MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY

Graduate School

PHYS 217- WAVES & OPTICS

CHAPTER I
MECHANICAL WAVES

By: RACHELLE L. DACUYCUY

MAED PHYSICS

Learner’s Material

Castro Ave., Laoag City, 2900, Ilocos Norte

* [email protected] ) +63(077)600-3469 www.mmsu.edu.ph
 CHAPTER I – MECHANICAL WAVES
INTRODUCTION
A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement
of particles. Consider a slinky wave as an example of a wave. When the slinky is
stretched from end to end and is held at rest, it assumes a natural position known as
the equilibrium or rest position. The coils of the slinky naturally assume this position,
spaced equally far apart. To introduce a wave into the slinky, the first particle is displaced
or moved from its equilibrium or rest position. The particle might be moved upwards or
downwards, forwards or backwards; but once moved, it is returned to its original
equilibrium or rest position. The act of moving the first coil of the slinky in a given direction
and then returning it to its equilibrium position creates a disturbance in the slinky.
A material through which a wave travels is called medium. The wave medium is
not the wave and it doesn't make the wave; it merely carries or transports the wave from
its source to other locations. You have to remember that not all waves travel through a
medium, such wave is called electromagnetic wave. On the other hand, the waves that
needs a medium in transmitting its energy is known as mechanical waves.
Find out more about mechanical waves through these lessons.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lessons, the students must have:
1) given, differentiated & classified mechanical waves;
2) discussed qualitatively & quantitatively the pulses in a string and musical tones
produced by different musical instruments.
3) stated the Principle of Superposition and described periodic waves;
4) applied the wave equation in solving problems;
5) identified and discussed the nature, characteristics and properties of sound waves;
6) explained the Doppler Effect, defined shockwaves & identified their applications.

GETTING READY!
You have probably seen a wave, but have you created one? Let’s try and make
some waves.
1. Get a rope of any kind and tie one end of it to a fixed sturdy object near you. Now,
straighten the rope and hold the other end of it. Start moving your hands up and
down. Observe what happens to the rope. Were you able to make a wave?
2. Try to make a wave again but move your hands slowly. Then make a wave while
moving your hands fast. Observe what happens. Is there any difference on the
waves you have created? Why does each created wave look differently?
 LESSON 1: TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES

LET’S DISCUSS!
A mechanical wave is a wave that is not capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum. Mechanical waves require a medium in order to transport their energy from one
location to another. The wave you have just created in the warm up activity is an example
of a mechanical wave. Slinky waves, water waves, stadium waves, and sound waves are
other examples of mechanical waves; each requires some medium in order to exist. A
rope wave requires a rope; slinky wave requires the coils of the slinky; a water wave
requires water; a stadium wave requires fans in a stadium; and sound waves are capable
of travelling through any medium.
There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse, longitudinal, and surface
waves. They differ in how particles of the medium move.
• In a longitudinal wave the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of
wave propagation.
• In a transverse wave the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.
• A surface wave is a wave in which particles of the medium undergo a circular
motion.
LET’S LEARN MORE!
Surf the net and go through these materials. Take notes.
Acoustics and Vibration Animations. Retrieved from
https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos/waves/wavemotion.html
Different Types of Waves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUBAMlMoI1g&t=8s

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 1: This is My Type!
Direction: Identify the following waves whether it is transvers wave, longitudinal wave, or
surface wave. State your reason for not more than 2 sentences.
Type of
Reason
Mechanical Wave
1. Sound wave
2. Water wave
3. Periodic wave
4. Standing wave
5. Sirens
6. Seismic wave
7. Wave on string
8. Fans pushing air
downward

9. Rayleigh wave
10. Plucking guitar
string
 LESSON 2: PULSES IN A STRING

LET’S DISCUSS!
Stretch a string between two horizontal poles, we say the string is in equilibrium. If
we pluck the string then we call this a disturbance of the medium. A simple kind of wave
called a "pulse" is created. An example of a simple crest pulse wave is seen at sporting
events where groups of fans stand up and then sit down, creating the effect of a "wave"
moving across the stadium.
A pulse can be describes using its different properties: velocity, amplitude, and
pulse width. Since there is primarily only one crest, there is no frequency or true
wavelength, although the width of the pulse relates to wavelength.

Transverse Pulse Wave Longitudinal Pulse Wave

The speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the medium, and not upon the
properties of the wave. Every wave will have the same speed in this string regardless of
its frequency and its wavelength. The speed (v) of a pulse depends on the properties of
the string:
ü How heavy it is
o The amplitude of the pulse in less dense medium is greater.
o The wavelength is always greatest in the least dense medium.
o The wave speed is always greatest in the least dense medium.
ü How tightly it is stretched
o A string that is under more tension will vibrate more rapidly, creating pressure
waves that are closer together, and hence have a higher frequency.
o Loosen strings, on the other hand, vibrate more slowly, creating pressure
waves that are farther apart, and thus that have a lower frequency.

For the speed of waves in a stretched string of mass (m) and length (L) that is under
tension (T):
 𝑇 Wherein
𝑣=# v= velocity of the pulse
𝑚/𝐿
m= mass of the medium/
string
L= length of the medium/
𝑇 string
𝑣=# T= Tension force
µ
Note: µ = 𝑚/𝐿

LET’S LEARN MORE!

To understand better about pulses on string, surf the internet and click on to this link:
The Equation for Velocity of Waves on a String
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcc6S91mcQc

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 2: Pulses on String
A. Problem Solving
1. The stainless steel forestay of racing sailboat is 20 m long, and its mass is 12 kg.
To find its tension, the stay struck by a hammer at the lower end and return of the
pulse is timed. If the time interval is 0.20 s, what is the tension in the stay?
2. On a six-string guitar, the high E string has a linear density of 3.09x10-4 kg/m and
the low E string has a linear density of 5.78x10-3 kg/m.
(a) If the high E string is plucked, producing a wave in the string, what is the speed
of the wave if the tension of the string is 56.40 N?
(b) What is the speed of the wave if the linear density of the low E string is
approximately 20 times greater than that of the high E string?
3. A piano wire has a linear mass density of μ=4.95×10−3kg/m. Under what tension
must the string be kept to produce waves with a wave speed of 500.00 m/s?
B. Conceptual Questions
4. If the tension in a string were increased by a factor of four, by what factor would
the wave speed of a wave on the string increase?
5. Guitars have strings of different linear mass density. If the lowest density string
and the highest density string are under the same tension, which string would
support waves with the higher wave speed?
 LESSON 3: PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

LET’S DISCUSS!
Principle of Superposition states that when two or more waves are simultaneously present
at a single point in space, the displacement of the medium at that point is the sum of the
displacements due to each individual wave. The superposition of two waves is called
interference.
• Constructive interference occurs when both waves are positive and the total
displacement of the medium is larger than it would be for either wave separately.

• Destructive interference is when the displacement of the medium where the

waves overlap is less than it would be due to either of the waves separately.
During destructive interference, the energy of the wave is in the form of kinetic
energy of the medium.
LET’S LEARN MORE!
To know more about the principle of superposition of mechanical waves, surf the
internet and click on to this link:
Pulses and Waves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUQkG1A0_Sk

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 3: Pulses are Approaching
Direction: Choose the letter which corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Two wave pulses on a string approach each other at speeds of 1 m/s. How
does the string look at t = 3 s?

2. Two wave pulses on a string approach each other at speeds of 1 m/s. How
does the string look at t = 3 s?
3. Two waves on a string are moving toward each other. A picture at t = 0 s
appears as follows. How does the string appear at t = 2 s?
 LESSON 4: PERIODIC WAVES

LET’S DISCUSS!
In a periodic wave, one pulse follows another in regular session. Periodic wave is also
describe as the “motion that repeats itself in a regular cycle”. It can also be described by
its properties: amplitude, crest, trough, velocity, period, frequency, and wavelength.

o Wavelength- the distance between two identical points of a wave

o Amplitude- the height of the wave measured in meters
o Speed (v)- the distance travel by a periodic motion per unit time (v=ƛf)
o Frequency (f) – the number of wave cycle/s that passes through a given point in
one second: (f=t/n) à (f=v/ƛ)
o Period (T)- the time taken by one complete wave to pass a given point in one
second is called period: (T=n/t)
LET’S LEARN MORE!
Surf the net and go through these materials. Take notes.
Periodic Waves
https://physics.info/waves-periodic/summary.shtml
Properties of periodic wave
https://youtu.be/tJW_a6JeXD8

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 4. Closer Look to Periodic Wave
Direction: Answer the following questions (briefly) to check your understanding.
1. In the following illustration, identify the other intervals that represent one full
wavelength.

2. If you increase the frequency of vibration, what happens to the wavelength?

3. What is the relationship between wave speed, wavelength and frequency?
4. Suppose you observed an anchored boat to rise and fall once every 4.0 seconds as
waves whose crests are 25 meters apart pass by it. a. What is the frequency of the
observed waves? b. What is the speed of the waves?
 LESSON 5: MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A WAVE

LET’S DISCUSS!
Since waves are oscillatory, they are described by oscillating functions, trig functions:
sine and cosine. The displacement that the wave begins at determines the type of trig
function. When the wave begins at the origin, this is known to be a sine wave and it will
be described using the sine function. When the wave starts at a maximum vertical
displacement, this is known to be cosine wave and it will be described using cosine
function.
Wave don’t just oscillate in time—they oscillate in space, too. A sine wave in time will
also be a sine wave in position; the same applies to cosine wave. A wave is more properly
defined as a combination of oscillations in space and time:
Sine function: 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝒌𝒙 − 𝒘𝒕)
Cosine function: 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝒌𝒙 − 𝒕)
We have two important new values associated with waves:
-Wave number:𝒌 = 𝟐𝝅/𝝀
-Angular frequency: 𝒘 = 𝟐𝝅/𝒇

LET’S LEARN MORE!

To understand better about the mathematical equation of a wave, surf the
internet and click on to this link:
Wave Functions & Equations of a Wave
https://www.clutchprep.com/physics/the-mathematical-description-of-a-wave

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 5: Brain Function for Wave Equation
Direction: Given the following data, answer the following questions and compute for the
horizontal displacement (y) at 0.80 seconds.
 1. What is the amplitude of the wave?
2. What trig function (sine/ cosine) are you going to use? Why?
3. Compute for the horizontal displacement (y) at 0.80 seconds. Show your
complete solution.

LESSON 6: NATURE & CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

LET’S DISCUSS!
Sound is produced when an object’s vibrations move through a medium. It is a
longitudinal, mechanical wave. Sound can travel through any medium, but it cannot travel
through a vacuum. There is no sound in outer space. Sound is a variation in pressure. A
region of increased pressure on a sound wave is called a compression. A region of
decreased pressure on a sound wave is called a rarefaction.
There are different types of sound wave according to hearing range. Audible
sound waves have frequencies from 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz. Infrasonic waves have
frequencies below 20 Hz, which makes them inaudible to the human ear. Scientists use
infrasound to detect earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, to map rock and petroleum
formations underground, and to study activity in the human heart. Sound waves that have
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz produce ultrasound. Because ultrasound occurs at
frequencies outside the human hearing range, it is inaudible to the human ear. Ultrasound
is most often used by medical specialists who use sonograms to examine their patients’
internal organs.
The speed of sound is dependent on the type of medium the sound waves travel
through. Sound wave trave fastest is solid and slowest in gas. In dry air at 20°C, the speed
of sound is 343 m/s. In room temperature seawater, sound waves travel at about 1531
m/s. Sound waves travel faster in warmer conditions.
Sound wave can be describe by its properties: pitch, loudness, and quality
(timbre). Pitch is the quality that enables us to judge sounds as being “higher” and “lower.
o Pitch depends upon the frequencies of the sound wave. A note has a higher pitch
when the frequency is high and a note of low frequency has a low pitch.
o The loudness is a sensation of how strong a sound wave is at a place. The
loudness depends on the amplitude of the vibration. Suppose when we pluck a
string of the guitar it starts vibrating with low amplitude and if we apply more energy
by plucking more strongly, the string will vibrate with the greater amplitude and
produce a loud sound.
 o The word timbre also describes the term quality. Sounds with various timbres
produce different wave shapes, which affect our interpretation of the sound. The
sound produced by a piano has a different tone color than the sound from a guitar.

LET’S LEARN MORE!

To know more about the nature and characteristics of sound, surf the internet and
click on to these links:
What is Sound?
https://www.pasco.com/products/guides/sound-
waves#:~:text=There%20are%20five%20main%20characteristics,rarefactions%2
0of%20the%20sound%20wave.
The Nature of Sound
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sAbwVqQAYrk

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 6: Tap Your Finger!
What You Need
• Quiet room
• Your Finger
• Table or Desk
What To Do
• In a quiet room, tap your finger gently on the surface of a desk or table. Pay
attention to how loud the noise is.
• Now put your ear down on the desk and continue gently tapping your finger.
Your finger should stay about the same distance away from your ear as it was
when you tapped the first time.
Questions
1. How is the noise different? Describe the pitch, loudness, and quality of sound.
2. In which of the following sound travel fastest? Explain.
Additional Question:
3. As the ocean warms from global climate, how do you think this will affect the
speed of sound waves in the ocean?
 LESSON 7: INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES

LET’S DISCUSS!
When two or more sound waves occupy the same space, they affect one
another. The waves do not bounce off of each, but they move through each other.
The resulting wave depends on how the waves line up.

With constructive interference, two waves with the same frequency

and amplitude line up – the peaks line up with peaks and troughs with troughs as in
diagram A above. The result is a wave that has twice the amplitude of the original waves
so the sound wave will be twice as loud.

Destructive interference is when similar waves line up peak to trough as in diagram

B. The result is a cancellation of the waves. Noise-cancelling headphones work on this
principle. They detect the sounds coming into the ear and produce sounds with
equal volume but with the peaks and troughs reversed, resulting in near silence.

The result of any combination of sound waves is simply the addition of the various
waves. When we hear the sound of two different musical notes, as shown in diagram C,
we hear a complex waveform we think of as harmony.
 Diagram D shows beats – when two sound waves are nearly the same frequency
but slightly different. The resulting wave has points of constructive interference and
destructive interference. A sound wave with the beat pattern in diagram D will have a
volume that varies at a regular rate – you can hear a pulse or flutter in the sound.

LET’S LEARN MORE!

To understand more about the interference of sound waves, surf the internet and
click on this link:
Sound Interference and Beat Frequency
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ef4BtCsoSFU

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 7: Interference of Sound Waves
Direction: Do what is asked.
Two waves are traveling along the same medium. The diagrams below show the
waves on the medium at an instant in time. Utilize the principle of superposition
and interference of sound waves in order to construct the shape of the medium at
the instant shown in each diagram. To do so, begin by determining the resulting
displacement of the medium at each of the marked locations (­). Approximate the
shape of the remainder of the medium by sketching from dot to dot.
 LESSON 8: DOPPLER EFFECT

LET’S DISCUSS!
Doppler effect, the apparent difference between the frequency at which sound
waves leave a source and that at which they reach an observer, caused by relative motion
of the observer and the wave source. An example of the Doppler effect is, when one
approaches a blowing horn, the perceived pitch is higher until the horn is reached and
then becomes lower as the horn is passed.
Consider the following cases:

If the source of sound is at rest, waves

are all in directions
All sound waves have the same
wavelength
Ø Frequency is the same
everywhere

Moving source of sound toward the

observer
Ø waves in front of the source are
compressed into shorter wavelength
Ø the pitch or the frequency
increases

Moving source away from the observer

Ø waves are being stretched behind
the train to longer wavelengths
Ø frequency of the sound decreases

Doppler Effect Sound Equation:

The Doppler effect is not all theoretical though. We can use the Doppler effect equation
to calculate both the velocity of the source and observer, the original frequency of the
sound waves and the observed frequency of the sound waves.
 Wherein:
f = frequency perceived
fo = original frequency given off by the source
v = velocity of sound
vo = velocity of the observer (+ if going towards the source and - if going away from
the source)
vs = velocity of the source (- if going towards the observer and + if going away from
the observer)

Here’s a sample problem:

• The speed of sound is 340 m/s one day and the source whose actual frequency
is 700 Hz is moving 20 m/s away from the observer who is not moving. What is
the perceived frequency of the sound by the observer?

Given: Equation:
v = 340 m/s f = fo ((v (+/-) vo)/ (v (-/+) vs))
fo = 700 Hz source moving away and the observer not moving makes
vo = 0 the equation:
f = fo ((v (+/-) vo / (v + vs))
vs = 20 m/s
f =700 ((340+0 / (340 + 20))
f=? f =700 ((340 / (340 + 20))
f = 661 Hz

The relative motion is away from the observer, so the frequency (or pitch) the
observer would hear is lower.
LET’S LEARN MORE!
To understand more about the doppler effect of sound waves, surf the internet and
click on these link:
What is Doppler Effect/Sound Waves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mv6C99LCcxg
Doppler Effect (Problem Solving)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADTO3VljASY

LET’S CHALLENGE YOURSELF!

Activity 8: The Doppler Effect
Direction: Solve the following problems.
(Supposed that the speed of sound in each item is 343 m/s)
1. A burglar alarm is wailing with a frequency of 1200 hertz. What frequency does a
cop hear who is driving towards the alarm at a speed of 40.0 m/s?
2. A police car drives towards a jogger at 32 m/s as she runs in the direction of the
police car at 1.5 m/s. What would the 700 Hz siren sound like to the jogger?
3. A police car is chasing a bad guy down the road. The police car has its siren on
which is at a frequency of 800 Hz. If the police car is traveling at 65 m/s and the
bad guy is in front of the police car traveling 80 m/s, what frequency does the bad
guy hear?
4. A train is approaching a station at 30 m/s when it sounds its 800 Hz whistle. To a
person standing on the train platform what will be the perceived frequency of the
whistle?
5. The referee is skating down the ice, away from you, at 15 m/s, blowing his whistle.
The frequency of the whistle is 1000 Hz. What will you perceive it to be?
 LESSON 9: SHOCKWAVES & APPLICATIONS

LET’S DISCUSS!
The Doppler effect is observed whenever the speed of the
source is moving slower than the speed of the waves. But if the
source actually moves at the same speed as or faster than the
wave itself can move, a different phenomenon is observed. If a
moving source of sound moves at the same speed as sound,
then the source will always be at the leading edge of the waves
that it produces. The diagram at the right depicts snapshots in
time of a variety of wavefronts produced by an aircraft that is
moving at the same speed as sound. The circular lines
represent compressional wavefronts of the sound waves.
Notice that these circles are bunched up at the front of the
aircraft. This phenomenon is known as a shock wave. Shock
waves are also produced if the aircraft moves faster than the
speed of sound. If a moving source of sound moves faster than
sound, the source will always be ahead of the waves that it
produces. The diagram at the right depicts snapshots in time of
a variety of wavefronts produced by an aircraft that is moving
faster than sound. Note that the circular compressional
wavefronts fall behind the faster moving aircraft (in actuality,
these circles would be spheres).

If you are standing on the ground when a supersonic

(faster than sound) aircraft passes overhead, you might hear a
sonic boom. A sonic boom occurs as the result of the piling up
of compressional wavefronts along the conical edge of the
wave pattern. These compressional wavefronts pile up and
interfere to produce a very high-pressure zone. This is shown
below. Instead of these compressional regions (high-pressure
regions) reaching you one at a time in consecutive fashion, they
all reach you at once. Since every compression is followed by
a rarefaction, the high-pressure zone will be immediately
followed by a low-pressure zone. This creates a very loud noise.
LET’S LEARN MORE!
To know more about shockwaves and it’s applications, surf the internet and click on
to this link:
Understanding Shockwaves in Aerospace Application
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j493HvCkMbM

LESSON 10: MUSICAL TONES

LET’S DISCUSS!
Music in its simplest form is monotonic; that is, composed only of pure tones. Monotonic
music is dull and lifeless like a 1990s ringtone (worse than that even); like a 1970s digital
watch alarm (now we're talking); like an oscillating circuit attached to a speaker built by a
college student in an introductory physics class (so primitive). Real music, however,
is polytonic — a mixture of pure tones played together in a manner that sounds
harmonious. A sound composed of multiple frequencies like that produced by a musical
instrument or the human voice would still be periodic, but would be more complex than
just a simple sine curve.
 Like many other mechanical systems, musical instruments vibrate naturally at
several related frequencies called harmonics. The lowest frequency of vibration, which
is also usually the loudest, is called the fundamental. The higher frequency harmonics
are called overtones. The human auditory system perceives the fundamental frequency
of a musical note as the characteristic pitch of that note. The amplitudes of the overtones
relative to the fundamental give the note its quality or timbre — pronounced in English
as tæmbər or in quasi-French by English speakers as tɛb
̃ r with a nasal ɛ ̃ for the medial e
and silence for the final e. Timbre is one of the features of sound that enables us to
distinguish a flute from a violin and a tuba from a timpani.
Let’s take for example a guitar string. It has
a number of frequencies at which it will naturally
vibrate. These natural frequencies are known as the
harmonics of the guitar string. Each of these natural
frequencies or harmonics is associated with a
standing wave pattern. The graphic below depicts
the standing wave patterns for the lowest three
harmonics or frequencies of a guitar string.

LET’S LEARN MORE!

To understand better about musical tones, surf the internet and click on these links:
Music and Noise
https://physics.info/music/
Guitar String
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-5/Guitar-Strings
WRAPING UP
For your TAKEAWAYS and as a summary, complete the table below:
Five Things I Learned From
My Thoughts and Reactions About It
this Chapter that Interests Me

ASSESSMENT
Note: You will be assessed based on the quality of your outputs in the activities of this
chapter.

REFERENCES
ü https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves
ü https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound
ü https://physics.info/music/
ü https://www.britannica.com/science/Doppler-effect
ü https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2816-sound-wave-
interference#:~:text=When%20two%20or%20more%20sound,they%20move%20
through%20each%20other.&text=With%20constructive%20interference%2C%20
two%20waves,as%20in%20diagram%20A%20above.
ü https://physics.info/sound/
ü https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos/waves/wavemotion.html
ü https://isaacphysics.org/concepts/cp_superposition?stage=all