Wind Energy Generation

3. Fundamentals of wind energy conversion

system control
Ángel Silos-Sanchez
Contents

- 3.1 Introduction

- 3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics

- 3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- 3.4 Wind turbine components

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Wind Energy Generation

3.1 Introduction
Introduction

- WECs

- Transform wind kinetic energy to mechanical energy through rotor blades

- Transform mechanical energy to electrical energy through generator
- Other components in transformation

- Wind speed plays a key role (Maximum power output)

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSWm_nprfqE

4
 Wind Energy Generation

3.2 Wind turbine aerodynamics

Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Aerodynamics

- Primary application: Generate Energy using the wind

- Aerodynamics is a key important aspect

- The wind turbine aerodynamic design includes:

- Drag and Lift forces, Net force

- Performance: Betz Limit
- Mechanical loads
- Noise

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Blade aerodynamics

- Similar to the wings of an airplane (Bernouilli’s principle)

- Speed of moving fluid increase, the pressure within the fluid decreases

- Curved shape of the blade creates a difference between Up & Down

- The airflow above the blade is faster that one bellow

- (Vup > Vdown) -> (Pup < Pdown) -> FL (Lit force)

- The force applied at a certain distance of the WT produce Torque

- Rotational movement
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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Angle of attack

- Lift force (FL) control

- Angle of attack: Between direction of the wind speed and chord line
- Angle = 0 -> no FL (Example: Maintenance)

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Lift and drag forces

- Drag force: applies a force on the body in the direction of the relative flow
- Lift force: applies a force perpendicular to the relative flow

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Lift and drag forces

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Lift and drag forces

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Aerodynamic coefficients: CL and CD

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Power Air mass with speed Vw:

- ᵖ = density
- A = Area
- V = wind speed
- Under 15ºC, 1,2 kg/m3

- Wind power captured by the blade:

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Vu = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades

- Vd = downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades

- Where Vw is the average of the velocities:

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Or:

- Where:

- This expression for Cp is the fraction of upstream wind power captured by the rotor blades Cp
- Cp is called Betz limit. It is not static value.

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Cp varies with the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine

- λ represents the ratio of the wind speed Vd to wind speed Vu of the turbine

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Differentiate Cp with respect to λ and equate to zero to find maximum value:

- This maximum value 16/27 (Betz limit)

- The real wind turbines operate below the Betz limit with values of 0.35 – 0.45
common even in best designed wind turbines

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- WT turns to slowly -> wind will pass through the openings between blades with little power extraction
- WT turns too fast –> rotating blades are a wall obstructing the wind flow again reducing power

- WT design: optimal wind tip speed ratio in order to extract as much power as possible from the wind
stream.

- 10 - 30 % power of the wind is converted into usable electricity.

- Air density p is another flow input quantity at the rotor system.

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Coefficient

- Cp is the most important parameter for power regulation.

- It is a non-linear function and whose value is unique to each turbine type
- Function of wind speed that the turbine is operating in.

- The Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle Θ:

- Where C1 – C6 and x depend on turbine type, and B is defined by:

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Example 1

- The analytical formula of Cp has the following data:

- Where:
- λ is the tip speed ratio
- Θ is the Blade pitch angle in degrees
- C1 = 0.6; C2 = 128; C3 = 0.6; C4 = 0; C5 =8 and C6 = 20

- Determine the curve Cp versus tip speed ratio (0 to 16), and with Θ = 0, 3, 6, 10, 15 & 24º
- How could be controlled a WT?
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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power coefficient

- The optimal TSR is a constant for a given blade

- The speed of the turbine that produces that maximum power is related to TSR and wind speed by:

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Variable speed wind turbine

- Cp is optimum P < Pref

- In order to get maximum

power and conversion
efficiency, the turbine speed
must be adjustable according
to the wind speed.

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Fixed speed wind turbine

- Cp is only optimum at
one wind speed

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Fixed speed wind turbine

- Cp is chosen in order to achieve

the maximum captured energy
according to the site wind speed
distribution

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Fixed speed wind turbine

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Example 2. Fix speed (squirrel cage) wind turbines

- 3.2 MW WT
- Rotor D = 100 m
- Ngb = 80 based on an induction generator
- 960 V; 50 Hz (2 pair of poles)
- p= 1,225 kg/m3.

- Neglecting slip (assuming s = 0). Calculate the mechanical power generated for wind speeds of 5,
8, 11 and 14 m/s

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Power Characteristic of Wind Turbine

- Power Characteristic -> Power curve (Mechanical power)

- Power curve is guaranteed by manufacturer (IEC 61400 – 12)

- A typical power curve is characterized by three wind speeds:

- Cut-in wind speeds -> WT starts to operate and deliver power.

- Rated wind speed -> WT produces rated power.
- Cut-out wind speed -> highest wind speed at which WT is allowed to operate before it is shut down.
For wind speed above cut-out wind speed, WT must be stopped, preventing damage from
excessive wind.

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Aerodynamic power control

- Power captured by the blades is a

cubic function of wind speed

- To deliver power to the grid.

Generator should be properly
controlled with variable speed
operation

- As the wind speed increase beyond

the rated speed, aerodynamics power
control of blades is required to keep
the power at rated value

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Aerodynamic power control

- The aerodynamic power control is

performed by three main techniques:
- Passive stall
- Active stall
- Pitch control

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Aerodynamic power control

- Passive-stall
- Used in the early fixed-speed wind
turbines

- Active-stall
- The evolution of passive-stall

- Pitch control
- The pitch control reacts faster than the
active-stall control and provides better
controllability. Pitch control is widely
adopted in today’s large wind energy
systems
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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Passive-stall

- Blade is fixed onto the rotor hub at an optimal

(rated) angle of attack.

- When the wind speed is bellow or at rated value

the maximum power from the wind is captured

- With the wind speed exceeding the rated value ->

turbulences.

- Stall Phenomenon: LF will be reduced and

disappeared when the wind speed increase

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Passive-stall

- Blade profile is aerodynamically designed to

ensure that stall occurs only when wind speed
exceeded rate value

- To ensure blade stall -> couple degrees deviation

along the longitudinal axis

- Complex aerodynamic design

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Active-stall

- Adjustable blades with a pitch control mechanism.

- When the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the

blades are controlled to turn more into the wind,
leading to the reduction of captured power

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Active-stall

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Similar active-stall control

- Wind speed exceeds rated value, pitch control

reduce attack angle turning the blades (pitching)
gradually our of the wind. (Reduction difference
pressure)
- Lift Force disappeared

- When wind is below or at rated speed hold at

optimal value.

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Active-stall and pitch control are based on rotating

actions on the blade

- Pitch control turns the blade out of the wind

leading to a reduction in LF

- Active stall control turns the blade into the wind

causing turbulence reducing LF

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Production

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Start up

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Stop

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Pitch control

- Idling

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads

- Power capture depends on aerodynamic

- Design WT defines limits in order to keep the

forces on the mechanical components (blade,
structural frames, gearbox, tower shaft,…)

- Safety margins

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads

- Aeroelasticity

- Interaction between aerodynamics and structure

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads

- Flexibility

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads
- Wave
- Wind waves
- Variable external conditions (offshore)
- Gravitational wawes
- Tides (very low frequency)
- Wind
- Turbulence
- Current
- Aerodynamic imbalance
- Tides (very low frequency)
- Rotational sampling
- Turbulence
- Gravity
- Wind shear
- Rotating blades
- Tower shadow
- Imbalance in rotor
- Yaw misalignment

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. Full analysis according to standards

- Standards & guidelines

- DNV-OS-J101 (October 2007)
- GL (2005)
- IEC 61400-1 (onshore)
- IEC 61400-3 (offshore)

- Turbine certified for class of wind conditions (Confirm that loads at site remain within class specs)

- Support structure certified site specific

- Several hundred load cases required for certification

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. Full analysis according to standards

- Standards & guidelines

- DNV-OS-J101 (October 2007)
- GL (2005)
- IEC 61400-1 (onshore)
- IEC 61400-3 (offshore)

- Turbine certified for class of wind conditions (Confirm that loads at site remain within class specs)

- Support structure certified site specific

- Several hundred load cases required for certification

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. Design steps

- Make first preliminary design based on static loads

- Loop (check & adjust)

- Check for resonance
- Check extreme loads (limited number of load cases)
- Check fatigue damage (limited number of load cases)

- Check all extreme and fatigue load cases (certification)

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. Resonance

- Excitation frequency ≈ natural frequency

- Large oscillations
- Fatigue damage (due to severe cyclic loading)
- Generally not destructive (anticipated in design)
- Natural frequencies of wind turbine (-components)
are close to several excitation frequencies

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. Extrem load analysis

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-1 Design Load cases

- Turbine operation - Load type

- Normal power production - Fatigue loads
- Start up and shut down - Ultimate load
- Control failure or network failure
- Parked or idling state
- Yaw error

- Wind conditions
- Extreme wind
- Wind distribution
- Turbulence
- Wind shear
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- Dynamic events
Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-3 Design Load cases

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-3 Design Load cases

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-3 Design Load cases

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads. IEC 61400-3 Design Load cases

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Wind turbine aerodynamics

- Mechanical loads

- Fatigue analysis

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 Wind Energy Generation

3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

control
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- Control in wind turbine

- Variable-speed WT below rated wind speed

- Under generator control

- Goal: To maximize the wind power capture

- Optimal TSR (Tip speed ratio) is maintained

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- Control in wind turbine

- The trajectory of MPPs represents a power curve

- The mechanical power captured by the turbine can also be expressed in terms of torque:

- These relationship are used to dermine control set for generator in order ot achieve MPP.

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- MPPT with Turbine Power Profile

- Method where power curve defines the maximum power produced by the turbine at different speeds

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- MPPT with Optimal Tip Speed Ratio

- Method where MPPT is achieved by keeping the TSP to its optimal value

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- MPPT with Optimal Torque Control

- Maximum power operation can also be achieved with optimal torque control
- TM (Wm2) Quadratic function

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- MPPT with Optimal Torque Control

- Searching continuously peak power of the wind turbine

- Tracking algorithm
- Optimal point according to location of operation dot and relation between changes in power and speed.

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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control

- Example

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 Wind Energy Generation

3.4 Wind turbine components

Wind turbine components

- Composition

- WTs are composed by several parts to achieve

kinetic-to-electric energy conversion

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khkyUgX7QGE

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NG1uGt6qUfM

66
Wind turbine components

- Turbine blade

- Most distinctive and visible component. Convert wind kinetic

energy into rotational mechanical energy

- Material: Aluminum, fiberglass or carbon-fiber composites.

Selected materials to provide strength-to-weight ratio, fatigue
life and stiffness

- Configurations
- Single and two blades WT (experimental applications)
- Three blades WT (standard and large WT)
- Four blades WT (expensive and require gear ratio)

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Wind turbine components

- Turbine blade

- Blades are mainly made of composite materials

- Polyester resin, vinyl resin and epoxy thermosetting matrix resin
- E-glass fibers, S-glass fibers and carbon fiber reinforced materials

- Injection molding
- Glass fiber is still dominant (1/10 carbon fiber)

- Improve performance WT increasing rotor diameters

- Long blade requires strength and stiffness

- Carbon fiber is between 4 and 6 times stiffer than glass fiber
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Wind turbine components

- Turbine blade

- Manufacturing:
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDyTxGvuAjk

69
Wind turbine components

- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism

- Pitch mechanism in large wind turbines enables the rotation of the blades on their longitudinal axis
- Change attack angle of the blades with respect to the wind
- Control degree to protect wind turbine

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Wind turbine components

- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism

- Action: When the wind speed exceeds the rated value

- Limit power output

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Wind turbine components

- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism

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Wind turbine components

- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism

- Pitch mechanism can be either electric or hydraulic

- Electric pitch are more common

- Traditional: All blades on the rotor hub are pitched

simultaneously

- Modern: Independent pitch systems.

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Wind turbine components

- Pitch and yaw systems: Pitch mechanism

- Main function of the yaw drive is to maximize the captured wind

energy

- Consists in:
- Motor drives
- Yaw gear
- Gear rim
- Breaking

- All motors are commanded by the same signals and lock after
turning the wind turbine into desired position
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Wind turbine components

- Gearbox

- Rotor of WT
- Speed range 6-20 rpm
- 4 or 6 pole wind generator (1500 or 1000 rpm for 50Hz, 1800 or 1200 rpm for 60 Hz)

- Gearbox can adapt low speed of WT to high speed of Generator

- Gearbox conversion ratio:

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Wind turbine components

- Gearbox

- Multiples stages to achieve the high conversion ratio.

- Type of gear stages: Planetary, helical, parallel shaft, spur

and worm types

- Two or more gear types may be combined in multiple stages

- The gearboxes are generally made of superior quality

aluminum alloys, stainless steel and cast iron.

- Efficiency: 95 – 98%. High investment and maintenance

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Wind turbine components

- Gearbox

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Wind turbine components

- Gearbox

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wK1qmRv_l8

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Wind turbine components

- Generator and power converter

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Wind turbine components

- Generator and Power Converter

- Generators:
- Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
- Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
- Synchronous generator (SG) (wound rotor and permanent magnet)

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Wind turbine components

- Generator and Power Converter

- SCIG

- Simple and rugged

- Minimum maintenance

- Traditional direct grid-connected WTs system

- Low power range turbine are using SCIG (Fixed speed)

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Wind turbine components

- Generator and Power Converter

- DFIG

- Onshore wind energy industry

- Stator of the generator is connected directly

- DFIG operates about 30% above and below synchronous speed

- Sufficient for most wind speed conditions

- Reduced-capacity converter is les expensive and requires less space

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Wind turbine components

- Generator and Power Converter

- Synchronous generator
- Direct-drive wind turbines
- Wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG)
- Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG)

- PMSG have higher efficiency > WRSG

- SG are direct driven

- Some manufacturers have developed SG turbines with gearbox driven

train

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Wind turbine components

- Example 3

- Generator dimensions

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Wind turbine components

- Example 3

- Geared (GFC) or Gearless (DD) Wind turbines

- P = 6000 kW
- n = 11,5 rpm

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Wind turbine components

- Generator & Power converter:

- Converter

- DFIG and SG interfaced with the grid through power converters

- DFIG uses a reduced-capacity converter
- SG uses a full power converter

- Priority on power converters: Reliability, minimum maintenance, limited physical

size/weight and low power losses

- AC/AC conversion is indirect

- DC link: Connects two converters performing AC/DC and DC/AC conversions

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Wind turbine components

- Generator & Power converter:

- Converter

- Wind power converters have usually a back to back structures

- 2-level is the most common

- 3-level is used in large wind turbines

87
Wind turbine components

- Tower

- Support the nacelle and turbine rotor

- Material steel and concrete. Combination of both for the base
- The height is equal to the turbine rotor diameter (medium and large)

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Wind turbine components

- Tower

- Structural dynamics to avoid vibration caused by

mechanical resonance mode

- The top head mass (THM) of the nacelle and the

turbine rotor has a significant bearing on the
dynamics of the tower and foundation

- Low THM is a measure of design for reduction cost

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Wind turbine components

- Foundation: onshore

- Major component in a wind energy system

- Types:
- Slab
- Multiple
- Monopile

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Wind turbine components

- Foundation: offshore

- Foundations offshore have a particular design due to location are in water depth and different soil types

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Wind turbine components

- Foundation: offshore

- Pile Foundations: Considerations

- Flexibility / Adaptability:
- Soil conditions
- Water depth
- Scour
- Diameter and wall thickness
- Tension & compression
- Penetration and number
- Track record/experience
- Different installation methods

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7b3Ev2Emyc 92
Wind turbine components

- Foundation: offshore

- Pile driving

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Wind turbine components

- Foundation: offshore

- Multiple piles

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Wind turbine components

- Foundation: offshore

- Floating

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Wind turbine components

- Wind sensors

- Wind turbine control requires wind speed and direction measurements

- Wind speed –> angle attack, generator speed (variable speed WT)

- Wind direction -> yaw control

- Wind speed sensor: Three-cup vertical-axis microturbine an

optoelectronic angle transducer

- Ultrasonic anemometers are also used in practical wind turbines. They

measure the wind speed by emitting and receiving acoustic signals
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