THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Function of the Respiratory System

The function of the human respiratory system is to transport air into the lungs
and to facilitate the diffusion of Oxygen into the blood stream. It also receives
waste Carbon Dioxide from the blood and exhales it.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the following parts, divided into the upper and
lower respiratory tracts:

Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract

• Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to
warm, filter and moisten the incoming air

• Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and
oesophagus (food pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis
which prevents food from entering the trachea

• Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is

generated. It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if
any solid objects pass the epiglottis.
 Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract

Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is

the tube which carries air from the throat
into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in
diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner
membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny
hairs called cilia, which catch particles of dust
which we can then remove through coughing.
The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped
rings of cartilage at the front and side which
help protect the trachea and keep it open.
They are not complete circles due to the position of the oesophagus immediately
behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow the
expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.

Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left
and one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and more
horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the bronchi, whose
walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the bronchi split several
ways, forming tertiary bronchi.

Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very

narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the
bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.
 Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within
alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls
which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide. They are surrounded by a network
of capillaries, into which the inspired gases pass.
There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an
average adult lung.

Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath the
lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the base
of the thoracic cavity.

The Mechanics of Breathing

The action of breathing in and out is due to changes of pressure within the thorax,
in comparison with the outside. This action is also known as external respiration.
When we inhale the intercostal muscles (between the ribs) and diaphragm
contract to expand the chest cavity.

The diaphragm flattens and moves downwards and the intercostal muscles move
the rib cage upwards and out. This increase in size decreases the internal air
pressure and so air from the outside (at a now higher pressure that inside the
thorax) rushes into the lungs to equalise the pressures.

When we exhale the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and return to their
resting positions. This reduces the size of the thoracic cavity, thereby increasing
the pressure and forcing air out of the lungs.

Breathing Rate

The rate at which we inhale and exhale is controlled by the respiratory centre,
within the Medulla Oblongata in the brain. Inspiration occurs due to increased
firing of inspiratory nerves and so the increased recruitment of motor units within
the intercostals and diaphragm. Exhalation occurs due to a sudden stop in
impulses along the inspiratory nerves.

Our lungs are prevented from excess inspiration due to stretch receptors within
the bronchi and bronchioles which send impulses to the Medulla Oblongata when
stimulated.

Breathing rate is all controlled by chemoreceptors within the main arteries which
monitor the levels of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide within the blood. If oxygen
saturation falls, ventilation accelerates to increase the volume of Oxygen inspired.

If levels of Carbon Dioxide increase a substance known as carbonic acid is released

into the blood which causes Hydrogen ions (H+) to be formed. An increased
concentration of H+ in the blood stimulates increased ventilation rates. This also
occurs when lactic acid is released into the blood following high intensity
exercise.

Respiratory Volumes
Respiratory volumes are the amount of air inhaled, exhaled and stored within the
lungs at any given time

Tidal Volume: The amount of air which enters the lungs during normal inhalation
at rest. The average tidal volume is 500ml. The same amount leaves the lungs
during exhalation.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of extra air inhaled (above tidal
volume) during a deep breath. This can be as high as 3000ml.

Expiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of extra air exhaled (above tidal volume)
during a forceful breath out.

Residual Volume: The amount of air left in the lungs following a maximal
exhalation. There is always some air remaining to prevent the lungs from
collapsing.
Vital Capacity: The most air you can exhale after taking the deepest breath you
can. It can be up to ten times more than you would normally exhale.

Total Lung Capacity: This is the vital lung capacity plus the residual volume and is
the total amount of air the lungs can hold. The average total lung capacity is
6000ml, although this varies with age, height, sex and health.

Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs

The main function of the respiratory system is gaseous exchange. This refers to
the process of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide moving between the lungs and blood.

Diffusion occurs when molecules move from an area of high concentration (of
that molecule) to an area of low concentration.

This occurs during gaseous exchange as the blood in the capillaries surrounding
the alveoli has a lower oxygen concentration of Oxygen than the air in the alveoli
which has just been inhaled.

Both alveoli and capillaries have walls which are only one cell thick and allow
gases to diffuse across them.

The same happens with Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The blood in the surrounding
capillaries has a higher concentration of CO2 than the inspired air due to it being a
waste product of energy production. Therefore CO2 diffuses the other way, from
the capillaries, into the alveoli where it can then be exhaled.

To demonstrate the use of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in respiration you can look
at the amounts of both gases which we inhale and then exhale. The air we
breathe contains approximately 21% Oxygen and 0.04% Carbon Dioxide. When
we exhale there is approximately 17% Oxygen and 3% Carbon Dioxide. This shows
a decrease in Oxygen levels (as it is used in producing energy) and an increase in
Carbon Dioxide due to it being a waste product of energy production.
VO2 Max
VO2 max is the measure of the peak volume of Oxygen (VO2) you can consume
and use in a minute. It is measured in ml/kg/min and so you can see that it is also
relative to body weight.

As we already know, Oxygen is needed to produce energy. The harder you

exercise the more Oxygen you use in order to produce sufficient energy.
However, everybody has a maximum level (their VO2 Max), where Oxygen
utilisation is at its peak

If exercise intensity increases beyond this point then the anaerobic energy
systems must be used to supply the additional energy. However, anaerobic
metabolism produces lactic acid which causes fatigue and so cannot be sustained.
Anaerobic energy production also results in Oxygen Debt.

Your VO2 Max can be increased through training, as this causes adaptations
within the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems which make the
processes of gas exchange, Oxygen transport and aerobic metabolism more
efficient.

There are a number of ways of testing your VO2 max. The most accurate is in a
laboratory, where exhaled Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide levels are measured whilst
running on a treadmill. This allows us to see how much of the Oxygen inhaled (we
know 21% of the air we inhale is O2) is used for energy production. VO2 can also
be estimated using tests such as a bleep test.
Results vary depending on fitness level, sex, age and genetics. The older you are the lower your
VO2 Max is estimated to be. An average score for a twenty-something male would be 40
ml/kg/min with an excellent score being 52 ml/kg/min. An average score for a female of the
same age would be 30 ml/kg/min and an excellent score would be 41 ml/kg/min. Some
professional sports people (involved in endurance activities) have scores in the 80's!
CELLULAR RESPIRATION

What is Respiration?
Cellular Respiration is the process that takes place in cells to convert food into
energy. This process is also known as internal respiration. In order to release the
maximal amount of energy, the molecules of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen which make up our food are stored as a high energy molecule known as
ATP or Adenosine Triphosphate.
The Products of Respiration
When energy is needed, ATP is broken down using an enzyme (known as ATPase)
into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). This process breaks the high energy
Phosphate (P) bond and so provides energy for use by the body. Here is the
equation you may see in text books:
ATP = ADP + P +Energy
The human body is also capable of resynthesizing ATP to allow it to continue
producing energy. To do this it must use energy to reverse the equation shown
above. This is known as an endothermic reaction as it requires energy. The
breakdown of ATP is called exothermic as it produces energy. The process of
breaking down and resynthesizing ATP is efficient at producing energy as less
energy is required to resynthesis the ATP than is made to break it down. Here is
the Resynthesis equation:
Energy + ADP +P = ATP

What are the Energy Systems?

There are two energy systems used in during the process of respiration. Aerobic
Respiration, meaning 'with oxygen' which is used for long-term, steady paced
exercise and day-to-day activities and Anaerobic Respiration or 'without oxygen'
which produces fast bursts of energy for short, powerful bursts. The Anaerobic
system can be divided into two further systems, ATP-PC and Lactic acid. All energy
systems work together, but the intensity and type of activity will determine which
system is predominant.
Aerobic system
Anaerobic system
 ATP-PC system
 Lactic Acid System

Aerobic Respiration
The aerobic system produces the largest amounts of energy, although at the
lowest intensity. At the start of exercise the body cannot deliver oxygen to the
muscles fast enough to initiate the complex chemical reactions which occur
during aerobic metabolism. Therefore the body relies on anaerobic processes for
the first couple of minutes.

The aerobic system can be broken down into three sections:

• Glycolysis
• Kreb's Cycle
• Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Aerobic Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of Carbohydrates (in the form of Glucose or
Glycogen) into Pyruvic acid and resulting in the production of two ATP molecules.
A total of 10 chemical reactions are required to convert Carbohydrates into
Pyruvic acid which takes place in the muscle Sarcoplasm. Glycolysis can take place
without the presence of Oxygen in the cells however on finishing Glycolysis the
cell decides which process to carry out. If Oxygen is present then the cell will
perform Oxygen Respiration (aerobic respiration) and continue on to Kreb's Cycle.
Kreb's Cycle
Sometimes also known as the Citric acid cycle, or the Tricarboxylic acid cycle, this
is the second phase in the process of aerobic metabolism. The Pyruvic acid
produced during Glycolysis enters the mitochondria and is immediately converted
to Acetyl Conzyme A which combines with Oxaloacetic acid to form a 6 carbon
compound, known as Citric acid.
Further chemical reactions occur to wield enough energy to resynthesise 2 ATP
molecules. Bi-products of these reactions include Carbon Dioxide (CO2), which is
exhaled by the lungs and Hydrogen (H) which is transported to the site of the
Electron Transport Chain by carrier molecules NAD+ and FAD. The process is
termed a cycle due to the starting product of Oxaloacetic acid is also the end
product, ready to start the process over again.
Electron Transport Chain
The hydrogen mentioned above is transported into the inner membranes of the
Mitochondria where it is split into a proton (H+) and an electron (H-). The
electrons are then subject to a series of redox reactions which release a large
amount of energy in order to resynthesise ATP.
The protons also create energy by moving back through the inner membrane of
the Mitochondria because of the redox reactions. This causes an imbalance of H+
and so they return through the membrane, producing energy. A final exothermic
reaction is the combination of hydrogen with oxygen, to form water. The total
ATP production during all of the reactions of the electron transport chain is 34,
meaning it is by far the highest producing phase of aerobic metabolism.
Aerobic Respiration Equation:
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Anaerobic Respiration
The anaerobic energy system provides energy in the absence of Oxygen. This is
used in the first few minutes of all exercise, before there is sufficient oxygen
available at the muscles for aerobic metabolism. It is also used for fast, powerful
bursts of energy, for which the aerobic system is insufficient. There are two
systems within anaerobic metabolism, which are the ATP-PC system and the lactic
acid system.
ATP-PC System
ATP as already discussed is a high energy molecule which is broken down to form
ADP and release energy. PC or Phosphocreatine is another high energy molecule,
found in the Sarcoplasm of muscle fibres. The breakdown of ATP and so increase
in volume of ADP triggers an enzyme known as Creatine Kinase to initiate the
breakdown of PC into Phosphate and Creatine. Being an exothermic reaction, this
provides the energy required to resynthesise ATP at a fast rate.
We only have 120g of Creatine within our bodies and so this repeated breaking
down of PC in order to produce energy to resynthesise ATP is temporary and can
only last a maximum of 10 seconds. Therefore the ATP-PC system is used mainly
for bursts of speed.
Lactic Acid System
Sometimes also known as Anaerobic Glycolysis due to the initial process being the
same as aerobic glycolysis (as mentioned above), only without oxygen. So, as
before 10 chemical reactions occur within the Sarcoplasm which turn
Carbohydrate into Pyruvic acid and 2 molecules of ATP. The difference now being
the lack of oxygen meaning the carrier molecule NAD+ cannot offload the
Hydrogen (H+) by-product of glycolysis causing a build-up in the cell.
To try to prevent an increase in acidity the pyruvic acid accepts the H+, forming
Lactic acid. If oxygen was present the H+ would be transported to the
Mitochondria for use in the Kreb's cycle. Lactic acid is thought to interfere with
muscle contraction due to disrupting the binding of Calcium to Troponin. Acidity
also stimulates free nerve endings within the muscle, causing pain. Due to lactic
acid production, this energy system can only be predominant for up to 2 minutes.
Following anaerobic exercise, despite the metabolic process used not requiring
oxygen, your body will be in Oxygen Debt and so your respiration rate will be very
high.
Anaerobic Respiration Equation:
Glucose = Lactic Acid + Carbon Dioxide + Energy
C6H12O6 = 2C2H6O3 + 2CO2 + Energy
Latest research on lactic acid
Latest research is explaining different view on lactic acid role in our body. Here
are some common misconceptions about the nature and roles of lactate, and the
more contemporary counter-views:

Misconception Counter-view

1. Lactic acid and lactate are the 1. Lactic acid contains a H+ ion
same substance that can
dissociate from lactic acid and increase

acidity of the surrounding tissue/fluid.

Lactate does not contain a H+ ion that

can

dissociate; therefore, it does not

2. Lactic acid is produced in large directly
amounts during exercise.
make its environment more acidic.

2. Hardly any lactic acid is present

3. Lactate is the cause of muscle in the
burn body. During exercise, two separate
and muscle fatigue during exercise. ions

are produced: lactate and H+.

3. There is no evidence for lactate

contributing to the burning sensation

sometimes experienced during

exercise.
4. Lactate is a waste product that Lactate actually extends exercise
has no benefit during exercise.
 performance via its roles as a H+
buffer and
5 Lactate is responsible for the muscle
as a source of metabolic fuel.
soreness sometimes experienced in
the hours or days following exercise. 4. Lactate is a H+ buffer and a
source of fuel during exercise across a

range of intensities and durations.

5 Furthermore, the additional

lactate produced during exercise is

metabolised within the first hour of

recovery. Therefore, it cannot

contribute to

muscle soreness several hours or days

following exercise.

The new study shows that in anaerobic glycolysis pyruvate converts to lactate by
consuming H+ and recycling NAD+

Pyruvate + NADH + H+ lactate Lactate + NAD+

dehydrogenase
Lactate does not directly make the internal environment more acidic; therefore,
its production cannot directly contribute to intramuscular acidosis and after
exercise muscle pain. here are some key things to remember:
1 Lactate, not lactic acid, is produced in the muscles during intense exercise.
2 Lactate and lactic acid should not be thought of as the same thing: they are
different substances.
3 Lactate is produced in response to the muscle becoming more acidic due to
production of H+. Lactate production is not the cause of muscle acidity.
4 Lactate production reduces muscle acidity by consuming H+, allowing intense
exercise to continue for longer.
5 Lactate is an important source of fuel for exercising muscles and the brain.
6 During intense exercise, fatigue would occur sooner if lactate were not
produced.

MAXIMUM HEART RATE

Athletes who use a heart rate monitor as a training aid need to identify their
actual maximum heart rate in order to determine their appropriate training
zones. Maximum heart rate (HRmax) can be determined by undertaking a
maximum heart rate stress test which although relatively short does require you
to push your body and your heart to the very limit. It can also be predicted using a
formula but the variation in actual HRmax of 95% of individuals of a given age will
lie within a range of ±20 beats/minute.
Calculation of Maximum Heart Rate
The easiest and best known method to calculate your maximum heart rate
(HRmax) is to use the formula:
HRmax = 220 – Age
Heart Rate Training Zones
Heart rate
training zones
are calculated by
taking into
consideration
your Maximum
Heart Rate
(HRmax) and
your Resting
Heart Rate
(HRrest). Within
each training
zone, subtle
physiological effects take place to enhance your fitness.
The Energy Efficient or Recovery Zone - 60% to 70%
Training within this zone develops basic endurance and aerobic capacity. All easy
recovery running should be completed at a maximum of 70%. Another advantage
to running in this zone is that while you are happily fat burning you may lose
weight and you will be allowing your muscles to re-energise with glycogen, which
has been expended during those faster paced workouts.
The Aerobic Zone - 70% to 80%
Training in this zone will develop your cardiovascular system. The body's ability to
transport oxygen to, and carbon dioxide away from, the working muscles can be
developed and improved. As you become fitter and stronger from training in this
zone it will be possible to run some of your long weekend runs at up to 75%, so
getting the benefits of some fat burning and improved aerobic capacity.
The Anaerobic Zone - 80% to 90%
Training in this zone will develop your lactic acid system. In this zone, your
individual anaerobic threshold (AT) is found - sometimes referred to the point of
deflection (POD). During these heart rates, the amount of fat being utilised as the
main source of energy is greatly reduced and glycogen stored in the muscle is
predominantly used. One of the by-products of burning this glycogen is lactic acid.
There is a point at which the body can no longer remove the lactic acid from the
working muscles quickly enough. This is your anaerobic threshold (AT). Through
the correct training, it is possible to delay the AT by being able to increase your
ability to deal with the lactic acid for a longer period of time or by pushing the AT
higher.

The Red Line Zone 90% to 100%

Training in this zone will only be possible for short periods. It effectively trains
your fast twitch muscle fibres and helps to develop speed. This zone is reserved
for interval running and only the very fit are able to train effectively within this
zone.
Heart rate variations for a given intensity

A reduction in heart rate for a given intensity is usually due to an improvement in

fitness but a number of other factors might explain why heart rates can vary for a
given intensity:

Dehydration can increase the heart rate by up to 7.5%

Heat and humidity can increase the heart rate by 10 beats/minute

Altitude can increase the heart rate by 10 to 20%, even when acclimatised

Biological variation can mean the heart rate varies from day to day by 2 to 4
beats/minute

Resting Heart Rate

To determine your resting heart rate (HRrest) is very easy. Find somewhere nice
and quiet, lie down and relax. Position a watch or clock where you can clearly see
it whilst lying down. After 20 minutes determine your resting pulse rate
(beats/min). Use this value as your (HRrest).

If you have a heart rate monitor then put it on before you lie down. After the 20
minutes check the recordings and identify the lowest value achieved. Use this
value as your HRrest.
The heart is a muscle so with regular exercise it will become larger and become
more efficient as a pump. As a result you will find your resting heart rate gets
lower so you will need to check your HRrest on a regular basis.

HUMAN BODY - RESPONSES TO EXERCISE

When you begin to exercise your body must immediately adjust to the change in
activity level. Energy production must increase to meet demand with changes to
the predominant energy system and fuel source occurring throughout the
exercise in order to maintain the required level of performance.

Responses to Anaerobic Exercise

In order to immediately meet the sudden higher energy demand, stored ATP is
the first energy source. This lasts for approximately 2 seconds.

When stored ATP is broken down into ADP + P, the rising ADP level stimulates
Creatine Kinase to begin the breakdown of Phosphocreatine.

As discussed on the energy systems the ATP-PC system can only last 8-10 seconds
before PC stores are depleted.

The lactic acid system (Anaerobic glycolysis) must then take over as the
predominant source of energy production. High intensity (but sub-maximal)
exercise can last for between 3 and 5 minutes using this system

If the exercise continues at a high intensity, and so Oxygen is not available at a

fast enough rate to allow aerobic metabolism to take over, the production of
lactic acid will reach the point where it interferes with muscular function. This is
called the Lactate threshold.

Muscles begin to fatigue when ATP resynthesis can no longer match demand.
Responses to Aerobic Exercise
Due to the necessity of Oxygen being present for aerobic metabolism, the first
few minutes of low to moderate intensity exercise are powered by anaerobic
metabolism.

Continued low to moderate intensity exercise is then fuelled by carbohydrate and

fat stores using aerobic metabolism.

The intensity and duration of exercise determines which fuel source is used. Fat
metabolism is a slow process and so can only be used as fuel for exercise at less
than 60% VO2 max.

Carbohydrate is a much faster fuel source and so can be used for exercise up to
80% (in trained individuals).

Carbohydrate stores within the muscle and liver can fuel exercise for up to 80
minutes. As carbohydrate stores get lower, the body has to rely more and more
on fat stores.

The intensity of exercise which can be maintained drops as fat cannot supply the
required amount of energy.

OXYGEN DEBT & RECOVERY

When you have a short intense burst of exercise such as sprinting you generate
energy for this anaerobically or without oxygen. When you stop exercising you are
still breathing heavily. This is your body taking in extra oxygen to 'repay'
the oxygen debt. Well, that is the simple solution but there is a little more to it if
you want to look a bit deeper.

True, your body has worked anaerobically and will have produced energy without
some of the oxygen it would normally have used performing low intensity
exercise such as slow steady running. The difference between the oxygen the
body required and what it actually managed to take in during the sudden sprint is
called oxygen deficit.

When you stop sprinting and start to recover you will actually need more oxygen
to recover than your body would have liked to use had enough been available.
This is called Excess Post Exercise Oxygen Consumption.

So why does it take more oxygen to recover then?

You needed to replace the oxygen the body needed but couldn’t get (oxygen
deficit).
Breathing rate and heart rate are elevated (to remove CO2) and this needs more
oxygen.
Body temperature and metabolic rate is increased and this needs more oxygen.
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are increased which increases oxygen
consumption.
So after exercise there are other factors causing an increase in oxygen needs as
well as repaying the lack of oxygen during exercise.
The chart below is often seen and shows how the amount of oxygen used by the
body changes over time. At the beginning the body works anaerobically leaving an
oxygen deficit. Over time the oxygen consumption levels out to a steady state.
After exercise the oxygen is pain back (oxygen debt). Notice the area of oxygen
debt is greater than the area of oxygen deficit for the reasons stated above.

What has Lactic Acid got to do with it?

Lactic acid is a by-product of exercising without using oxygen (anaerobically). It is
essential this is removed but it is not necessarily a waste product. It is recycled
into other useful chemicals:

During prolonged intensive exercise (e.g. 800m race) the heart may get half its
energy from lactic acid. It is converted back to pyruvic acid and used as energy by
the heart and other muscles.

It is thought that 70% of lactic acid produced is oxidised, 20% is converted to

glucose (energy) in the liver.

10% is converted to protein.

How long does it take to remove lactic acid?

About 1 hour if cooling down with gentle exercise.

It can take 2 hours or more if you don’t warm down with gentle exercise.