LESSON 01

Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

I. Reading and comprehension:

If we connect a battery across a body, there is a movement of free

electrons towards the positive end. This movement of electrons is an
electric current. All materials can be classified into three groups
according to how readily they permit an electric current to flow. These
are: conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for
an electric current. All metals are conductors; however some metals do
not conduct well. Manganin, for example, is a poor conductor. Copper is
a good conductor, therefore it is widely used for cables. A non-metal
which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is an example of a liquid
conductor.
A material which does not easily release electrons is called an
insulator. Rubber, nylon, porcelain and air are all insulator. There are no
perfect insulators. All insulators will allow some flows of electrons;
however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so
small. (See Fig1.1).

Fig.1.1

1
 Semiconductors are mid-way between conductors and insulators.
Under certain conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under
others they behave as insulators. Germanium and silicon are
semiconductors. These are known as thermistors. The resistance of
thermistors falls rapidly as their temperature rises. They are therefore
used in temperature sensing devices.

Exercise 1: Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with
expressions from the passage which have similar meanings:
1. The flow of free electrons is called an electric current.
2. All insulators permit some flow of electrons.
3. Germanium sometimes acts as an insulator and sometimes as a
conductor.

Exercise 2: Contextual reference

Which do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to?
1. All material can be classified into three groups according to how
readily they permit an electric current to flow. (line 3)
a) Three groups. b) All materials. c) Free electrons.
2. Under certain conditions, they allow a current to flow easily but
under others they behave as insulators. (line 16)
a) Conductors. b) Semiconductors. c) Insulators.
3. These are known as thermistors. (Line 18)
a) Metallic oxides. b) Semiconductors. c) Mixtures of
certain metallic oxides.
4. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices.
a) Thermistors. b) Semiconductors. c) Metallic oxides.

2
Exercise 3: Checking facts and ideas.
Describe if these statement are true or false. Quote from the passage to
support your decision.
1. Electrons flow from positive to negative.
2. Copper provides an easy path for an electric current.
3. All metals are good conductors.
4. Air is not a perfect good insulator.
5. Rubber readily releases electrons.
6. The resistance of a thermistor is higher at low temperature than at
high temperatures.
Exercise 4: Describing shapes
Study these nouns and adjective for describing the shapes of objects:

When something has a regular geometric shape we can use one of

the adjectives from the table to describe it:

3
 Example: A square wave

Now describe the shape of the following objects as completely as

possible:

a) b) c)
1. Ceramic capacitor 2. Transformer laminations

II. Use of English:

1. Relative clauses 1
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without
starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text
becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

Relative use example

pronoun
Who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who
lives next door.
Which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Do you see the cat which is lying on
the roof?
Which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read, which surprised
me.
Whom object pronoun for people, especially in non- I was invited by the professor whom
defining relative clauses (in defining relative I met at the conference.
clauses we colloquially prefer who)
Whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother
is a nurse?
That subject or object pronoun for people, animals and I don’t like the table that stands in
things in defining relative clauses (who or which the kitchen.
are also possible)

4
Study these sentences:
1- Starter motor brushes are made of carbon
2- The carbon contains copper.
Both these sentences refer to carbon. We can link them by making
sentence 2 a relative clauses.
1+2.→ Starter motor brushes are made of carbon WHICH CONTAINS
COPPER.
The relative clause is capitals. Note that THE CARBON in
sentence 2 becomes WHICH.
Study these other pairs of sentences and note how they are linked.
3- 33kV lines are fed to intermediate substations,
4- In the intermediate substations the voltage is stepped down to
11kV.
3 +4→ 33 kV lines are fed to intermediate substations WHERE THE
VOLTAGE IS STEPPED DOWN TO 11Kv.
Now link these sentences. Make the second sentence in each pair a
relative clause.
1. The coil is connected in a series with a resistor.
The resistor has a value of 249 ohms.
2. Manganin is a metal.
This metal has a relatively high resistance.
3. A milliammeter is an instrument.
The instrument is used for measuring small current.
4. Armoured cables are used in places
There is a risk of mechanical damage in these places.

2. Reason and result connectives 1

Study these sentences:
1. Copper is used for cables.

5
 2. Copper is a good conductor.
Sentence 1 tells us what copper is used for. Sentence 2 tells us why it
is used; sentence 2 provides a reason for sentence 1 we can link a
statement and a reason using because.
1+2→ Copper is used for cables BECAUSE it is a good conductor.
When the reason is a noun a noun phrase, we can use because of.
Note that a comma is used before therefore.
Now link these ideas using because and therefore to make shorten
two sentences.
1. Soft iron is used in electromagnets.
Soft iron can be magnetized easily
2. The voltage is 250 V and the current 5 A.
The resistance is 50 ohms
3. Transistors can be damaged by the heat.
Care must be taken when soldering transistors.
4. Capacitance is usually measured in microfarads or pico-
farads.
The farad is too large a unit.

3. Mathematical symbols used in electrical engineering and electronics

Study the table of mathematical symbols used in electrical
engineering and electronics in Appendix 1. Then write out the following
expressions in full:
Example:
I = R/E (Read: I is equal E over R).

Good luck

6
7
 LESSON 02
Circuit elements
I. Reading and comprehension:
Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low
potential. It can only do so if there is a path for it to follow. This path is called
an electrical circuit. All circuits contain four elements: a source, a load, a
transmission system and a control.
The source provides the electromotive force. This establishes the
difference in potential which makes the current to flow possible. T he source can
be any devices which supplies electrical energy. For example, it may be a
generator or a battery.
The load converts the electrical energy from the source into some other
form of energy. For instance, a lamp changes electrical energy into light and
heat. The load can be any electrical device.
The transmission system conducts the current round the circuit. Any conductor
can be part of a transmitting system. Most systems consist of wires. It is often
possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of its
transmission system. For example, the metal chassis of many electric devices are
used to conduct current. Similarly, the body of a car is part of its electrical
transmission system.
The control regulates the current flow in the circuit. It may control the
current by limiting it, as does a rheostat, or by interrupting it, as does a switch.

Figure 2.1
1
 Study figure 2.1. In this simple flashlight circuit, the source comprises
three 1.5V cells in series. The load is a 0.3 W bulb. Part of transmission system
is the metal body of the flashlight, and the control is a sliding switch.

Compare figure 2.2. The function of this circuit is to operate a television

camera aboard a space satellite. Here the source is a battery of solar cells. A
solar cell is an electric cell which converts sun light into energy. The load is the
television camera. The transmission system is the connecting wires. The control
is a relay actuated bys transmissions from ground control. Although the function
of this circuit is much more complex than that of the flashlight, it too consists of
the four basic elements.

Exercise 1: Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with
expressions from the passage which has a similar meaning.
1. A lamp converts electrical energy into light.
2. The generator provides the circuit with electromotive force.
3. The metal frame of the oscilloscope is part of its transmission system.
4. The rheostat controls the current flow in the circuit.

Exercise 2: Contextual reference

What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to?
1. Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low
potential.(line 1)
A- Current. B- Energy C- A point

2
2. For example, it may be a generator or a battery. (line 7)
A- The source B- A device C- Electromotive force.
3. It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of
its transmission system. (Line 13)
A- The metal frame’s. B- The unit’s. C- The circuit’s.
4. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the
flashlight, it too consists of the four elements. (Line 27)
A- This circuit. B- The function. C- The flashlight.

Exercise 3: Checking fact and ideas

Decide if these statements are true (T) or false (F). Quote from the
passage to support your decisions.
1. A difference in potential is required before current can flow in a circuit.
2. A generator is a source of electromotive force.
3. Loads converts systems must consist of wires.

II. Use of language

1. Describing function

When we answer the question what does it do?. We describe the function of it.
Example:
What does a fuse do? It protects a circuit.
We can emphasize function by using this pattern: The function of a fuse id
to protect a circuit.
-Now identify and explain the function of each component with help of this list.
a- adds capacitance to a circuit. f- Protect a circuit.
b- Rectifies alternating currents. g- Varies the current in a circuit.
c- Adds resistance to a circuit. h- Transforms AC voltages.
d- Measures very small currents. i- Receives RF signal
e- Breaks a circuit. j- Selects a frequency

3
2. Describing purpose
When we answer the question What is it for?, we describe the purpose of it.
Example:
What is an ammeter for? It is for measuring current.
Other ways we can describe the purpose of an ammeter are:
1. It is used for measuring current.
2. It is used to measure current.
3. We measure current with an ammeter.
4. We measure current using an ammeter.
Now describe the purpose of these instruments and tools using any of the
structures presented above.
1. A voltmeter. 5. A heat sink
2. A soldering iron. 6. wire-clippers
3. A milli-ammeter 7. A mega-ohmmeter
4. An oscilloscope. 8. An ohmmeter
9. A signal generator. 10. A battery charger.

3. Relative clause 2: making definition

Study these two sentences:
The cables were undamaged.

4
The cables were armoured.
We can link in two ways using a relative clause:
1. The cables WHICH WERE ARMOURED were undamaged
2. The cables, WHICH WERE ARMOURED, were undamaged.

Sentence 1 means that only armoured cables were undamaged. Other

cables, for example PVC coated cables, were damaged. The relative clause is
adefining one. It defines the type of cables which were undamaged. It carries
essential information.

Sentence 2 means that all the cables were undamaged and all the cables
were armoured. The relative clause is a non-defining one. It adds extra
information to the sentence still makes good sense. It is separated from the rest
of the sentence by commas.
One use of defining relative clauses is to make definition. Study this diagram.

We can make a definition of a solar cell by joining (a), (b) and (c).
→A solar cell is an electric cell which converts sunlight into electrical energy.
Now make eight definitions using information in this table. You must
decide the correct combinations of (A), (B) and (C).

5
4. Describing component values
Study this table below:

Identify the following components in the circuit of the amplifier and wire
out their value in full
* R4 *F1
*R9 * L1
*C 5 * RL
*C1 *R8

6
Good luck

7
 LESSON 03
The DC motor
I. Reading and comprehension:

Figure 3.1
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Motors can be designed to run on direct (DC) or
alternating current (AC). The motor shown in figure 3.1 is a DC motor. Its
most important parts are the motor, the stator and the brush gear.
The motor is the moving part. It contains an armature, which is a set of
wire loops wound on a steel core. When current is fed to the armature, These

1
windings produce a magnetic field. The armature and core are mounted on a
shaft which runs on bearings. It provides a means of transmitting power from
the motor.
The motor also contains a commutator. This consists of a number of
copper segments insulated from one other. The armature windings are
connected to these segments. Carbon brushes are held in contact with the
commutator by springs. These brushes allow current to pass to the armature
windings. As rotor turns, the commutator acts as a switch making the current
in the armature alternate.

The stator does not move. It consists of magnetic and electrical

conductors. The magnetic circuit is made of the frame and the poles. Wound
round the poles are the field coils. These form the stator’s electrical circuit.
When current is fed to them, a magnetic field is set up in the stator.
The motor operates on the principle then when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced on the conductor.
The interaction of the forces produced by the magnetic field of the rotor
and the stator make the rotor spin.

Exercise 1: meaning from context

Select the word from the three alternatives given which is most similar to
meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage:
1. Provides (line 8) 2. alternate (line 15)
A- Produces A- reverse
B- Supplies B- change
C- Allows C- flow in one direction then
in another
3. Segments (line 11) 4. Interaction (line 22)
A- Sections A- acting together
B- Pieces B- operation
C-wires C- result
2
 Exercise 2: Describing positions
Describe the following components are located using the information in
the passage and the figure 3.1
1. The armature windings
2. the core
3. the field coils
4. the poles.
5. commutator

II. Use of language:

1. Describing component part 1

The following verbs can be used to break down a piece of equipment into
its component part. Note how they are used:

Study this description of a simple transformer:

A simple transformer consist of two coils, primary and secondary, wound
on a former which is mounted on a soft-iron core. The coils are made up of a
number of laminations of turns of insulated wire. The core is composed of
thin laminations. Either E-and I-or U- and T-shaped laminations are used. The
former is mounted on the centre limb of the E or T.

2. Writing impersonal instructions

Study these instructions
1. Use a high-resistance voltmeter.
2. Do not insert a fuse in an earth conductor

3
In writing instructions are often made impersonal using should
Example:
1. a high-resistance voltmeter SHOULD be used.
2. a fuse SHOULD NOT be inserted in an earth conductor.

We emphasize an instruction by using must

Example:
1. a high-resitance voltmeter MUST be used
2. a fuse MUST NOT be inserted in an earth conductor

EXTRA INFORMATION: