Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-022-00242-x

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Effects of Working Memory Training on Children’s Memory

and Academic Performance: the Role of Training Task Features
and Trainee’s Characteristics
Barbara Studer‑Luethi1 · Minna Toermaenen2 · Katja Margelisch3 · Antonia B. Hogrefe1 · Walter J. Perrig1

Received: 12 August 2021 / Accepted: 28 March 2022 / Published online: 26 April 2022
© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Learning and academic performance are explained mainly by basic limited-capacity processes, most notably by working
memory (WM). Consequently, training WM has been considered a promising approach to fostering these abilities. However,
school-based investigations are rare. This study examined the effects of training task features and trainees’ characteristics
on transfer to cognitive and academic measures. Eighty-six typically developing 8–12-year-old children completed 6 weeks
of either WM training with n-back and complex span tasks or a control training with perceptual-matching tasks in a regular
school setting. The study also assessed some personal variables of the children, such as neuroticism, conscientiousness, joy
of learning, and power of endurance. The WM training group showed increased WM and math performance compared to the
control group. Also, there was a trend toward some improvements in vocabulary after WM training, and overall improvements
after both trainings were observed in fluid intelligence and reading. Analyses of individual differences in the WM training
group indicated increased training performance in relation to emotional stability, conscientiousness, power of endurance,
as well as teacher-reported joy of learning and social integration of participants. Thus, the results indicate the potential of
WM training to improve WM capacity and mathematical skills and reveal the impact of regulative, motivational, and social
factors on cognitive training performance.

Keywords Working memory training · Transfer · Academic performance · Individual differences

Introduction processing across informational domains (Baddeley, 1986).

WM is essential for tasks in everyday life because it enables
One of our cognitive core functions has attracted increas- us to filter, analyze, and act on a steady stream of informa-
ing research interest in recent decades: working memory tion. Furthermore, WM is associated with a broad range of
(WM), defined as the ability to control attention and simul- higher-order cognitive abilities, such as executive control
taneously manipulate and temporarily store information and problem-solving (e.g., Jaeggi et al., 2010; Lu et al.,
(Kane & Engle, 2002). WM is a multifaceted construct in 2011; Miyake et al., 2000). Our WM capacity circumscribes
which storage and executive processing interact. The stor- our ability to learn to a large extent (Cowan, 2014), which
age component holds a limited amount of information in an has led scholars to investigate its impact on academic suc-
active state for a short time. In contrast, the central execu- cess. Results confirm that WM is one of the best single
tive component controls resources and monitors information predictors of children’s academic achievements (Alloway
& Alloway, 2010; Fitzpatrick et al., 2015). Children with
WM deficits show below-average academic performance
* Barbara Studer‑Luethi
(Titz & Karbach, 2014). To minimize cascade-like deficits,
[email protected]
interventions targeting WM can be applied (cf. Jones et al.,
1
Institute for Psychology, University of Bern, Fabrikstrasse 8, 2020a; Wass et al., 2012). This idea is supported by stud-
3012 Bern, Switzerland ies suggesting greater neural and behavioral malleability in
2
Faculty of Educational Sciences, Teacher Education, children (e.g., Heckman, 2006; Stiles et al., 2005; Thomas
University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland & Johnson, 2006).
3
University of Education, Bern, Switzerland

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 341

However, WM interventions are still rare in ordinary et al., 2016). A more pronounced transfer to nontrained tasks
elementary school settings. Findings of typically developed seems to occur from adaptive (Brehmer et al., 2011), mul-
children’s benefits from training in novel tasks are neither tiparadigm and multifactorial training (Jaušovec & Jaušovec,
robust nor consistent (Sala and Gobet, 2017). The present 2012; Owen et al., 2010; Schmiedek et al., 2010; von Bas-
study aimed to identify which training task features and tian & Oberauer, 2013), and complex storage and process-
trainees’ characteristics promote cognitive and academic ing training (Gibson et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2020b; von
benefits by assessing personal variables of participants and Bastian & Oberauer, 2013). Two examples of such training
comparing the effects of WM training with those of percep- tasks are the n-back and complex span tasks, as they com-
tual training implemented in a standard school setting. bine demands on storage and processing components of WM
(Chein & Morrison, 2010; Jones et al., 2020a).
WM Training Research into how trainees’ characteristics influence the
effectiveness of interventions provides evidence of the role
Debate on the efficacy of WM training is ongoing. WM of interindividual differences as an essential factor (Melby-
training has the potential to improve children’s WM perfor- Lervåg et al., 2016). Among others, individual factors that
mance (Diamond & Lee, 2011), executive functions (Sci- influence both training compliance and training outcomes in
onti et al., 2020), some higher-order cognitive performance adults and children are personality (Studer-Luethi et al., 2012,
(Alloway et al., 2013; Studer-Luethi et al., 2016), academic 2016; Urbánek & Marček, 2016), emotions (Brose et al.,
abilities (Holmes & Gathercole, 2014; Karbach et al., 2015), 2014), and motivation (Appelgren et al., 2016; Jaeggi et al.,
or even real-life behavior (Luis-Ruiz et al., 2020). In addi- 2011). For instance, there is an interaction between person-
tion to behavioral effects, several neuroimaging studies have ality traits, neuroticism and conscientiousness, and training
demonstrated that the effects of WM training couple with outcomes (Studer-Luethi et al., 2012). Furthermore, children’s
complex patterns of subtle, localized structural and func- effortful control abilities predicted training improvement and
tional changes in the brain (Astle et al., 2015; Bäckman larger post-training gains (Studer-Luethi et al., 2016).
et al., 2011; Caeyenberghs et al., 2016; Sánchez-Pérez et al., Other studies have associated education, strategy use,
2019). These findings indicate the alteration of a biological motivation, parenting structures, and family functioning with
system responsible for information processing. short-term improvements in WM and training compliance
Nevertheless, the data are inconsistent. More consistent following WM training in school-age children (Appelgren
training-induced benefits have been found in children than in et al., 2016; Pascoe et al., 2019; Pergher et al., 2020). More
adults (see Wass et al., 2012) and especially in children with is to be learned about the impact of trainees’ characteristics
some cognitive impairments (Jones et al., 2020a; Ko et al., on cognitive training outcomes.
2020; Oldrati et al., 2020; Passarotti et al., 2020; Veloso
et al., 2020). However, several studies have failed to confirm
WM training’s effects on children’s academic or higher-order Study Paradigm
cognitive performance (Dunning et al., 2013; Thorell et al.,
2009). Such inconsistent results have led to several reviews This study implemented WM training in a standard school
with disparate conclusions (e.g., Au et al., 2015; Constanti- setting to explore how training task features and trainees’
nidis & Klingberg, 2016; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Titz & characteristics influenced training and transfer outcomes. We
Karbach, 2014). Besides different methodological standards compared the effectiveness of a complex WM training with a
across studies, such inconsistencies may arise from varia- control intervention involving perceptual-matching training
tions in training task features, trainees’ characteristics, or on the same set of transfer measures. We also assessed some
both, which may evoke varying influences on the transfer- personal, regulatory, motivational, and social variables of
enabling cognitive processing systems (Pergher et al., 2020; children completing the training. The study complies with
Pergher et al., 2020). the basic methodological criteria suggested for WM training
in children (cf. Vernucci et al., 2022).
Characteristics of Training Tasks and Trainees Our WM training paradigm applied two complex visual
WM tasks that are often used for training WM, an n-back
Training-induced improvements may rely on specific pro- and a complex span task. In the n-back task, participants see
cesses activated in particular tasks. Some interesting insights a series of stimuli and are required to judge for each stimu-
from this research include the relevance of task features, lus whether it is the same as the stimulus seen in n items
such as gamification (Katz et al., 2014; Khaleghi et al., 2021; back. In the complex span task, participants must remember
Shaban et al., 2021) or paradigm-specificity and complexity a series of stimuli with a processing task between each item.
(Byrne et al., 2020; Gathercole et al., 2019; Gibson et al., Our control training used an audiovisual training
2013; Holmes et al., 2019; Küper & Karbach, 2016; Minear task that placed far lower demands on the storage and

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342 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

processing components of WM but instead placed high Methods

demands on the perceptual integration of auditory and
visual information in short-term memory. We chose Participants
auditory-visual matching tasks from the AUDILEX pro-
gram (Karma, 1989), which has been used in research Eighty-six elementary school students (42 girls,
before (Kujala et al., 2001). Its theoretical background 44 boys) with a mean age of 10.1 years (SD = 0.74;
involves auditory structuring ability and auditory-visual range = 8.2–12.1) participated in the study. We recruited
matching. The tasks require participants to compare a from five elementary schools in Switzerland and enrolled
stream of auditory tones with visual patterns of differing participants attending third grade (62.9%, 30 boys) and
heights and lengths representing the tones on the com- fourth grade (37.1%, 19 boys). The informed consent
puter screen. communicated to parents, teachers, and students that the
Thus, both training regimes require attentional con- participants would receive one of two interventions, both
trol and the processing of a stream of stimuli kept active of which were beneficial in different ways. All caregivers
for a short time (Engle, 2002). Critically, the WM tasks provided informed written consent before participation.
also require extensive processing of information, storage The teachers indicated that all the participants were able
of items in primary memory, and retrieval and compari- to understand and write German well. Each participating
son of information from secondary memory (Unsworth & class received an award after completing the training.
Engle, 2007). In contrast, perceptual training tasks require Participants were matched for age, gender, and general
fewer but overlapping components, especially perceptual intelligence. Then, we randomly assigned participants to
processing and auditory and visual information matching. the WM training group (n = 43; mean age = 10.1 years;
According to Baddeley (2000) and Miyake’s (Miyake & SD = 0.64; 22 boys) or to the control group (n = 43; mean
Friedman, 2012; Miyake et al., 2000) models, the compo- age = 10.1 years; SD = 0.83; 22 boys). We excluded the
nents involved in the WM tasks are storage, retrieval, and data of seven children (three in the WM training group,
the central executive functions of inhibition, updating, and four in the control group) from the analyses due to their
shifting. However, the components involved in the percep- infrequent attendance at training. The minimal attendance
tual training are the visual sketchpad and the phonological required was 17 sessions. Both experimental groups per-
loop. In Bastian et al.’s (2013) terms, our WM tasks place formed an average of 17.5 training sessions (SD = 2.53).
high demands on the storage and processing functions of
the WM. In contrast, the perceptual tasks place demands
on the relational integration of information in perceptual Design and Procedure
processing in WM.
Regarding trainees’ characteristics, we assessed individu- Teachers’ and parents’ rated the individual variables for
als’ variables that may influence WM training outcomes. participating students, which the authors collected before
Volitional, motivational, and social factors seem relevant for starting the intervention. Pre-post tests bookended the
training performance, as frustration and emotions during the intervention. A pre-test (T1) was given the week before
training need to be regulated if the trainee performs well. starting the training, followed by a post-test (T2) the week
Building upon previous findings outlined above, we had after training completion. The whole class received simul-
the following hypotheses: taneous assessments of intelligence and academic meas-
1) Children in the WM training group will reach higher ures, while the WM tasks were administered individually.
transfer on cognitive performance measures than the per- The cognitive tests were randomized such that A and B
ceptual training group, assuming that improvements may versions appeared in the pre-post-tests in a counterbal-
depend on the specific processes involved in WM training anced order to reduce retest effects. Additionally, self-
regimens, such as demands on the active processing and reported questionnaires were conducted only at pre-test.
storage components of WM. After the pre-tests, the authors randomly assigned par-
2) Several personal factors will relate positively to train- ticipants to one of two study groups. One group completed
ing outcomes. These include two personality factors, low the WM training (WM training group), whereas the other
neuroticism and high conscientiousness, and two self-regu- group participated in the perceptual-matching training
lation factors, high effortful control and power of endurance. (control group). The authors and master-level students
In addition, taking into consideration that the training was conducted the testing and training sessions during regular
conducted in groups in a school setting, we hypothesized school lessons three times per week over 6 weeks. Each
that two school-related factors, the joy of learning and social session lasted approximately 15 min. The children trained
integration, would positively influence training success. their tasks individually with headphones in groups of five

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 343

to eight in a separate room in each school. In every train- motivation and performance (Mohammed et al., 2017;
ing session, the WM training group completed the farm Moret-Tatay et al., 2016; Prins et al., 2011). Specifically,
span task and jumping animal task, and the perceptual- we modified the layout, storyline, adaptivity, feedback, and
matching training group completed two auditory-visual reward system shown in Fig. 1 (Studer-Luethi et al., 2012).
matching tasks. After the final training sessions, a ques-
tionnaire was administered to measure training enjoyment, Jumping Animal Task In this n-back task, pictures of a
motivation, and perceived profit. jumping animal, such as a rabbit or a kangaroo, appear at
different locations on the screen. A sequence of locations
Materials appears on the screen (presentation time: 500 ms, inter-
stimulus interval: 2500 ms). During each interval, the par-
WM Training Tasks ticipant “feeds the animal” by pressing a pre-defined target
key whenever the animal’s current location is the same as
The WM training consists of two tasks, an n-back task n positions back in the sequence or presses a pre-defined
named the “jumping animal task,” and a span task named nontarget key in any other case. Immediate feedback pops
the “farmer task.” The jumping animal task is based concep- up at the top of the screen for each response shown in
tually on the visual single n-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2010). Fig. 1A. Every level of n contains three blocks, represented
The farm span task derives from a complex span task (i.e., by field sizes of 4, 8, and 11 grid compartments. If the
animal span task in Buschkuehl et al., 2008). We modified participant has made fewer than three mistakes, the field
the training tasks to improve their attractiveness for children size increases. The level of n increases after the success-
using findings of specific features relevant to young trainees’ ful completion of the third block. Similarly, the field size

Fig. 1  Adapted n-back and complex span task applied in the working memory training group. “Jumping animal task”: A Task design and imme-
diate feedback, B feedback slide; “farm span task”: C sequence recall slide, D feedback slide

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344 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

decreases after more than five mistakes, but the n decreases Perceptual Training Tasks
only after three unsuccessful blocks. After each block, the
participant receives visual performance feedback shown We applied two auditory-visual matching tasks shown in
in Fig. 1B. Fig. 2 (Audilex; Karma, 1989), in which sound patterns with
3–15 elements were graphically presented on the screen as
Animal Span Task At the encoding stage, the participant horizonal sequences of rectangles. Synchronously, sound ele-
is presented with a sequence of animals either the right ments were presented through headphones which varied in
way up or upside-down. The participant must determine pitch, duration, and intensity. These variations were visually
as quickly as possible the animal's orientation by press- represented by the vertical position, length, and thickness of
ing the right or the left mouse button. If the participant the rectangles on the screen. Importantly, relevant character-
waits longer than 3000 ms to answer, they receive a istics such as immediate feedback and game-like features such
reminder to respond more quickly. At the recall stage at as pictures and colors were also present in this task (Moham-
the end of each animal sequence, all the animals appear med et al., 2017; Moret-Tatay et al., 2016). The participant
on the screen. The participant is prompted to reproduce plays both tasks, typically starting the session by playing task
the sequence of initial presentations by clicking on the 1 and then continuing with the more difficult task 2.
animals shown in Fig. 1C). The participant receives vis- In task 1, two patterns appear on the screen. Two seconds
ual performance feedback, and a bar indicates the level later, a tone sequence beeps through headphones, and the
reached shown in Fig. 1D. The following sequence length software prompts the participant to indicate which of the
increases by one if the participant’s reaction has been visual patterns corresponds to the presented sound pattern.
quick enough without mistakes. Likewise, the follow- In task 2, only one pattern appears visually on screen, while
ing sequence reduces by one if the sequence contains the corresponding sound sequence plays simultaneously. The
mistakes. software directs the participant to follow the pattern and
press the spacebar as soon as the sound corresponding to
For both training tasks, the mean task level of every the last element of the visual pattern plays.
training session served as the dependent variable that Smiling faces on the screen appear after each correct
defined training performance; the difference between response, whereas the same sequence repeats in case of
the last two training sessions and the first two train- an incorrect response. Easy and complex patterns are pre-
ing sessions served as the dependent variable defining sented randomly throughout each session. The task is adap-
training gain. tive, in that the participant can change the stimulus-onset

Fig. 2  Perceptual-matching training tasks 1 and 2 applied in the control group. Note. A Task design; B task examples of task 1, in which partici-
pants are required to choose the matching pattern, and task 2, in which participants are required to press a key as soon as the pattern is complete

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 345

asynchrony (SOA of stimulus block and sound duration, three sequences at a particular level. The dependent variable
varying between 200 and 1800 ms and the sound duration was the number of trials of correctly reproduced sequences.
within a window of 30–80% of the SOA 60–1440 ms) and
make the task harder. The participant can also change the Math We used a standardized curriculum-based math test
musical instrument on which the sound plays according to (DEMAT 2 + /3 + /4 + ; Krajewski, Liehm, & Schneider,
preference (e.g., trumpet, flute, violin, piano). The software 2004). The five subtests deal with characteristics of num-
guides the participant to change the duration and instruments bers, comparison of numbers, addition and subtraction,
in the tasks during the training period. duplication and bisection, and division. The sum of all
Training task performance was measured at the first arithmetic subtest scores was z-scored for each class, and
and last training session with a test version of task 2. This we integrated the standardized variables into one dependent
included a set of 30 audiovisual matching tasks with a variable reflecting math ability.
stimulus presented with a 1000-ms SOA and sounds with a
duration of 550 ms throughout the test. The number of hits Reading We used a German reading diagnostic test to assess
served as dependent variable, registered by space-bar presses reading ability (LDL; Walter, 2010). In this test, the partici-
occurring during the time window when the last sound of pant is prompted to read out a text for 1 min as quickly and
the pattern is played. accurately as possible. The number of correctly read words
serves as the dependent variable.

Measures for Cognitive and Scholastic Abilities Questionnaires for Personal Variables

A battery of cognitive measures which represents perfor- Neuroticism The authors applied the Hamburger assess-
mance in various cognitive and scholastic areas was cho- ment of neuroticism and extraversion (HANES—KJ, Form
sen based on factors which were of interest regarding the 1; Buggle & Baumgärtel, 1975). The instrument is a self-
hypotheses. report questionnaire for children and adolescents based on
Eysenck’s model of personality (Eysenck, 1967). For this
General Cognitive Ability Nonverbal intelligence was study, we used only the neuroticism subscale. The instructor
assessed using the revised German adaptation of the Cul- read questions aloud to the class, and participants responded
ture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT 20-R; Weiss, 2006). We by marking yes or no for each question on the questionnaire.
used a short form suitable for young children, consisting of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90.
four subtests: series, classifications, matrices, and topolo-
gies. The composite score of the four subtests served as the Conscientiousness Since conscientiousness is difficult for
dependent variable. children to evaluate (Tackman et al., 2017), we used the con-
scientiousness subscale of the parent-reported five factors
Proxy for Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) The German vocabu- questionnaire for children (FFK, Asendorpf & van Aken,
lary intelligence test taken from the revised CFT 20-R was 1999). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.93.
administered to measure crystallized intelligence (CFT-WS;
Weiss, 2006). The test consists of 30 keywords that are not Effortful Control To obtain information on participant’s
part of the basic vocabulary of the German language. For effortful control, reflecting the temperament category self-
each of the keywords, the software directs the participant to regulation (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994), we used
choose the word with the same or closest meaning from a a short questionnaire for parents (nine items). The questions
sample of five words; the test ends after 6 min. The number came from the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ,
of correct word choices served as the dependent variable. Blair & Razza, 2007; Putnam & Rothbart, 2006). Parents
indicated on a 7-point Likert scale how well a description
Working Memory WM capacity was assessed with a back- of behavior fitted that of their participant. Questions refer
ward color recall task, conducted individually with each to attention (“shows strong concentration when drawing or
participant (Roebers & Kauer, 2009). The participant coloring in a book”), inhibitory control (“is good at follow-
is presented with a sequence of colored discs on a com- ing instructions”), emotion (“gets angry when s/he can’t find
puter screen; each disc appears for 1 s. At the end of each something”), and approach (“becomes very excited before
sequence, a dwarf appears on the screen. The software an outing”). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.95.
invites the participant to help the dwarf collect the discs
by recalling the sequence presented in the reverse order. Power of Endurance Teachers rated participant’s power of
Sequence length is two at the beginning and increases by endurance with four items drawn from the Intelligence and
one item when the participant has correctly recalled two of Development Scale (IDS; Meyer et al., 2009). Questions

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346 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

referred to the participant’s endurance to execute and fin- participant is well integrated into the group”; and “The
ish a task even when experiencing difficulties or tiredness. participant can cooperate in teamwork.” Teachers indicated
Teachers indicated their level of agreement for every state- their level of agreement for every statement on a 4-point
ment on a 4-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.94. Likert scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91.

Learning Enjoyment Teachers reported the general learn-

ing enjoyment of the participant with eight questions drawn Results
from the IDS (Meyer et al., 2009). Questions referred to the
joy of the participant in learning and understanding new Training Performance
information. Teachers indicated their level of agreement for
every statement on a 4-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alpha Both groups improved their performances in the training
was 0.92. tasks shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Participants in the WM training
group significantly improved their performance from the first
Social Integration in Class To find out about the degree of two training sessions to the last two sessions in both the farm
social integration of the students, we asked the teachers to span task, t(40) = 3.05, p = 0.004, d = 0.47, and the jumping
evaluate several statements. These included the following: animal task, t(40) = 4.87, p < 0.001, d = 1.82. Participants
“The participant has positive social interactions”; “The in the control group significantly improved their response

Fig. 3  Working memory train- 7

ing performance
6
Mean training task level

1
n-back task
0
animal span task
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Training sessions

Fig. 4  Training task perfor- a) Working memory training b) Perceptual training

mance in the first and last
training session in both training
groups. a Working memory
training. b Perceptual training
Mean training level
Mean training level

first training last training first training last training

session session session session

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 347

accuracy in the visual-auditory matching task at the first and training? (2) How much effort did you put into the training?
the last training session, t(39) = 4.26, p < 0.001, d = 0.673. (3) How challenging did you find the training intervention?
and (4) To what extent do you feel it has improved your cog-
Personal Measures and Training Improvements nitive abilities? Notably, there were no group differences
between the WM training and control groups for the mean
None of the personal variables was associated with initial feedback score (F(1, 71) = 0.64, n.s., d = 0.19). We did not
performance in the WM training tasks (with r ranging from find any significant association between these motivational
0.06 (endurance) to 0.20 (effortful control), both n.s.). In variables and either training or transfer performance in the
order to test whether any of the personal variables would two groups (r ranging from 0.03 to 0.12).
help predict training task performance, we analyzed the cor-
relations between these variables with average WM training Transfer Performance
level and training task improvement in both groups. Training
task improvement is the difference between the first training We conducted ANOVAs for repeated measures for the trans-
session and the final training session in both WM training fer variables with the factors group (WM training group vs
tasks (average z-scores of span and n-back tasks) and in the active control group) and time (pre- and post-training assess-
test version of the perceptual training task, respectively. The ment). To control for any baseline group differences (Lord’s
correlations appear in Table 1. paradox), we also conducted ANCOVA on posttest measures
Regarding WM training, neuroticism related to decreased with pretest measures as the covariate. We found no differ-
training performance (p = 0.065) and training gain (p < 0.05). ence in direction or magnitude of effects and therefore only
In contrast, conscientiousness positively related to train- included the analyses of the ANOVA for repeated measures.
ing mean (p = 0.11) and marginally significantly related to We conducted post hoc analyses of differences of means
training gain (p = 0.049). Effortful control was positively (Δ), corrected for multiple comparisons with the Bonfer-
associated with mean WM training performance (p < 0.05), roni correction. We also computed the within group changes
but it was not related to training gain. Power of endurance by calculating the effect size Cohen’s d with the correction
was related to higher training mean (p < 0.01) and training for repeated measures as proposed by Morris (2007). The
gain (p < 0.01). The joy of learning was unrelated to train- resulting transfer effects are presented in Table 2 and Fig. 6.
ing mean but strongly related to training gain (p < 0.01). Notably, the WM training and control groups did not dif-
Finally, social integration was associated with training mean fer in their performance at pre-test (all t < 0.65, p = n.s.; see
(p < 0.05) and training improvement (p < 0.001). The scatter- supplementary material).
plots of the relationships between the personal variables and
WM training gain appear in Fig. 5. There were no significant Transfer to Cognitive Measures
correlations between the personal variables and perceptual
training task gain. Working Memory There was no main effect of time on the
We also collected responses to four questions elicit- improvement in visual WM, F(1,78) = 1.129, p = 0.291,
ing training feedback: (1) How motivated were you for the η p 2 = 0.014, but a marginally significant interaction

Table 1  Correlations of personal variables with training and transfer performance

Personality Self-regulation School-related factors
Neuroticism Conscientiousness Effortful control Endurance Joy of learning Social integration

Training measures
WMT mean − 0.29 0.21 0.37* 0.47** 0.08 0.32*
WMT gain − 0.42* 0.28* 0.01 0.58** 0.67** 0.68**
PT gain − 0.08 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.09 0.13
Transfer measures
Gain WM − 0.15 − 0.13 − 0.08 0.10 − 0.13 − 0.08
Gain Gc 0.21 0.02 0.33 0.05 − 0.21 0.01
Gain Gf − 0.25 − 0.16 0.11 0.11 − 0.08 0.19
Gain math − 0.21 − 0.06 0.07 − 0.03 − 0.11 0.07
Gain reading 0.24 − 0.11 − 0.27 − 0.25 − 0.26 − 0.26

WMT working memory training, PT perceptual training, WM working memory, Gc crystallized intelligence, Gf fluid intelligence
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

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348 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

Training gain z-score

Training gain z-score

Training gain z-score

a) Neuroticism b) Coscientiousness c) Effortful control

Training gain z-score

Training gain z-score
Training gain z-score

d) Endurance e) Joy of learning f) Social integration

Fig. 5  Association between working memory training gain and personal variables. Correlations between working memory training improve-
ments in z-scores and a neuroticism, b conscientiousness, c effortful control, d endurance, e joy of learning, and f social integration

Table 2  Pre-test and post-test T1 mean (SD) T2 mean (SD) t (p) drm CI (95%)
performance in cognitive and
academic tasks WM training group
WM 7.02 (2.38) 7.82 (2.0) 2.05 (0.047) 0.34 − 1.63 to − 0.01
Gf 106.15 (16.78) 112.63 (19.16) 3.21 (0.003) 0.31 − 10.55 to − 2.40
Gc 14.44 (7.50) 16.31 (7.0) 3.09 (0.004) 0.25 − 3.10 to − 0.65
Math − 0.06 (0.98) 0.29 (1.02) 2.65 (0.012) 0.36 − 0.61 to − 0.08
Reading 89.2 (39.69) 96.2 (41.23) 3.54 (0.001) 0.17 − 11.00 to − 3.01
Control group
WM 7.46 (2.06) 7.22 (2.37) 0.66 (0.511) 0.11 − 0.50 to 0.99
Gf 105.06 (16.36) 110.64 (17.36) 3.93 (0.001) 0.30 − 8.47 to − 2.70
Gc 15.06 (6.77) 15.78 (6.69) 1.59 (0.122) 0.09 − 1.65 to 0.20
Math − 0.09 (0.94) − 0.18 (0.98) − 0.76 (0.454) 0.09 − 0.14 to 0.30
Reading 90.73 (38.38) 97.68 (37.74) 3.31 (0.002) 0.19 − 11.20 to − 2.71

T1 pre-test, T2 post-test, SD standard deviation, drm effect size for repeated measures, WM working mem-
ory, Gf fluid intelligence, Gc crystallized intelligence, Math mathematical ability (z-score)

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 349

Working Memory Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

Vocabulary score (CFT)

Colour span backwards

IQ score (CFT)
Mathematical Ability Reading Ability

Reading score (LDL) ♦ T1 ♦ T2

t-score of math test

Fig. 6  Performance in transfer measures before and after cogni- (left) and the control group (right). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01 (Bonferroni-
tive training. Mean pre-test (T1) and post-test (T2) performance and corrected differences of means)
standard deviation in the transfer variables for the WM training group

between time and group, F(1,78) = 3.846, p = 0.051, Transfer to Academic Abilities
η p 2 = 0.05. Post hoc analysis revealed a significant
improvement only in the WM training group (Δ = 0.82, Mathematics There was no main effect of time on the
p = 0.038) but not in the control group (Δ =  − 0.24, improvement in mathematical abilities, F(1,69) = 2.46,
p = 0.522). p = 0.122, ηp2 = 0.03, but there was a significant time ⨯ group
interaction, F(1,69) = 6.45, p = 0.013, ηp2 = 0.09. Post hoc
Fluid Intelligence The improvement in nonverbal intelli- analyses revealed a significant improvement in mathematical
gence performance between pre-test and post-test reached ability in the WM training group (Δ = 0.35, p = 0.006), but
significance for both groups, F(1,74) = 22.98, p < 0.001, not in the control group (Δ = 0.09, p = 0.485).
ηp2 = 0.24, and this improvement was independent of time
⨯ group interaction, F(1,74) = 0.126, p = 0.724, ηp2 = 0.002. Reading We found overall improvements in reading,
Post hoc analyses confirmed the improvement in nonver- F(1.79) = 23.36, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.23, independent of inter-
bal intelligence in both the WM training group (Δ = 6.48, vention group, F(1,79) = 0.00, p = 0.987, ηp2 = 0.00. Post
p < 0.001) and the control group (Δ = 5.58, p = 0.003). hoc analyses confirmed the improvement in reading skill
in both the WM training group (Δ = 7.00, p = 0.001) and
Crystallized Intelligence Pre- to post-intervention control group (Δ = 6.95, p = 0.001).
improvements were found in vocabulary performance,
F(1,73) = 11.443, p = 0.001, η p2 = 0.14. This improve- Personal Variable and Transfer Performance
ment was independent of time ⨯ group interaction,
F(1,73) = 2.247, p = 0.138, ηp2 = 0.03. Post hoc analyses Possible associations between personal variables and trans-
revealed a significant improvement in the WM training fer measures were analyzed using correlational analysis,
group (Δ = 1.87, p = 0.001), but not in the control group analysis of variance (ANOVA), and analysis of covariance
(Δ = 0.72, p = 0.196). (ANCOVA). There were no significant results.

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350 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

Discussion On vocabulary task as a measure of crystallized intel-

ligence, significant improvement was only observed in the
This study examined training task features and trainees’ WM training group (increase by 1.9 points), but not in the
characteristics on children’s WM training outcomes in an control group (increase by 0.7 points). However, the interac-
elementary school setting. To do so, we compared the out- tion between groups and test performance was nonsignifi-
comes of a WM training group to a control group that trained cant. The transfer effect was approximately as strong as in
with perceptual-matching tasks in an elementary school set- our previous study (Studer-Luethi et al., 2016) and similar to
ting. We found that the WM training group showed a sig- Alloway et al., (2013) result. WM capacity is a crucial factor
nificant increase in math performance and in a WM task, for learning and the ability to retrieve knowledge (Gather-
compared to the control group. Post hoc analyses revealed a cole et al., 2006). We speculate that WM training increased
small improvement in vocabulary after WM training com- these abilities by improving WM processes.
pared to a null effect in the control group. No differential We found no difference in changes to the performance
training effects were found for fluid intelligence and reading. in a matrix test as measure for fluid intelligence between
We also found that several personal factors positively influ- the WM training group and the control group; both groups
ence children’s WM training performance. These include improved performance between 5.5 and 6.5 points. Trans-
endurance, personality factors of low neuroticism and high fer to intelligence after WM training has been extensively
conscientiousness, and school-related factors of the joy of reviewed in the literature, with inconsistent conclusions (Au
learning and social integration. Thus, our results suggest that et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016). Our findings join
training-induced effects may depend on the demands of the a growing body of research that demonstrates small or no
cognitive training tasks as well as on participant’s personal, WM training-induced effects on transfer to reasoning or fluid
regulatory, and school-related characteristics. ability tasks (far transfer), in comparison to active or pas-
The following discussion first considers training out- sive control groups (Gathercole et al., 2019; Soveri et al.,
comes for various transfer measures, then discusses indi- 2017). As we have no comparison to a no-contact control,
vidual differences, and finally integrates the results and we cannot rule out a mere retest effect. Also, the interven-
draws conclusions. tion length was quite short, which itself is a limiting factor
To start with WM performance, a marginally significant (Pergher et al., 2020). Nevertheless, both of our experimen-
interaction between group and transfer performance indicate tal groups completed training tasks with high attentional
that WM task performance improved more by WM training demands; thus, increased attentional processing may have
than by perceptual-matching training. This finding supports improved their reasoning performance. More research is
our previously found training effect on WM capacity with needed to identify training task characteristics that promote
a sample of school children (Studer-Luethi et al., 2016). It fluid abilities.
is in line with meta-analyses demonstrating transfer effects Regarding academic abilities, we found evidence of
to WM measures (near transfer; e.g., Soveri et al., 2017; improved performance in a standardized math test after
Weicker et al., 2016). Because our transfer WM measure WM training (d = 0.35) in comparison to a control training
(backward color recall task) differed structurally from the (d = 0.09). To the best of our knowledge, this study is the
trained WM tasks, logic suggests that the training-induced first to find improved arithmetic performance after short,
performance improvement arose from improved processing intense WM training with regularly developed primary
rather than improved strategy. This assumption is supported school children. Similarly, another study found significant
by the fining of improved brain functional connectivity in the improvements in math school performance among children
attentional network in school children following WM train- who participated in a computer-based WM and math train-
ing (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2019) and found associations of ing in comparison to children with no training (Sanchez-
increased WM performance with changes in cerebral activity Perez et al., 2018). Furthermore, other WM training studies
following training (Astle et al., 2015; Brehmer et al., 2011; demonstrate transfer to the arithmetic abilities of children
Olesen et al., 2003; Stevens et al., 2016). with some intellectual or academic difficulties or special
However, it is also possible that the participants learned needs (Bergman-Nutley & Klingberg, 2014; Dahlin, 2013;
strategies during WM training with the complex span task Holmes & Gathercole, 2014; Layes et al., 2018; Nelwan
(e.g., grouping items) and later applied that learning to et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018). Interestingly, another study
the WM measure (strategy mediation hypothesis; Dunning demonstrated that the other direction seems to work too:
et al., 2013; Peng and Fuchs, 2017; Malinovitch, Jakoby, training in mental calculation enhanced visuospatial WM in
& Ahissar, 2020). One important caveat is that this study’s children (Wang et al., 2019). These and the present results
participants were children, who generally show greater are supported the finding that mathematical abilities and
plasticity than adults (Zhao et al., 2018). counting strategies in young children are heavily reliant on

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Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 351

WM (Bull & Lee, 2014; Lee et al., 2009), so we assume sample of children (r = 0.33; Studer-Luethi et al., 2016). In
that a training-induced increase in WM processes improved addition, we found that children’s power of endurance had
mathematical performance. Alternatively, one can propose an impact on their training mean and training gain. This
an effect of WM training on learning capacity (Nutley & finding corroborates other results showing that children with
Söderqvist, 2017; Söderqvist & Nutley, 2015). Given that good self-regulation can inhibit a dominant response, such
skills in mathematics are increasingly crucial to educational as feeling tired or not motivated, and regulate external (e.g.,
and career success across the lifespan (Geary, 2013), this noise in the class room) and internal distraction (i.e., feel-
result is promising. ing unmotivated; Blair & Diamond, 2008; Eisenberg et al.,
In contrast, we did not find substantial differences 2004). Thus, we assume that effortful control and power of
between the effects of our WM training and that of the endurance may have helped the children efficiently regulate
perceptual training on reading performance. Both training emotional and cognitive processes to perform well in the
groups improved their performances in the reading test to WM training tasks.
a similar degree (around 7 points). This finding supports Teachers’ evaluation of children’s joy of learning was a
our previous result, in which improvement in reading per- strong predictor of high training gain (r = 0.67). In contrast,
formance following WM training was as large as following children who do not like learning and feeling challenged
reading training (Studer-Luethi et al., 2016). Other study in school did not improve their scores in the training tasks.
results are inconsistent, in that several demonstrated a posi- Indeed, the joy of learning seems more critical for training
tive impact on reading after WM training or after interven- than training-related motivation or enjoyment (Söderqvist
tions similar to our perceptual training that foster phono- et al., 2012). Comparably, another study demonstrated that
logical awareness (Karbach et al., 2015; Kujala et al., 2001; children’s desire to master school learning was more closely
Pfost et al., 2019) while others did not (Ang et al., 2015; related to short-term improvements after WM training than
Chacko et al., 2014; Dunning et al., 2013). Again, as we WM processes (Pascoe et al., 2019). Thus, we assume that
have no comparison to a no-contact control, we cannot rule children’s prior enjoyment of challenges may be critical in
out a mere retest effect. WM capacity, efficient processing, facilitating WM training outcome.
and matching visual and auditory information are required Interestingly, we also found a strong association between
for fast and accurate reading (Phillips et al., 2016). Thus, we training performance and the estimated degree of social
speculate that a training-induced increase in these processes integration (r = 0.68), in that only children with higher
may have some positive impacts on reading abilities. social integration reached above average training scores and
We now move to the results about the characteristics improved their scores throughout the training phase. In line
of trainees, starting with personality. We found a moder- with that, other research shows that higher peer popularity
ate inverse relationship between neuroticism and training is related to higher WM performance, while peer rejection
gain (r =  − 0.42), which was comparable to previously lowers performance (de Wilde et al., 2016; McQuade et al.,
found associations in young adults (r =  − 0.25, r =  − 0.24; 2013). Furthermore, children with emotionally secure rela-
Minear et al., 2016; Studer-Luethi et al., 2012) and chil- tionships have shown enhanced task involvement and per-
dren (r =  − 0.32; Studer-Luethi et al., 2016). Likewise, this sistence (Koomen et al., 2004; Thijs & Koomen, 2008). The
finding supports the notion that neuroticism can diminish regulatory depletion model can serve as a theoretical frame-
WM performance, probably through emotional and cog- work explaining such effects, by stating that social processes
nitive resource-demanding interference, such as stressful can reduce a shared pool of resources (Davies et al., 2008).
thoughts and anxiety (cf., Derakshan & Eysenck, 2009). In In our case, social interferences, such as comparisons or
contrast, conscientiousness was positively related to train- comments of others, may have lowered cognitive resources
ing gain (r = 0.28), which was similar to previous findings for the training of less integrated participants. This found
(r = 0.28; Studer-Luethi et al., 2016; Studer-Luethi et al., link highlights the importance of considering the social
2012). Likewise, this finding is in line with the repeatedly context in which a cognitive intervention with children is
found positive relation between conscientiousness and train- implemented.
ing outcomes because conscientious participants tend to Finally, transfer variance after training could not be
be more motivated to excel and improve their skills (e.g., explained by personal variables. It seems that these personal
Woods et al., 2016). Thus, we assume that lower neuroticism characteristics seem not to act as significant facilitators of or
and higher conscientiousness lead to higher focus, commit- obstructions to benefits following WM training. This result
ment, and motivation in the context of a cognitive training indicates that the positive transfer effects of WM training
assignment. on the cognitive and academic measures found in this study
The self-regulatory factor of effortful control was unre- seem to stem from the assumed WM processes and not
lated to training gain but positively related to training perfor- from confounding variables of personality, self-regulation,
mance (r = 0.37), similar to the association found in another or motivation.

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352 Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357

Limitations social integration on training performance. The interindi-

vidual factors influenced children’s success in the training
The study has three main limitations. One limitation is the so that children with positive scores for these factors could
small sample size, resulting in weak statistical power and increase their training performance throughout the training
rather exploratory statistical analyses. Another limitation phase. These are meaningful findings for learning activi-
is the lack of a no-contact control group. However, most ties in general because they indicate that individual vari-
authors (e.g., Redick et al., 2013; Vernucci et al., 2022) ables may determine how much children want to learn and
advocate using active control groups over simple no-con- progress. If the scores on these variables are low, personal
tact control groups. A recent meta-analysis concluded that variables should be the target of interventions alongside
passive and active controls do not differ meaningfully in content teaching.
their performance (Au et al., 2020). Furthermore, the finding that interindividual variables
Furthermore, the study lacked blinding participants, influence training highlights the importance of ascertain-
as they completed the training in mixed groups within ing which children benefit most from computerized train-
their school classes. They saw the other’s training, which ing. For example, it might not be very beneficial to advise
might have influenced the children’s training motivation a student with a low joy of learning or effortful control to
or performance. Finally, the application of conceptually undertake WM training because the training tasks are chal-
different cognitive training tasks makes it more difficult to lenging and repetitive and thus demand high self-control.
draw inferences about underlying mechanisms of transfer. For such a participant, strategy instructions and real-world
Nevertheless, an advantage of this study’s approach is that activities such as martial art interventions may be more
specific types of training tasks are available. beneficial (Blair & Raver, 2014; Lakes & Hoyt, 2004).
Moreover, teachers and other caregivers should consider
encouraging children to approach training with curiosity
and the motivation to learn new things, but without pres-
Conclusions and Implications sure. Assessments of individual differences might help
children become aware of their approach to learning to
This study demonstrates some evidence for cognitive and adapt it during training.
academic benefits, namely in WM and math performance, These results have implications for the utility of WM
after WM training implemented in a school with second- training in institutional settings such as schools (Rode
to fourth-grade children. These benefits were significantly et al., 2014): In addition to subject-specific teaching,
stronger than after training with a perceptual-matching task, underlying essential functions, such as WM capacity and
suggesting that WM training tasks that place high demands self-regulation, can be fostered with computerized WM
on active processing, storage, and retrieval of information training alongside other interventions, such as behavioral
improve cognitive performance more than do training tasks and mindset interventions, physical activity, imaginary
with low demands on these factors. We also found a small play, as well as phonological awareness and inhibition
transfer effect on vocabulary in the WM training group, as interventions (see Rowe et al., 2019).
post hoc analyses showed, even though the effect of experi- Our results contribute to the field by demonstrating that
mental condition did not reach significance. Finally, we WM training implemented in a regular school setting can
found no differential training effect but overall improve- foster some cognitive and academic performance. Interin-
ments in reading and fluid intelligence. Thus, we found no dividual factors need to be considered in further training
generalized effects, which aligns with other inconsistent studies, as our results demonstrate that training success is
results in this research field, but the found effects are nev- strongly associated with personal and school-related fac-
ertheless promising. While some meta-analyses conclude tors such as the power of endurance, the joy of learning,
that WM training with typically developing children yields and social integration.
not benefits (Sala and Gobet, 2017), our study concludes
that there is still reason to keep investing resources in WM Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
training research with children. Undeniably, more research tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 41465-0​ 22-0​ 0242-x.
is needed to identify underlying factors of WM training, and
neuroimaging signature of intervention effects are needed in Author Contribution BS: conceived and designed the analysis, col-
addition to the behavioral results reported in this study (cf. lected the data, performed the analysis, wrote the paper.
MT: conceived and designed the analysis, collected the data.
Tymofiyeva & Gaschler, 2021).
KM: collected the data.
No less importantly, the data reveal the strong impact of AH: performed the analysis.
personality and regulatory factors, the joy of learning, and WJP: conceived and designed the analysis, helped writing the paper.

13
Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2022) 6:340–357 353

Funding Open access funding provided by University of Bern This Personality and Social Psychology, 77(4), 815–832. https://​doi.​
study was not funded by any grant; it was made possible thanks to org/​10.​1037//​0022-​3514.​77.4.​815
incomes of services from Synapso, a specialist unit from the University Astle, D. E., Barnes, J. J., Baker, K., Colclough, G. L., & Woolrich, M.
of Bern. W. (2015). Cognitive training enhances intrinsic brain connectiv-
ity in childhood. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(16), 6277–6283.
Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi,
available from the corresponding author upon request. S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on work-
ing memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,
22(2), 366–377.
Declarations Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., Soveri, A., Johansson, J., Andersson, M.,
Dahlin, E., . . . Rinne, J. O. (2011). Effects of working-mem-
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human ory training on striatal dopamine release. Science, 333(6043),
participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the insti- 718-718.
tutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of work-
declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. ing memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417–423.
Ethic commission code: Nr. 2015–3-1213381. Bergman-Nutley, S., & Klingberg, T. (2014). Effect of working
memory training on working memory, arithmetic and fol-
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual lowing instructions. Psychological Research Psychologische
participants included in the study: Consent from individuals to par- Forschung, 78(6), 869–877.
ticipate in the study as well as consent from individuals to publish Bergman Nutley, S., & Söderqvist, S. (2017). How Is Working Mem-
their data. ory Training Likely to Influence Academic Performance? Cur-
rent Evidence and Methodological Considerations. Frontiers in
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Conflict of Interest All authors declare no competing interests.
Blair, C., & Diamond, A. (2008). Biological processes in prevention
and intervention: The promotion of self-regulation as a means
Disclaimer The BrainTwister2 program is a collection of cognitive
of preventing school failure. Development and Psychopathol-
tasks which does not belong a for-profit organization of any kind.
ogy, 20(3), 899–911.
Money earned from sales of the program is all reinvested in further
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Closing the achievement gap
research projects and task development.
through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine
function: Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- an innovative approach to the education of children in kinder-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- garten. PLoS One, 9(11), e112393.
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and lit-
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes eracy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663.
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Brehmer, Y., Rieckmann, A., Bellander, M., Westerberg, H., Fis-
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated cher, H., & Bäckman, L. (2011). Neural correlates of training-
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in related working-memory gains in old age. NeuroImage, 58(4),
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 1110–1120.
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a memory training in younger and older adults: training gains,
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in human neuroscience,
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