MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.

Kalitkin,
D.P.Kostomarov

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF PLASMA PHYSICS

N.N.Kalitkin
Institute for Mathematical Modeling of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia

D.P.Kostomarov
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

Keywords: Plasma, mathematical model, kinetic model, magnetohydrodynamic model,

transport model, collision operator, transport coefficients, equation of state, strongly
coupled plasma, self-consistent field, controlled thermonuclear fusion, tokamak.

Contents

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1. Introduction
2. Kinetic models

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2.1. Liouville equation
2.2. BBGKY hierarchy of kinetic equations
2.3. Vlasov equation with the self-consistent electromagnetic field
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2.4. Kinetic equation with the operator of binary collisions
3. Transport properties of plasma
3.1. Linearized kinetic equation
3.2. Potential and cross-section
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3.3. Electron transport

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3.4. Viscosity
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3.5. Relaxation times

3.6. Energy exchange
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4. Magnetohydrodynamic models
4.1. One-fluid model
4.1.1. Isotropy
4.1.2. Anisotropic conductivity
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4.1.3. Boundary conditions

4.1.4. One−dimension models
4.2. Two-fluid model
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4.3. Models of plasma thermophysical properties

4.3.1. Free energy
4.3.2. Interaction
4.3.3. Plasma composition
4.3.4. Equation of state
5. Mathematical models of thermonuclear plasma
5.1. Controlled thermonuclear fusion
5.1.1. Reaction of nuclear fusion
5.1.2. Magnetic and inertial confinement
5.1.3. Tokamaks
5.2. Mathematical models of toroidal thermonuclear plasma
5.2.1. Model of toroidal plasma equilibrium. Grad-Shafranov equation
5.2.2. Magnetohydrodynamic instability of toroidal plasma
5.2.3. Model of evolution

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
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5.2.4. Transport models

5.2.5. Kinetic models
6. Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

Summary

Plasma is a partially or fully ionized gas which satisfies the condition of quasi-
neutrality. A major part of the universe exists in the state of plasma. Plasma is widely
used in industrial and laboratory conditions. In the second part of the 20th century
plasma physics was formed as an original branch of physics. The theoretical basis of
plasma physics is found in equations of mechanics of continuous media taking into

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account electromagnetic forces and Maxwell’s equations. Different simplifications of

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these equations give a series of mathematical models. They describe various,

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complicated processes in plasmas whose spatial and time scales differ by many orders.

1. Introduction
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Plasma (from Greek πλασμα, literally, - generated, moulded) is a partially or fully
ionized gas, which satisfies the condition of quasi-neutrality. The term "plasma" was
introduced in 1923 by American physicists Langmuir and Tonks. A major part of the
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universe exists in the state of plasma: galactic nebula, stars, interstar medium,
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magnetosphere and ionosphere enclosing the Earth. Plasma is widely used in industrial
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and laboratory conditions: various gas discharges, magnetohydrodynamic generators,

plasma accelerators, high-temperature plasma in devices designed for controlled
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thermonuclear fusion.

The properties of plasma essentially differ from those of the usual gases. It is due to two
of its singularities. At first, plasma is strongly affected by electric and magnetic fields.
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They can be divided on exterior and interior. The latter are formed by charges and
currents in the plasma. Such peculiar self-action produces a lot of specific properties,
related to plasma oscillations and instabilities. As a typical example it is possible to
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mention longitudinal Langmuir oscillations with frequency ω0=(4πne2/me)1/2. Secondly,

the interaction between charged particles of plasma is determined by Coulomb force
with a slowly decaying potential. Due to this the basic contribution to changes of a
distribution function of particles over velocities is given by far collisions, at which the
magnitude of transmitted impulse Δp is small. As a result of this the Coulomb collision
operator, specific for plasma, differs from the classical Boltzmann collision integral for
gases.

Plasma is characterized by a large number of parameters. The ratio of the number of

ionized atoms to their total number is called the degree of ionization. Plasma can be in
weak, strong and fully ionized states. The degree of ionization depends on the
temperature and exterior action, for example, on a radiation flow. The simplest is the
case of the fully ionized plasma. Such a state can be obtained only for the lightest
elements from hydrogen up to carbon. The equilibrium composition of the weakly

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
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ionized plasma can be calculated well enough using the Saha formula. The most
complicated for description is the case of plasma of heavy elements. The multicharged
ions are present in it having a different degree of ionization and maintaining a part of
their electrons.

The temperature of plasma varies over a wide range depending on its origin. Plasma
with T≤105 K is considered as the low-temperature, with T≈106−108 K − as the high-
temperature. For ignition of controlled thermonuclear fusion with positive balance of
energy it is necessary to heat up deuterium-tritium mixture to a temperature exceeding
108 K. In many cases plasma can be nonisothermal, then it is necessary to distinguish
temperature of electrons Te, ions Ti, and non−ionized atoms Ta.

The essential distinction of electron and ion masses results in various characteristic
times of relaxational processes and establishment of Maxwellian distribution functions
of particles of different sorts. In the elementary case of homogeneous, fully ionized

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plasma consisting of electrons and one-charge ions (ne=ni=n) it is possible to choose

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four characteristic times: τe is the time of a maxwellization distribution function of

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electrons as a result of their collisions, τi is a similar characteristic time for ions, τei is
the relaxation time of relative motion of electrons and ions, τT is the characteristic time
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of energy exchange between electrons and ions in nonisothermal plasma. Accepting the
fastest time τe as the basic, one can determine the following hierarchy between the
characteristic times:
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(kTe )3/ 2 me mi mi
τe = , τ ei ≈ τ e , τi ≈ τ , τT ≈ τ .
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(1)
2π e4 nL me e me e
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Here e is the elementary charge, me and mi are masses of electrons and ions, n is a
plasma density, k is the Boltzmann constant, L is the Coulomb logarithm. Due to major
difference in masses the "slowest" process is the process of energy exchange between
electrons and ions.
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The plasma density varies in much wider limits than temperature. For space mediums
the range of plasma densities is of 30 orders: from 10−6 cm−3 for interstellar space up to
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1023−1024 cm−3 and above in stars. The range of plasma densities produced for different
purposes by human is also wide enough. For example, in controlled thermonuclear
fusion research the density of plasma varies from 1013−1014 cm−3 in tokamaks up to
1023−1024 cm−3 in special targets for laser thermonuclear fusion.

It is necessary in multicomponent plasma to introduce density nα for every ion

component of plasma separately. The ions differ not only by chemical elements but also
by the degree of ionization, so the requirement of plasma neutrality becomes:

n e = ∑α zα nα , (2)

where zα is the multiplicity of the ion charges. If the equilibrium distribution of ions
over degrees of ionization in multicomponent plasma is not established, there can be

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
D.P.Kostomarov

very sharp changes in densities of separate components.

The natural and laboratory plasma in many cases is magnetized. It has a number of
specific peculiarities. The Lorentz force makes charged particles to move over
complicated trajectories: they freely move along the field lines with velocity v⊥, rotate
in a plane perpendicular to the field line with Larmor circle of radius rB with frequency
ωB:

eα B v⊥
ωB = , rB = , (3)
mα c ωB

where v ⊥ is the component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field. At last, the
centre of a Larmor circle drifts perpendicular to the magnetic field. The velocity of the
drift is defined by the gravitational field, electric field and non-uniformity of the

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magnetic field. The energy ε and the magnetic moment μ = mα v 2⊥ /(2B) are conserved

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during that composite motion.

The essential influence on the character of motion of charged particles in a magnetic

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field refers not only the local value of its strength, defining the Larmor frequency and
radius, but also the general topological structure of its field lines. For example, the field
of the Earth looks like a magnetic dipole, its strength increases near the magnetic poles.
The auroras in near Earth plasma are interlinked to it. Magnetic confinement and
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thermo-insulation of high-temperature plasma are provided by the special structure of

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the field in tokamak.

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Plasma is complex and manifold in its appearance. Its behaviour is determined by the
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processes of diverse nature which have spatial and time scales distinguishing by many
orders. Mathematical models are used for plasma description, which include equations
of the mechanics of continuous media taking into account electromagnetic forces and
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Maxwell’s equations. The kinetic, magnetohydrodynamic and transport models of

plasma are distinguished depending on the chosen approximation.

2. Kinetic models
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2.1. Liouville equation

The kinetic models give the most detailed description of gas and plasmas. The following
probability representations are their basis. A system, consisting of N particles, is
described with the help of the distribution function F(t, x1,...,xN), where xi=(ri, pi) are
coordinates and impulses of the i-th particle. The distribution function is treated as a
probability density in 6N-dimensional phase space, the integral from which is
normalized to unity. If all particles make only mechanical motion, so that the number of
particles of each kind does not vary (for example, there is no ionization, recombination,
chemical transmutations), then one can write for function F the equation of continuity
in the phase space and transform it with the help of the Hamilton equations of motion to
the form:

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
D.P.Kostomarov

∂F N ⎛ ∂H ∂F ∂H ∂F ⎞
+ ∑⎜ − ⎟ = 0, (4)
∂t i =1 ⎝ ∂pi ∂ri ∂ri ∂pi ⎠

where H(x1,...,xN) is the Hamiltonian function of the considered system of particles.

Equation (4) is called the Liouville equation.

2.2. BBGKY hierarchy of kinetic equations

The Liouville equation plays an important role in the construction and justification of
the kinetic models of plasma. However because of the large number of variables it is too
complicated for solution of practical problems. Integrating the distribution function F in
part of its arguments, it is possible to introduce one-particle distribution functions, two-
particle distribution functions and so on, and to deduce relevant equations for them.

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One-particle distribution function of particles of kind α with argument x1=(r1,p1) is

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obtained from function F by the following way:

Nα
V ∫
fα (t, x1 ) = F(t, x1 , x 2 ,..., x N , )dx 2 ,..., dx N . (5)
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Here V is the geometrical volume occupied by the plasma, Nα is the total number of
particles of kind α, which is used to normalize function fα(t, x1). Two-particle
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distribution functions, three-partial distribution functions are introduced similarly.

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If one integrates the Liouville equation over all variables, except for x1, the equation for
one-particle function fα(t, x1) is obtained, in which the two-particle distribution
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functions enter in an integral term. In a similar way it is possible to get the equation for
two-particle distribution functions fαβ(t, x1, x2) containing an integral term with three-
particle distribution functions and so on. The obtained engaging chain of equations is
known as Bogolubov, Born, Green, Kirkwood, Yvon hierarchy (BBGKY hierarchy). Its
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construction is appropriated to the decomposition of the Liouville equation in powers of

parameter ν, which is a ratio of the mean energy of particle interaction to the mean
kinetic energy of particles. BBGKY hierarchy is more convenient for the further
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analysis, than the Liouville equation.

The basic kinetic models of plasma are obtained from the BBGKY hierarchy with the
help of the following additional simplifying assumptions:

ƒ The number of particles is great: N >> 1.

ƒ The energy of interaction between particles is small in comparison with their kinetic
energy: ν<<1.
ƒ The action of external fields on the process of conjugate collisions between particles
is negligible.

These simplifying assumptions allow to tear off the BBGKY hierarchy and to get the
equations for distribution functions for small number of particles. An especially
important role in plasma studies is played by the kinetic equations for one-particle

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
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distribution functions. The Vlasov equation with the self-consistent electromagnetic

field, the Boltzmann equation and the Landau equation with Coulomb collision operator
are related to this kind. Historically they have appeared earlier than the BBGKY
hierarchy, however the concept of the hierarchy on the basis of the uniform approach
has allowed giving them rigorous theoretical ground, determining the regions of
applicability, and aiming at ways for construction of a more complicated kinetic models.

2.3. Vlasov equation with the self-consistent electromagnetic field

In 1938 Vlasov proposed the concept of description for a wide range of plasma
processes. The basis of the model is in the kinetic equation without the term for
collisions:

∂fα ∂fα eα 1 ∂f
+ + (E + v × B ) α = 0. (6)
∂t ∂r mα ∂v

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c

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Electric and magnetic fields included in the equation through the Lorentz force are
determined from Maxwell equations for vacuum:
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1 ∂E 4π
rot B = + j, div B = 0,
c ∂t c
(7)
1 ∂B
rot E = − , divE = 4πρ .
c ∂t
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The set of equations is completed by the formulas for the charge and current densities,
which are expressed through the distribution function of particles:
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ρ (t, r ) = ∑ eα ∫ fα (t, r, v )dv,

α
(8)
j(t, r ) = ∑ eα ∫ fα (t, r, v ) vdv.
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Here summation over α means summation over all particle species. The field, defined
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by Equations (7), and (8), is termed as "self-consistent". It is determined by distribution

of particles and in its turn influences their motion due to Equation (6). The concept of a
self-consistent field appeared to be very effective. The Vlasov equation can be derived
from the BBGKY hierarchy with the supposition, that the multiparticle distribution
function is the product of one-particle functions.

The set of Equations (6)-(8) has formed the basis for a huge number of papers on a
theory of waves, stability, collective processes in plasma. Here are some of the most
widely known results:

ƒ Existence in plasma of longitudinal plasma waves. The effect of Landau damping.

ƒ General theory of oscillations and stability of plasma. Effect of the spatial
dispersion.

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ƒ Stabilization of bump on tail instability at a nonlinear stage by the formation of a

plateau on the distribution function. The quasilinear theory of waves in plasma.
ƒ Effect of "echo in plasma".

2.4. Kinetic equation with the operator of binary collisions

The next step in the development of the general concept of the kinetic theory consists in
expression of binary correlation function through one-particle distribution functions
with the help of simplifying assumptions and in obtaining the kinetic equation with a
collision integral:

∂fα ∂f F ∂f
+ v α + α α = ∑ Lαβ [fα ]. (9)
∂t ∂r mα ∂v β

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Here Fα is the exterior force operating on particles of kind α, Lαβ are partial operators

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of collisions, which describe changes of the distribution function fα as the result of

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collisions of particles α with particles β. In particular, the operator Lαα describes
collisions between particles α. Summation over β means summation over all particles
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species.

For neutral particles α and β the interaction potential between which quickly decreases
with distance the operator Lαβ is the classical Boltzmann collision integral. Equation (9)
proposed by Boltzmann underlies the kinetic theory of gases.
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The interaction between charged particles submits to Coulomb law. The Coulomb
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potential slowly decreases with distance. Due to this the basic contribution in the
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operator Lαβ is given by distant collisions relevant to large aiming parameters. The
magnitude of the transmitted impulse Δp is small for them. The account of these
singularities of the process results in the operator of Coulomb collisions obtained by
Landau:
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2π eα2 e 2β L ∂ ⎛ f β ′ ∂fα fα ∂f β ′ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ U dv′.
∂v k ∫ ⎜ mα ∂vl m β ∂v ′ ⎟ iκ
Lαβ [fα ] = − (10)
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mα
⎝ l ⎠

Here

∂ 2 | v − v′ | δ kl u k u l
U kl = = − 3 , u = v − v′, (11)
∂v k ∂vl u u

L is the so-called Coulomb logarithm. In 20 years after Landau’s work other derivation
of the Coulomb collision operator was given. The final result has appeared to be
equivalent to (10), but its representation in the form of Fokker-Planck operator is more
convenient for solution of practical problems.

The kinetic equations with the Boltzmann and Landau-Fokker-Planck collision

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
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operators can be obtained uniformly from BBGKY hierarchy. Both operators have the
following properties:

ƒ Reduce to zero for Maxwellian distribution functions of particles α and β with

identical temperature and mean transfer velocity.
ƒ Conserve the number of particles.
ƒ Conserve the total impulse of particles α and β.
ƒ Conserve the total energy of particles α and β.
ƒ Do not increment the H-function (the Boltzmann H-theorem).
ƒ Besides for a Coulomb operator, which is a differential operator of second order in
respect to the distribution function fα, one more property is valid:
ƒ Operators Lαβ are elliptic, i.e. the quadratic form, which can be formed with the
help of the matrix of coefficients at the second order derivatives of function fα in the
operator Lαβ, is positively defined.

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Property 6 reveals the mathematical nature of the Coulomb operator and justifies the

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correctness of the statement of the problem about the relaxation of the distribution
function in the velocity space due to Coulomb collisions.
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The operator of Coulomb collisions was widely used for the solution of many problems
of plasma physics. Here are references to some examples:

ƒ Determination of characteristic relaxation times.

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ƒ Determination of classical plasma conductivity.

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ƒ Plasma confinement in adiabatic traps with magnetic mirrors.

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ƒ Discovery of the effect of run away electrons.

ƒ Plasma heating by neutral beam injection. Interaction of plasma with thermonuclear
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alpha-particles.
ƒ Plasma heating by high-frequency electromagnetic fields.

In the next years more complicated kinetic models were developed and applied to
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research in plasma physics by efforts of Balescu, Lenard, Klimontovich and others.

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Bibliography

Dnestrovskii Y.N. and Kostomarov D.P. (1986). Numerical Simulation of Plasmas, Springer−Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo. 304 pp. [This book presents basic mathematical models of plasmas
and numerical methods of their investigation].
Ebeling W., Kraeft W.D., and Kremp D. (1976). Theory of Bound States and Ionization Equilibrium in

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
D.P.Kostomarov

Plasmas and Solids. Akademic−Verlag, Berlin. [Models of thermodynamics and statistical physics of
system of charged particles are developed by perturbation method].
Golosnoy I.O., Kalitkin N.N., and Volokitin V.S. (1994−1995). Wide−range Equation of State.
Proceeding of High School, Physics (in Russian), 1994, №11, p.23−43 and 1995, №4, p.11−31. [Review
of models of non-ideal plasma based on perturbation theory is given. Microfields model of non-ideal
plasma is developed].
Griem H.R. (1974). Spectral Line Broadening by Plasmas. Academic press, New York. [Models of
microfields and connected with them optical properties of plasmas are described in this book].
ITER Physics Basis. (1999). Nuclear Fusion 39, N 12, p. 2137−2638. [The five hundred pages volume of
Nuclear Fusion gives a detailed description of ITER project].
Kadomtsev B.B. (1992). Tokamak Plasma: A Complex Physical Systems, Institute of Physics Publishing,
Bristol and Philadelphia. 280 pp [The author expounds in this book a state−of−the−art of tokamak
research].
Kalman G. (1987), Strongly Coupled Plasmas, Plenum Press, New York. 352p. [Review of models of
microfields, thermodynamics and optical properties of strongly coupled plasmas is presented].

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Kostomarov D.P. (2000). The problem of evolution of toroidal plasma equilibria. Computer Physics

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Communications 126, p. 101−106. [The article presents a plasma evolution model and appropriate
computer code SCoPE].
Physics of non-ideal plasmas. Ed. Ebeling W. and Fortov V.E. (1992). Teubner−Texte zur Physik, band
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26, Stuttgart−Leipzig. [This book presents a review of physics of non-ideal plasmas].
Schram P. (1991). Kinetic Theory of Gases and Plasmas,. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Boston, London. 426 pp. [This book presents kinetic theory of gases and plasma including BBGKY
method].
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Wesson J. (1997). Tokamaks,. Second Edition, Claredon Press, Oxford. 680 pp [The author expounds in
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this book a present-day status of tokamak researches].

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Zaitsov F.S., O’Brien M.R., and Cox M. (1993). Three−dimensional neoclassical nonlinear kinetic
equation for low collisionality axisymmetric tokamak plasmas. Phys. Fluids 5, N 2, p 509−519. [The
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authors of this article reduce six-dimensional kinetic equation to the three−dimensional one. Fast phase
variables are excluded by averaging method].
Zeldovich Ya.B. and Raizer Yu.P. (1966). Physics of Shock Waves and High Temperature Hydrodynamic
Phenomena (in Russian). Science Publisher, Moscow. 686p. [The book contains a detailed description of
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different plasma physics aspects, its microscopic models and its behavior in macroscopic processes].

Biographical Sketches
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Kalitkin N.N., is a Corresponding Member of Russian Academy of Science, Head of Department of

Institute of Mathematical Modeling, Prof. of Department of Physics of Lomonosov Moscow State
University. His professional interests include the development of mathematical models of materials in
extreme conditions and the numerical methods for their solution. The main scientific results are: the
quantum-statistical model of compressed hot material was developed that describes the equation of state
and shock waves; the models of conductivity and thermodynamic properties of non-ideal plasma were
developed; the quasi-band structure of electron spectrums was discovered – it allowed to unite the above
described models into single model. On the basis of these models the calculations of a number of physical
processes and constructions were performed (the generators of extra-strong magnetic fields, the electric
gas discharge lasers).

Kostomarov D.P., is a Corresponding Member of Russian Academy of Science, Prof. of Department of

Computational Mathematics & Cybernetics of Lomonosov Moscow State University. His professional
interests include the development and investigation of mathematical models of electrodynamics, quantum
mechanics and plasma physics. The main results in plasma physics are connected with the research of
kinetic, transport and evolutional models and their realization in the form of computer codes and also with

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MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Vol. I - Mathematical Models of Plasma Physics - N.N.Kalitkin,
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the investigation of inverse problems of microwave and corpuscular plasma diagnostics. The methods of
their solution have allowed to write the special computer codes for the automated processing of
experimental data directed to the determination of density and ion temperature in tokamak devices.

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