Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Thinking, Data and Measurement, and Ethics in Research

This week we will develop a foundational understanding of the key concepts and
principles that underlie research in the behavioural sciences. We will also explore
ethical considerations that safeguard human and animal participants and ensure
that privacy and security are maintained.

Chapter 1 of the textbook starts off by explaining the importance of a research

methods course at the core of a psychology curriculum for developing critical and
scientific thinking as relevant to theory and practice. It explains how empirical
science is a way of knowing that can be applied to the world around us. This
chapter also emphasizes the important distinction between legitimate scientific
inquiry and pseudoscience. It fosters a model of the behavioural scientist as a
skeptical optimist who uses empirical questioning to advance scientific
understanding.

Through rigorous application of scientific principles, researchers develop theories

that are precise enough to meet the test of falsification. It is through this method of
theoretical development and hypothesis testing that scientific understanding is
advanced. A perplexing observation can be made that, although confirmation for a
theory may be accrued, due to the principle of falsifiability, a theory can never be
unequivocally proven. Further discussed are the goals of behavioural research,
which aims to describe behavioural phenomena, develop rules for predicting
behaviour accurately, and provide cogent explanations of the causes of behaviour.

Chapter 2 of the textbook discusses the importance of ethical considerations in

psychological research. Using stark examples, such as Stanley Milgram’s famous
study on obedience to authority, ethical considerations for research with human
subjects are examined. Researchers must do a cost-benefit analysis when planning
any research study. This insures that the benefits of the research will outweigh any
costs imposed on participants and that human participants are made sufficiently
aware of the parameters of the study to give their informed consent. Guided by
codes of ethics, research psychologists can ensure that participants, be they human
or other animals, are treated safely and with care. The psychologists’ code of ethics
also addresses the important issues of data handling, recordkeeping, plagiarism,
and fraud.

One of the most interesting and rewarding aspects of conducting research in

psychology is the development of ideas for research. Most of the activities students
engage in through assignments and coursework will tap into this exciting aspect.
Conducting critical research reviews, brainstorming with colleagues, and taking
advantage of serendipitous observations all play a key role in the development of
ideas. In Chapter 3, the text delves into the steps involved in this creative process.

The student is introduced to the two main types of research, quantitative and
qualitative, that are used to address empirical questions. The pros and cons of each
are explored. The researcher will carefully tailor each aspect of the research project
to the methodology best able to answer each of the research questions. This is the
part of the project that will require careful background research and good
judgement in order to define the optimal parameters for the study. The student will
put his or herself into the role of researcher through discussion and course work
and be able to get a first-hand feel for what is involved in planning and carrying
out a behavioural research project.

Chapter 4 marks the student’s introduction into the world of measurement as seen
through the lens of the behavioural scientist. The capacity to accurately evaluate
measures based on issues of reliability and validity is what gives the researcher
confidence in the soundness of his or her study. To know that a measure has a high
degree of reliability tells us that it is repeatable and low in measurement error.
High validity is exemplified by the ability of the measure to actually measure that
which it sets out to. In order for a study to have scientific merit, it must have a high
degree of both reliability and validity.

The four scales of measurement also play an important role in the processing of
research data. Whether the data are nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio will help us
decide which type of statistical analysis will be used. This also helps determine the
strength and rigor of the experiment. While nominal data are often used for
descriptive statistics (for example, in describing population parameters),
interval/ratio are generally preferred for inferential statistics which are used for
hypothesis testing and allow for decisions as to whether or not results are due to
chance or reflect a genuine relationship that can be applied to a larger population.

Unit 2 Notes: Hypothesis Testing, Control Problems and Confounds, and Single
Factor Designs

During Unit 2, students will develop a basic understanding of experimental

research and become familiar with the main experimental designs. Chapters 5
through 7 of the text all relate to this topic, as well as do the exercises and
discussions. Chapter 5 begins by dissecting the variables and conditions under
which the experiment will be conducted. The independent variables (IVs) are those
that are directly under the control of the experimenter while the dependent
variables (DVs) represent the observed outcomes. Extraneous variables are those
that are incidental to the experiment and should be identified and controlled, lest
they present a confound to the experiment. A confound exists when an
experimenter fails to control for an extraneous variable and cannot rule out its
influence over results. The chapter ends with an in-depth discussion of the main
forms of validity, high levels of which are inherent in a well-constructed study:
statistical conclusion validity, construct validity, internal validity, and external
validity.

The concept of methodological control has to do with structuring the research

project in such a way as to minimize potential confounds and optimize the
utilization of data. Now that the foundation has been laid, Chapter 6 explores the
main experimental designs that are used to test the effects of independent variables.
Between-subjects designs are useful when comparing independent variables with
groups of similar composition. Methods of creating equivalent groups are
highlighted. Other studies seek to compare participants on all of the study’s
conditions. These within-subjects (or repeated-measures) designs come with their
own caveats and requisite controls so that the measures are typically counter-
balanced (IVs are presented in different orders for different groups to control for a
variety of confounds such as fatigue or novelty; order effects). Single-factor
designs are discussed in depth in Chapter 7. The discussions and exercises for this
 week and next are designed to enable the student to become familiar with and
identify the most popular types of research designs.

Using a control group is one important way to control for any unanticipated
systematic confound or placebo effect. Bias represents another way in which the
validity of a study can be compromised. Understanding and controlling for
expectations, both on the part of the researcher and participants, is crucial. In order
to conduct a sound experiment, the researcher must anticipate and control for a
wide variety of issues. A good imagination is a must!

Unit 3 Notes: Factorial, Quasi-Experimental, and Correlational Designs

This week we will be continuing our examination of experimental designs, as

Chapter 8 provides an excellent overview of multi-factorial designs. These designs
are more complex than single-factor designs, and are popular among researchers
because they are used to examine the effects of more than one independent
variable, as well as interactions among independent variables. This week also
brings an examination of a variety of different research traditions. Correlational
research is one of the most popular designs and is explored in Chapter 9. Unlike
experimental approaches, it explores relationships between
variables without causal inference. In spite of this limitation, correlational research
is extremely important for predicting behaviours and outcomes. Useful in studying
variations that occur naturally, in those instances in which experimenter
manipulation is not possible nor optimal, correlational research has been identified
as one of psychology’s two approaches to science.

A variety of designs enable us to examine important research questions outside of

the confines of the laboratory. Applied research sheds light on the causes of and
solutions to real-life problems. Quasi-experimental research designs can address
issues of causality in situations where random assignment is not possible or
participants unavailable (archival data). Program evaluation is a type of applied
research that typically employs both quantitative and qualitative methodologies in
order to understand the effectiveness of human service and government programs.
Unit 4 Notes: Qualitative Research Methods

When conducting research, it is necessary for researchers to carefully consider the

purpose of their study and the question(s) they seek to answer. While previous
weeks have focused on a quantitative approach to research, this week will begin an
exploration of the qualitative approach. Chapter 2 from the Coursepack emphasizes
that the purpose of the research project should drive the research approach and
provides examples of when a qualitative approach is suitable. Qualitative methods
are often used in exploratory research when little is known about a phenomena and
collecting open-ended data will yield new insights for the research community.
This approach is also often used when we want to more fully understand a complex
phenomenon, and when we want to know how people process, interpret, and
understand their experiences. Qualitative methods are also used to uncover trends
in thought, opinions and experiences and can provide insight into a phenomena
which may help to develop theory and hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.

As with quantitative research methods, the specific research design a researcher

chooses should be congruent with the research purpose and question. There are a
variety of qualitative research methods that may be used and Chapter 3 in the
Coursepack presents three popular qualitative research methods. The
phenomenological method is used to describe and analyze the participants’
thoughts, feelings, and perceptions about the world or an experience. Ethnographic
methods are used to generate understanding of culture. This approach allows
categories and meanings to emerge from the analyses of participants’ experiences,
as opposed to imposing meaning from existing models of culture. Grounded theory
is a research method that involves the collection, analysis, and synthesis of data to
develop a theory which offers an explanation for the issue or problem experienced
by the group of interest.
Unit 5 Notes: Observational, Survey, and Small N Designs

During this week, you will wrap up your exploration of research methodologies
and complete your final project.

Chapters 9 and 10 conclude our introduction into research designs with an in-depth
look into observational research and survey methods. In addition to discussing the
strengths and weaknesses, the student is also introduced to the advanced sampling
techniques that are a hallmark of these designs.

Research designs utilizing small numbers of participants are outlined in Chapter

12. These designs are extremely useful for exploring psychological phenomena in
depth. As a side note: some of the earliest examples of psychological research were
of this type. Small N designs are particularly useful for studying rare cases or for
those situations when practical considerations preclude the employment of a larger
sample.

Ways of advancing newly developed research acumen include attending research

conferences, seeking out research opportunities, and presenting on research topics.
The most accessible approach involves finding a topic of interest and immersing
oneself thoroughly. In these ways we develop a passion for research. As scholar-
practitioners, our therapeutic practices are best served by a sound research base.

At this juncture, you have gained the skills to be able to think empirically, examine
claims and information with a critical eye, and read and comprehend difficult
material such as seminal research results. Being able to clearly and accurately
communicate results is a critical skill for the researcher.