paraphrasing and expansion she reveals American
be generative they do not generate some stories but values and beliefs concerning concepts about chil-
they do generate non-stories (Black & Wilensky, dren, health, responsibility, individuality, etc.
1979; Garnham, 1983, 1988) and they can only be Third, Linde (1993) reveals levels of coherence in
operated intuitively (Brown & Yule, 1983). Third, the evaluations of American life stories about choice
they emphasise prediction rather than explanation of profession, pointing to ways in which tellers'
(Thorndyke & Yekovich, 1980) and prescription personal and moral values may be identified, as well
rather than description (Thorndyke, 1984). Fourth, as speakers' social systems of assumptions about the
they ignore social interaction and emotive effects world. The first level of coherence is imposed by the
(de Beaugrande & Colby, 1979). Finally, they are structure of narrative itself, including the speaker's
said to be unnecessary since all that is needed is an evaluation of how recounted events are to be
understanding of goals and motivations in real life
understood. The second level involves coherence
situations or a focus on semantic content only
principles of causality and continuity in which
(Black & Wilensky, 1979). Nevertheless, story
speakers account for career choices in terms of
grammars are still given extended treatment in
character, accident and (un)explained discontinui-
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
ties. The third level consists of social assumptions not significant unless they are recounted, often with
which speakers use to make narrated events and exaggeration, to a third party with the aim that the
evaluations coherent, including folk theories or latter will relay the account to another potential
semi-expert forms of Freudian and behaviourist opponent. The relayed narrative becomes part of
psychology, astrology and feminism. the fighting, as much a preview as a retrospective
The evaluation is sharpened by further, interactive account. As narrative messengers mediate between
functions of narrative. Sacks, Schegloff Jefferson opponents some likely violence is defused by stories.
and others (Sacks, 1972,1973,1974,1992; ScheglorT, Given such examples one can probably conclude
1972,1978; Jefferson, 1978; Ryave, 1978; Goodwin, that in appropriate contexts narratives can fulfil any
1984) have shown how conversational narratives pragmatic use.
are located in pairs of adjacency pairs. The first The joint construction of narrative in conver-
pair consists of a proposal from the intended sation gives power and depth to a number of
teller (' did I tell you about the time when...?') apparently individual functions of narrative. In
followed by an acceptance from the potential personal narrative, tellers create and maintain
audience ('Do tell me. Go ahead' or silent ac- personal identity, a sense of temporal continuity and
ceptance). This pre-sequence establishes report- of the causality of life's events (Linde, 1993).
ability and acknowledges interest. It leads to a Through narrative, speakers translate knowing into
second pair, the narrative followed by a receipt telling (White, 1981), distance themselves reflect-
from the audience - any comment, laughter etc ively from the events (Moore & Carling, 1988), and
which shows appreciation of the telling or en- are able to (re) interpret their experiences, (re)-
dorsement of story content and the speaker's evaluate them and (re)position themselves vis-a-vis
evaluation of that content (Goffman, 1981; Stubbs, story content and social values (McKay, 1993) and
1983). This joint production applies also to a series endow their lives with meaning across time (Gergen
of narratives. Subsequent narratives show marked & Gergen, 1993). However, all these narrative
parallels of topic, theme, characters or events and functions are socially situated and narrative itself is
they stand in an adjacency relationship with previous constitutive of them, according to current social
narratives (Moerman, 1973; Goffman, 1981) in constructivist perspectives (Josselson & Lieblich,
which tellers agree with, or contradict, earlier 1993; Coupland & Nussbaum, 1993; Mumby,
evaluations through their narratives. 1993). As Mumby (1993: 5) puts it: 'Narrative is a
These interactive functions of narrative can be socially symbolic act in the double sense that (a) it
highly varied as seen in different cultural practices. takes on meaning only in a social context and (b) it
As Scollon and Scollon (1981, 1984) show, Athaba- plays a role in the construction of that social context
scan narrative is negotiated with the audience when as a site of meaning within which social actors are
tellers give sufficient background information on a implicated'.
theme for the audience to anticipate and provide the A telling example of this multi-faceted con-
conclusion. The 'best' response is to finish what the struction is the use of personal narrative in mutual
narrator is saying. The listener tells the story. Basso support groups, where stories of illness, loss,
(1984) demonstrates how some Apache narratives of addiction or inadequacy make public what would
personal experience are associated with features of otherwise be private experience (Robinson, 1979;
the local landscape. In time, these landmarks become Moore & Carling, 1988). Here the teller comes to
invested with the cultural and moral values of understand his or her predicament through nar-
exemplary tales, so that viewing the landscape rative. Listeners also come to understand not only
becomes a powerful corrective to community the teller's experience, but more particularly their
members thinking and behaviour. Social delinquents own, since each narrative is essentially a version of
need not be criticised or punished - it is sufficient to what everyone in the group has experienced.
'shoot them' with narratives. Thus a narrative can So far the examination of narrative functions may
have many transactional uses in interaction. Schiffrin seem somewhat utilitarian. However, a number of
and others show how a narrative can be an argument, researchers have looked at narrative as entertainment.
or evidence in argument (Schiffrin, 1987, 1990; From a psychological viewpoint, Lichtenstein and
Andrews, 1989; Witten, 1993). As Kress maintains, Brewer have proposed a structural-affect theory
both narrative and argument deal with the same in which the primary function of stories is to
fundamental socio-cultural issues: 'how to accom- entertain (Lichtenstein & Brewer, 1980; Brewer &
modate difference, contestation, conflict around Lichtenstein, 1981, 1982; Brewer, 1985). An affec-
salient social and cultural values in any domain, and tive response is linked to three types of story
provide integrative rather than fissive resolutions of structures. In the first, a surprise structure, the
such differences' (Kress, 1989: 11). A complex speaker withholds critical information which listen-
example of such inter-related functions of narrative ers are unaware of until the end of the story when
is Shuman's (1986, 1993) study of teenage fight the narrated events are reinterpreted in the light of
stories. She showed that the fights themselves are surprise. The second, a suspense structure, has an
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
initiating event which could lead to serious conse- - a useful distinction to handle quoted dialogue in
quences, good or bad. The listener is concerned narrative. Goffman (1981: 174) sees personal narra-
about the potential outcome and suspense is resolved tives as 'strips of personal experience' from the
when it is finally known. In the third, a curiosity teller's past which are 'replayed', not as a mere
structure, the speaker again keeps back critical reporting but rather as a re-experiencing, directly
information but listeners know that it is being for the teller, vicariously for the audience. The
withheld and are curious to find out what it is. narrative is not so much told to the audience as
When informed later in the story, curiosity is performed for it, so that the audience role is to
satisfied. Brewer and Lichtenstein cite psychological show appreciation (a Receipt in Sack's terms).
experiments which demonstrate that discourse Tellers and hearers know this, so narratives are
patterns producing such affective responses were designed to get an 'appreciation of a show put on'
judged by subjects to be stories, while other patterns Goffman (1975: 547).
not producing such a response were judged not to Genette's (1980) literary categories are also helpful
be stories. for examining speaker roles in narrative. Using
Many oral narratives also have a performance terms from syntax, he looks at TIME in terms of the
function. This, like other functions, is highly order of events and telling, sometimes organised as
sensitive to the context of social interaction, in a flashback or flashforward; the duration of events
particular to audience reaction to the teller's skill and telling, where events may be cut out, expanded
and effectiveness. Bauman (1977, 1986, 1993) or summarised; and the frequency of mention of
maintains that narrators assume responsibility to an an event, occurring once and mentioned once or
audience for a display of communicative com- several times, or occurring several times and
petence as part of a double contract: the narrator mentioned once. Under the heading of MOOD,
promises a performance, hearers promise to be an there is the distance between the event and telling,
audience. The teller is accountable but is also in a in which events may be simply recounted or
position of power, for example by keeping the directly represented (mimesis), e.g. by imitating
extended turn at talk which a narrative inevitably direct speech; and focalisation where perspectives
grants. Performance may be sustained and full or a may be on a character or through a character, so
more fleeting breakthrough into performance that' I' may be a speaking subject, the narrator now,
(Hymes, 1974,1981). To avoid a let-down it may be the narrator then, quoted other then, or third person
disclaimed (Sacks, 1974; Bauman, 1993). pronouns etc may be other then (Rimmon-Kenon,
Performance features include gestures, dramatised 1983; Cohan & Shires, 1988). Under VOICE, the
dialogue, variation in prosody, and a range of act of narrating includes a real or implied narrator
stylistic devices. Wolfson (1976: 206, 1982: 62) or audience, while degrees of intrusiveness in, for
claimed that narratives in research interviews lacked instance, direct or indirect speech, are accounted for.
such features. They were essentially summaries, Such frameworks are helpful to examine the
short and to the point, answers to interviewers' kinds of complex teller-audience roles and narrative
questions, but unlike spontaneous narratives in purposes such as those found in therapeutic narrative
which performance features occur. If this is normally dialogues. In these a therapist and client together
the case it has important implications for narrative (re)construct the client's life story, often out of
analysis since many narratives in interviews of one chronological sequence. Traditional religious stories
sort or another. However, Cortazzi (1991) found (Schachter & Hoffman, 1983; Peseschkian, 1986) or
many examples of performed narratives given in personal narratives (Rosen, 1982) may be told by the
research interviews. therapist so that clients identify with story charac-
ters or the situations and reflect on and solve their
own problems. More usually clients tell their story
Roles in narrative in part to their self as audience as well as to the
The work of Goffman in sociology and Genette in therapist. The narrated self is 'a mutual inter-
literary theory present useful frameworks to analyse penetration of past and present' (Schafer, 1981: 31),
the more complex notions of narrative time, point interpreted by the therapist, who may encourage
of view and the act of narrating, leading to a clients to hear themselves teaching the therapist and
consideration of the roles of teller and audience. thereby learning (Coles, 1989; see also Labov &
Goffman (1969,1975,1981) outlines the notion of Fanshel, 1977; Spence, 1982; Polkinghorne, 1988;
multiple-selfing in narrative: the teller may be the Schafer, 1992).
author, the self who composes the lines; the The role of memory in narrative is important in
principal, the self as protagonist; or the animator, contexts where accurate recall matters (see 'Legal
the self as performer, expressing the story, giving Storytelling', 1989). Since Bartlett (1932), research
impressions. Levinson (1983: 170) further distin- on narrative memory confirms that recall is selective,
guishes the source, the originator of the words, the past is (re)interpreted and (re)explained, while
from the relayer, a speaker who is not the source gaps are filled by inference (Baddeley, 1990).
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
Research using story grammars demonstrates how research is potentially relevant to those teaching
recall favours items high in a tree diagram, however, special purpose or professional communication
the texts and research methods are somewhat language courses.
artificial. More realistically, Neisser (1982) com- The development of narrative theory in literature
pared John Dean's testimony at the Watergate trial continues (Genette, 1980, 1988; Prince, 1982; Bal,
with the White House tapes of the original 1985), while challenged by poststructuralist and
conversations with President Nixon. Apparently, postmodernist thinking, and is being applied to a
Dean had an impressive memory for dialogue in his range of fictional writing (e.g. Bonheim, 1982;
story, but Neisser concluded that the courtroom Hutcheon, 1984; Maclean, 1988; Palmer, 1991).
version was a plausible - but incorrect - dramatised Chatman (1978, 1990) and Branigan (1992) give
reconstruction representing typified experiences extensive treatment to the role of narrative in film,
distilled into a single account. It was not true of linking literary studies with linguistics and media
any particular occasion though it retained the essence studies.
of the general nature of the President's role. In the study of history, White (1978, 1981), Mink
However, Edwards and Potter (1992) argue that (1978) and Ricoeur (1981, 1984) and Cronon (1992)
Dean's version was pragmatically organised for a have argued for the central role of narrative as a
courtroom accounting, rather than simply a nar- founding principle giving coherence and integrity
rative. Tannen's (1980) research also supports the to the representation of past events. Tonkin (1992)
point that narrative recall is influenced by context has examined the social construction of oral history
and culture. She showed that after seeing the same in an interesting Liberian case study.
film, Americans gave detailed objective reports In linguistics, Tannen (1980, 1984, 1989) and
showing concern with time reference while Greeks Schiffrin (1981, 1987, 1994) continue the devel-
focused on interpersonal involvement. There is also opment of the analysis of conversational narrative.
the possibility, supported by Middleton and
Gee (1989, 1990) has also looked at styles of oral
Edwards (1990) and Tonkin (1992), that narrative
narrative construction, paying attention to prosodic
form and the context of recall shape story memories
features which he uses to transcribe narratives in
as much as memories shape stories.
stanzas. Cook (1992) examines narrative voices in
his linguistic analysis of the discourse of advertising
Narrative analysis as a research and this might be compared with the more
method sociologically oriented work by Goldman (1992)
Narrative analysis is rarely mentioned in research which includes some focus on narrative adverts.
handbooks. Mishler (1986, 1990, 1991) gives the In anthropology and folklore studies Bauman
most detailed consideration to narrative analysis in (1986), Young (1987), Stahl (1989), Rosaldo (1989)
interview contexts, showing how stories are often and Behar (1993) among others have presented
embedded in responses yet may be deleted from detailed analyses of personal narratives told by
later analysis. He discusses problems of transcription, adults, while the Scollons (1981,1984), Heath (1982,
analysis and validation. Giilich and Quasthoff (1985) 1983), Shuman (1986), Miller et al. (1990, 1992)
demonstrate an analysis in terms of a production have completed insightful studies on the role of
schema giving a relational structure diagram, while narrative in the socialisation of children and
Ricssman (1993) carefully discusses contrasts be- teenagers. Their work also examines the construc-
tween three methods: a life story approach, a tion of self and compares oral and literate narrative.
Labovian analysis, and a stanza analysis inspired by Degh (1994) has recently extended folkloristic
Gee (1989, 1990). Cortazzi (1993) gives a detailed narrative research to discuss television adverts and
survey of narrative models in sociolinguistics, memoriams in newspapers while Stromberg (1993),
psychology, literary studies and anthropology and as a cultural anthropologist, has focused on Christian
shows how narrative analysis in education can be conversion narrative in order to examine how
conducted. Together these works demonstrate that language interacts with self-transformation.
stories of personal experience need not be dismissed In psychology Bruner's work (1986, 1987, 1990)
as anecdotal evidence - rather, narrative analysis is a on the organising role of narrative in cognition has
significant research tool. been influential, as has that of Kintsch and van Dijk
(1983) on narrative structures as macro-structures in
cognitive processing, and the 'Pear stories' study of
The range of narrative research
the recall of a narrative film (Chafe, 1980).
Some idea of the rapid growth of narrative research Current advances in social psychology include
can be gained by surveying a number of disciplines the more discursively oriented work of Potter and
currently involved, the scope of narrated topics Wetherell (1987), Parker (1992), Edwards and Potter
being examined through narrative analysis and the (1992) and collections of studies edited by Shotter
range of professions to which these disciplinary and Gergen (1989), Middleton and Edwards (1990)
perspectives on narrative have been applied. This and Burman and Parker (1993). This work includes
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
a range of critically aligned studies of the social At the interface of sociology and psychology is
construction of the narrative with the goal of current work on life stories, collected by Rosenwald
furthering understanding of identity, textuality, and Ochberg (1992), Josselson and Lieblich (1993),
accounts, memory and a variety of social issues Coupland and Nussbaum (1993) and Mumby
including prejudice. This work fits well alongside (1993), which includes studies of migrants, internees,
van Dijk's (1984, 1987, 1993) more linguistically war veterans and holocaust survivors. Such work
oriented narrative studies of prejudice and Wooffitt's focuses on life changes, identity and social control.
(1992) sociological study of accounts based on Gergen (1988) presents trajectories of life storylines
narratives of paranormal experiences. in a graphic format, contrasting the tragedy,
Cutting across disciplines are studies of occu- comedy, happy-ever-after, and romantic saga.
pational narratives and gender through narratives. Narrative research is increasingly seen as fun-
Some occupational narratives reflect the teller's damental in education (Diamond, 1991; Witherell
position in the organisational structure: stories told & Noddings, 1991). First, narrating is held to
by subordinates are reported to be about arrogant promote pre-service teachers' awareness and reflec-
superiors, where actions are taken to reverse the tion by keeping journals of the practicum, writing
status, role or expected behaviour; stories by personal histories of their own learning, and
superordinates celebrate their own skills and ability, exchanging classroom stories (Connelly & Clan-
strongly assert the teller's selves or tell of their dinin, 1988; Maas, 1991; White, 1991; Knowles &
rebellion against bureaucracy (Santino, 1978 a). Holt-Reynolds, 1991; Weber, 1993). Second, re-
Other folklore studies of narratives reveal oc- searchers compare pre- and in-service teacher
cupational self-images. Pilots' stories portray the knowledge and expertise, much of which is context-
tellers as individualistic and assertive, as people who bound and event-structured, i.e. narrative knowledge
take control (Santino, 1978 a), engineers in their (Elbaz, 1990; Kagan, 1990; Kremer-Hayon,' 1991).
own stories are also individualistic but with a devil- Third, narrative is a prime vehicle for teachers'
may-care attitude, while trainmen's stories show the voices, to present their views and meaningful
tellers as coping with problems (Santino, 1978 6) experience (Grumet, 1990; Goodson & Walker,
and hospital employees tell stories showing com- 1991; Goodson, 1992). Fourth, the life story
petency in emergencies (Berkman, 1978). approach is extended to examine teachers' pro-
Many organisational narratives sustain corporate fessional development and career patterns (Huber-
identity and sustain company values. These could be man, 1993; Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994).
enhanced by managers and informed storytellers Finally, narrative thinking is part of some teachers'
who are aware of narrative functions (MitrofF & planning and delivery of the curriculum
Kilmann, 1975; Schwartzman, 1984; Deal, 1985; (Gudmundsdottir, 1990, 1991) and has been seen as
Boje, 1991). Witten (1993) argues that narratives central in primary children's learning (Egan, 1988).
exercise control at the workplace, imaging hi- Narrative analysis in various forms is therefore
erarchical relationships. Workers are taught the relevant to the training and professional devel-
parameters and obligations of their roles and norms opment of language teachers, though little has been
serving the goals of the organisation are conveyed. specifically written about this application.
Some narrative studies have examined stories as a Earlier work on children's development of
form of discourse to understand gender relations narrative (Applebee, 1978, Peterson & McCabe
and women's consciousness. Degh (1985) found that 1983) has been developed with greater linguistic,
in traditional patriarchal societies men's stories focus social and psychological awareness, shown in
on experiences far away, on military service or contributions to Tannen (1984), Sarbin (1986),
migration. Women's stories are more homebound, Britton and Pellegrini (1990) or McCabe and
focusing on love, marriage or family life. Silberstein Peterson (1991). Much current research has a specific
(1988) studied the courtship narratives of three linguistic or psychological focus: on features of
generations to document how marital partners use cohesion (Bennett-Kastor, 1986; Peterson &
language to create gendered selves and events. Dodsworth, 1991; Peterson & McCabe, 1991; Silva,
Riessman (1988, 1993) analysed women's divorce 1991), coherence (Trabasso, 1991), intertextuality
stories from women of contrasting social back- (Wolf & Hicks, 1989), and evaluation (Bamberg &
grounds and argued for a more detailed con- Damrad-Frye, 1991). There is useful research on
sideration of differences in women's experiences children's oral stories in classrooms (Cuff& Hustler,
without negating the similarities that link women. 1981; Michaels, 1981, 1991; Hustler & CurT, 1982;
The Gergens (1993) point out the gender bias in Cummings, 1982; Heath, 1983; Hustler & Payne,
Western autobiographies, documented by examples 1985; Dickinson, 1991) but very little on children's
of how famous men and women account for their narrative in a second language, although Decheor
bodies. This account is balanced by Geiger's (1986) (1983), Trevise (1987) and Veronique (1987) exam-
work which looks at women's narratives in history ine story telling when adults use a second language.
in developing countries.
Wells (1985, 1986) presents evidence for the
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 State of the art: narrative analysis
persuasive influence of stories on all aspects of makes learning through stories meaningful and
learning. He argues that narrative is relevant to all memorable. Stories make sense. Narrative analysis
areas of the school curriculum since through the helps teachers to make the most of them.
exchange of stories ' teachers and students can share
their understanding on a topic and bring their
mental models of the world into closer alignment' References
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