Subject:Design of Machine Elements

Ch 1. Introduction to Design

20 Marks
1.1.Basic Design Considerations

1.2. Factors in Design

1.3. Properties of Eng. materials

1.4. Theories of Elastic Failures

1.5. Modern Design Considerations

Prepared By : Sameer V. shaikh {[email protected]} {9765158158}

Websites : www.machinedesign.top , www.msbte.engg-info.website

1.1.Basic Design Considerations {4 marks}
Q.1. What is Machine design? Give its Classification
Ans: “Machine Design is the process of selection of the Materials,shapes, sizes and arrange-
ments of the mechanical elements so that the resultant machine will perform the prescribed
task.”
The subject of machine design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which can perform the same things in
“Cheaper,Faster and Easier” Manner.
Classifications of Machine Design :
The machine design may be classified as follows :
1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing
designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by de-
signers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or modifica-
tion in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or dif-
ferent method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing design,
but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative think-
ing. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up
the work of a new design.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows :
(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulas of principle of
mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulas based on the prac-
tice and past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture
any machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified
constraints. It may be achieved by minimising the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston, crank-
shaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems to
assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design. This type of design is
based on commercially available softwares like Auto-cad, Pro E, CATIA and Unigraphics.
Q.2. What are the STEPS involved in general design procedure.(*****)
OR Enlist various PHASES involved in the process of machine design.
Ans : In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted
in several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows :
1. Recognition of need:
First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indi-
cating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be
designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms):
Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which
will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces :
Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the
energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection : Select the material best suited for
each member of the machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses) :
Find the size of each member of the machine by considering
the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses
for the material used. It should be kept in mind that each
member should not deflect or deform than the permissible
limit.
6. Modification :
Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experi-
ence and judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification
may also be necessary by consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing :
Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the machine with complete
specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Production : The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.
Q.3. State the general design consideration in machine design.
Ans : Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component :
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
3. Selection of materials.
4. Form and size of the parts.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication.
6. Convenient and economical features.
7. Use of standard parts.
8. Safety of operation.
9. Workshop facilities.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured.
11. Cost of construction. 12. Assembling.
Q.4. State the different types of load a machine member can be
subjected to.
Static load is been defined as the load which does
not vary in magnitude or direction with respect to
time after it is applied. Static load is gradually ap-
plied to the member and once it gets applied it
does not changes its magnitude or direction. exam-
ples. weight of machinery,forces in nuts and bolts..
Dynamic load is a load which varies in both mag-
nitude and direction with respect to time, after it is
applied. There are two types of dynamic loads
namely Cyclic load and Impact load.
Cyclic load is a load which when applied varies in
its magnitude in repetitive manner. In this type of loading the pattern of loading is repeated after
cycles..examples. forces induced in gear tooth,rotating shafts etc.
Impact load is a load which is applied to a member suddenly and at high velocity. example of
this load is the load applied by the punching machine on the metal sheet.
Q.5. Explain the terms 1.Bearing stress 2. Bearing Pressure Intensity
Ans : Bearing Stress (or Crushing stress):
This is a special type of compressive stress which occurs at the surface of contact be-
tween two members which are relatively at rest.
“Localized stresses occurring at the area of contact between two members at rest is called
bearing/crushing stress.”
Bearing stress distribution is not uniform as shown in fig-
ure, but depends on the shape of the surface in contact and
the properties of the two materials. Generally the bearing
stress is calculated by formula,

for cylindrical surface,

Bearing Pressure Intensity:

This is a special type of compressive stress which occurs at the surface of contact be-
tween two members which are in motion with each other. “Localized stresses occurring at the
area of contact between two members having relative motion is called Bearing pressure in-
tensity.”
Generally the bearing stress is calculated by formula,
Q.6. Explain 1.Torsional shear stresses 2.Transverse shear stress
Ans : Torsional shear Stress :When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal
and opposite couples, acting in parallel planes, then the machine member is said to be in torsion
and the stress set up in this case is called as the torsional shear stress.
it is calculated by using the torsional equation..

where T= Torque acting on shaft in N-mm, J= Polar moment of inertia in mm4

fs= Shear stress (N/mm2 ), r =radius of shaft (mm)
C= modulus of rigidity (N/mm2 ),
l = length of shaft (mm)
Transverse shear Stress :

“When a mechanical component is subjected to two

equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across
the resisting section, it tends to shear off across the
section. The stress induced in such section is known
as transverse shear stress. “

Q.7. Explain the term Principal Stresses.

Ans : Principal stress : When a
component is subjected to combi-
nation of loads in various direc-
tions. The resultant stress on each
plane can be resolved into two
perpendicular directions, one
component is called Normal
stress and other is called Shear
stress
Principal planes are those
plane which carry no shear
stress. And the stresses on principal planes are called the principal stresses.
There are two principal planes, which will be mutually perpendicular to each other, one
plane would have the maximum value and is called to as the major principal plane and other
plane would have the minimum value and is called minor principal stress.
Q.8. Draw Stress strain diagram for ductile and brittle materials. Name
points on the diagram.(*****)

Proportional limit (A): The stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the curve slightly
deviates from the straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds good up to point A and
it is known as Proportional limit.
Elastic limit (B): If the load is increase between point A and B, the body will regain its original
shape when load is removed; it means body possesses elasticity up to point B, known as Elastic
Limit.
Upper yield point (C): If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach
and the material will start yielding known as Upper Yield Point.
Lower yield point (D): Further addition of small load drops the stress-strain diagram to point D,
as soon as the yielding start, this point ‘D’ is known as Lower yield point.
Ultimate stress point (E): After the end of yielding, if the load is increase beyond point ‘D’,
there is increase in stresses up to point E and thus maximum value of stresses at point ‘E’ is
called as Ultimate Stress point.
Breaking Stress point (F): After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed,
which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The stress corresponding to point F is
known as Breaking stress.
Diagram for Brittle material
For brittle material there is no yield points stress but it simply breaks when the breaking stress is
reached.
As shown in graph it follows the Hooke's law upto cer-
tain point and then after increasing load further it just
breaks.
Q.9. What do you mean by Creep? Draw Creep curve.(***)
When a component is under constant load for long period of time. It may undergo progressive
plastic deformation this time dependent strain is called creep.
Creep is defined as “ Slow & progressive deformation of the material with time under
constant stress”.
Creep is function of stress and temperature therefore creep deformation is higher at
higher temperature. Creep is important in following situations.
1. Bolts & pipes in thermal power plant
2. Blades of steam & Gas turbine.
3. Furnace supports bars.
4. Connecting rod of I.C. engine.

Figure shows creep curve. When the load is applied at the beginning instantaneous elastic defor-
mation (OA) occurs, this elastic deformation followed by creep curve ABCD.
As shown in figure creep occurs in three stages.
Stage AB : In primary stage creep rate decreases with time.
Stage BC: In secondary creep (B to C) the creep rate is constant. The designer is mainly
concern with this stage.
Stage CD: In 3rd stage creep rate accelerate & finally there is fracture at pt. D.
Q.10.What do u mean by fatigue failure?Draw S­N curve.(*****)
Fatigue Failure -
It is observed that when component is subjected to reversed repeated stresses it fails at stress
below its Yield Strength this phenomenon is called fatigue failure.

Figure shows a wire of 2 to 3 mm diameter

which is subjected equal & opposite forces.
This causes the wire to bend as shown the fig-
ure b .If we reverse the applied stress ,it causes
the bending of wire in reverse direction, this
completes the one cycle. If we repeat the same
process it is observed that a crack is developed
in wire which causes it to break into two
pieces, such failure is called fatigue failure.

Figure shows S.N.

(stress – no. of cy-
cles) curve for steel
from graph it is clear
that if stress value is
higher the component
fails after fewer cycle
, as the stress value is
decreased the compo-
nent can withstand
more number of cy-
cles. There is certain
value of stress below
which the component
can withstand infinite ( 10 cycle ) cycles ,this stress value is called endurance limit for that ma-
6

terial.
Definition of Endurance Limit – “The maximum value of stress at which the specimen can
withstand infinite (106 cycle) is called endurance limit.”
1.2.Factors in Design {4 marks}
Q.11.Define factor of safety ? Define it for Ductile and Brittle material
Ans: While designing the component it is necessary to insure that sufficient reserve strength is
kept to deal with uncertain situation. Factor of safety is taken into account for this safety.
“ It is defined as the ratio of Maximum stress to Working or design stress.”

Q 12. State the factors that govern the selection of FOS?(*****)

Ans : Factors on basis of which FOS is selected are given below.
1.The reliability of the properties of material and change of these properties during service.
2.The Reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine
parts.
3.The Reliability of applied load.
4.The certainty as to exact mode of failure.
5.Extent of simplifying assumptions.
6.The extent of localized stresses.
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture.
8.The extent of loss of life if failure occurs. Higher factor of safety is chosen if there is more risk
of life.

Situation when Higher FOS is generally Selected

1) Where the magnitude and exact nature of forces is unknown, higher FOS is selected.
2) Where there is possibility of Impact or unseen sudden loads , higher FOS is selected
3) Where there are chances of residual or initial stress in the component, higher FOS is selected.
4) Where there is very high risk of life/property in case of failure , higher FOS is selected.
5) When very high reliability is expected from the components, higher FOS is selected.
6) Where the components are non-accessible for repairs, or failure of that component causes lot of
inconvenience higher FOS is selected.
Q.13.Define stress concentration. What are causes of stress
concentration. What are remedies(Methods to reduce) for stress
concentration. (*****)
Ans :
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross section,
the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood
of the discontinuity is different.
The irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt change of
form is called stress Concentration. It occurs for all kind of stresses in
the presence of fillets, notches, holes, key-ways, splines, surface rough-
ness are scratches etc.
Consider a member with different cross section under a tensile
load as shown in figure . It shows that nominal stress in the right and left
hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross section is
changing, a re – distribution of the force lines within the member must
takes place. The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher
than average value. The maximum stress occurs at same point on the fillet and is directed paral-
lel to the boundary at that point.

Stress flow lines are denser near hole/notch.

Causes of Stress Concentration :
1. Abrupt change in cross-section of machine member e.g. stepped shaft, key way's ,oil groove.
2. Concentrated load applied on small area – examples of this are
i) Contact between wheel & rail ii) Contact between ball & race.iii) Contact between gear teeth.
3. Variation in properties of material From point to point - examples of this are
i) Internal cavities or blow holes. ii) Cavities in welding. iii) A non – metallic inclusions.
Remedies of Stress Concentration {How to reduce stress concentration}
The presence of Stress concentration cannot be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to
some extent. To reduce the stress concentration the stress flow lines should maintain their spac-
ing as far as possible .The change in the cross section should be gradual to the possible extent.
This can be achieved through numerous ways. Some of the methods are shown below.
A) Method of reducing stress concentration by shoulder.
 B) Method of reducing stress concentration by providing groove cuts.

C) Method of reducing stress concentration by providing additional holes

D) Method of reducing stress concentration in threads by providing under cut

The principle in all methods remains the same i.e. to reduce the slope of stress flow lines.
Q.14.State the effect of stress concentration on the material in case of
static loading and cyclic loading.
In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as in brittle materi-
als,because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding takes place which reduces the con-
centration. In brittle materials, cracks may appear at these local concentrations of stress which
will increase the stress over the rest of the section. It is, therefore, necessary that in designing
parts of brittle materials such as castings, care should be taken. In order to avoid failure due to
stress concentration, fillets at the changes of section must be provided.
In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the
ductility of the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by cracks,
flaws, surface roughness, or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the member. If
the stress at any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the material, a crack may de-
velop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to failure of the member.
1.3. Properties of Engineering Materials {4 marks}

Material Designation
A) Designation of steel on the basis of Strength.

1) Fe 290
* This material is carbon and low alloy steel.
* It has Ultimate tensile strength of 290 N/mm2

2) Fe E 230

* This material is carbon and low alloy steel.

* It has yield strength of 230 N/mm2
B) Designation of Plain Carbon steel (steel with Manganese)
1) 40 c 8
* This material is carbon steel with manganese.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains average Manganese percentage.

2) 35C8
* This material is carbon steel with manganese.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains average Manganese percentage.

C) Designation of Alloy steel {Low and Medium Alloy Steel}

1) 47 Mn2
* This material is Alloy steel.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains average Manganese percentage.

2)40 Cr 4 Mo 2
* This material is Alloy steel.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains average Chromium percentage.

* It contains average Chromium percentage.

Table for dividing the content of alloying element
 Element Dividing factor to obtain percentage content
Carbon {first number indicates car- 100
bon}
Cr,Co,Ni,Mn,Si and W 4
Al,V,Pb,Cu,Ti and Mo 10
P,S and N 100

E) Designation of High Alloy Steels

Designation of these steels starts with letter X. Then a number indicating the 100 times the
carbon percentage and then followed by the actual percentage {no dividing factor} of the alloy-
ing element content.
1) X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9
* This material is high Alloy steel.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains 18 % average Chromium percentage.
* It contains 6 % average Nickel percentage.
2) 1) X 15 Cr 16 Ni 2
* This material is high Alloy steel.

* It contains average carbon percentage.

* It contains 15 % average Chromium percentage.
* It contains 2 % average Nickel percentage.
F) Designation of High Speed Tool Steels
Designation starts with letter XT and then followed by Then a number indicating the 100 times
the carbon percentage and then followed by the actual percentage {no dividing factor} of the al-
loying element content.
Example XT72W18Cr4V1
This material is high speed tool steel
It contains 72/100=0.72 % of Carbon
It contains 18 % of W
It contains 4% of Cr
It contains 1% of V
G) Designation of Irons (Grey cast iron and Spheroidal graphite iron)
A) Grey Cast iron
1) FG 150
* This material is Grey cast iron.
* It has tensile strength of 150 N/mm2
2) FG 400
* This material is Grey cast iron.
* It has tensile strength of 400 N/mm2
B) S.G.Iron
1) SG 700/2
* This material is Spheroidal Graphite cast iron.
* It has tensile strength of 700 N/mm2.
* Minimum percentage elongation 2.
1) SG 400/15
* This material is Spheroidal Graphite cast iron.
* It has tensile strength of 400 N/mm2.
* Minimum percentage elongation 15.
Q 15. State the composition of the following materials
1) Fe E 230 2) X 20 Cr 18 Ni 2
3) 35 C8
4) 40 Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo 20
Answer : Left for exercise

Materials used for various common engineering components

Component Material used Justification

Pistons of Petrol /Diesel Aluminium alloy Light weight, anti corrosive, high thermal
engine conductivity, capacity to withstand high temperature

Connecting rod Forged Alloy Steel High compressive/tensile strength, capacity to

withstand high temperatures

Cylinder Block Cast Iron High compressive strength, ease of machining, low
cost

Crankshaft/camshaft Alloy steel ability to withstand torsional stress, ease of

machining/forging, case hardening ability

Flywheel Cast iron Economic consideration, as flywheel are not subjected

to any forces.

Gearbox shafts Medium carbon Ease of processing, readiness for heat treatment,
steel economical cost.

Machine beds Cast iron High compressive strength, single piece production,
no change in dimension (bending) even after decades
of use

Propeller shaft and axles plain carbon steel ability to withstand torsional stress, ease of
machining/forging, case hardening ability

Nuts, Bolts and studs Alloy steel high tensile strength,ease of machining and heat
{40Ni10Cr3Mo6} treatment.

Gears Plain carbon steel ease of manufacturing, ability to case harden, good
or Alloy steel wear resistance

Turbine blades Stainless steel or Corrosion resistance and high thermal conductivity
aluminium alloy

leaf and coil springs Alloy steel3 Higher strength and toughness, good resilience
{55si7}

Automobile bodies and plain carbon steel Easy to shape, low cost, availability in the form of
hoods {7c4} sheets
Q.16. Write a note on standardization?Write its advantages.
Standardization - “ It is defined as obligatory standard to which various characteristic of prod-
uct should conform.” In mechanical engineering following standard are used
1. Standard for materials
2. Standard for shapes & dimensions of commonly used machine element like nut-bolts , ball
bearing, shafts, keys etc.
3. Standard for fit, tolerances & surface finish of components.
4. Standard for testing of products.
5. Standard for engineering drawing.
Advantages of standardization -
1. Reduction in cost due to high volume of production in specialized companies
2. Availability of Standard component like bearings,wheels,chains,belts,hydraulic cylinders,
valves etc as considerably reduces the size of manufacturing company.
3. Standardized parts are easy to replace due to interchangeability This facilitates servicing &
maintenance of machine.
4. The application of standardized components reduces the time required for designing the ma-
chine because the job of designer reduces to selection of component from standard catalogs.
Thus the standardization makes design process faster and cheaper.
Q.17 .What is the use of design data book to an Engineer ?
Or How design data book is helpful to designer.
Ans : When design Project under taken lot of information is needed by the designer. All such in-
formation is may available in a single book called “ Design Data Book ” .
Following information is mainly provided in design data book.
1. Mechanical properties of materials - These properties includes tensile strength ,melting
pt,various moduli of elasticity , densities, specific volumes etc.
2. Standard Component details –
The design data book contain information about bearings,belts, nuts & bolts, pulleys
and various other standard components.
3.Commercial availability of materials –
The design data book contains information about I, L, T, C selection & there commercially
available dimensions .
4. Standard design Procedure -Design data book also contain empirical formulas & standard
design procedure needed by design engineer. It also contains the standard procedure as mandated
by regulating bodies and government institutions. Thus all required information is available
under one cover for Design engineering so Design data book facilitates the design procedure.
Q 18. What do you mean by preferred number series.
Ans. Generally a product is manufactured in different sizes or models like a company manufac-
turing motors in the the range 0.5 kw to 50 kw to suit the needs of different customers. Preferred
numbers are used to specify the sizes of the product in the these cases. There are commonly used
five preferred number series. There are R5,R10 R20, R40 & R80 series .
For Example - According to R10 series , if a manufacturer wants to introduced the models be-
tween 15 to 100 units, then his series will be like... 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80 & 100
1.4. Theories of Elastic Failures {4 marks}
Q.19. List the various theories of failure and explain any one of them.
Ans: Following are the various theories of failure
1. Maximum principal or normal stress theory (Rankine’s)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s Theory)
3. Maximum principal or normal strain theory (Saint Venant theory)
4. Maximum strain energy theory (Haigh’s Theory)
5. Maximum Distortion energy theory
Q.20.Explain maximum shear stress theory. Where it is used?
Ans : This theory States that,” The failure or yielding begins whenever the maximum shear
stress in any mechanical element becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in a tension
test. “ This theory is valid for the ductile material and according to this theory shear strength is
0.5 times the tensile strength.
According to maximum shear stress theory,
Ssy =0.5 Syt
Means Ssy= Maximum Shear Stresses
Syt= Maximum yield stress

Q.21.Explain maximum principal stress theory. Where it is used?

Ans : This theory states that ,” The failure or yielding will occur when the maximum principal
stress in a complex stress system reaches the elastic limit stress in a simple tension.” Since the
maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ig-
nores the possibility of failure due to shearing , therefore it is not used for ductile materials.
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in tension and compression but weak
in shear this theory is not generally used.

Q.22.Explain maximum distortion energy theory. Where it is used?

According to this theory,” The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the
distortion strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the limiting distor-
tion energy{as obtained by standard tension test specimen}.”This theory is mostly used for duc-
tile materials and gives more accurate results for the ductile materials.
Q.22. Why maximum shear stress theory is used for ductile materials
and not for brittle materials? or Why maximum principal stress
theory is used for brittle material and not the ductile material?
Ans: “Ductile materials have typically equal strength in tension and compression ,whereas
compressive strength of brittle material is much higher than tensile strength.”
Maximum shear stress theory assumes that yield strength in tension is equal to yield strength in
compression hence this theory is best suited for ductile material and not brittle material.
Maximum principal stress theory is best suited for the brittle materials because brittle materials
do not fail by yielding but they fail by fracture.
1.5. Modern Design considerations {4 marks}
Q.23. Define Ergonomics. State its importance ?
Ans :”Ergonomics is the Process of Designing workplaces, products and systems so that they
fit the people who use them.”
Ergonomics introduces the HUMAN FACTOR and the environment to the man machine in-
teraction. It is mainly concerned with the following areas of machine designed. Ergonomics
aims to create safe, comfortable and productive workplaces and products by bringing human
abilities and limitations into the design. It considers the body size, strength,skill, speed, sensory
abilities in design. Following are the areas which are addressed in ergonomic design.
1) Design of Controls. 2) Design of Display. 3) Design of lighting system.
4) Design of acoustic system (sound effects). 5) Design of surrounding temperature.
6) Design of humidity and air motion in workplace.
Q.24. State and describe in brief about any six ergonomics
considerations in the designing of machine elements. (Important)
Ans:Ergonomics consideration in control design:
1)The control should be accessible and logically positioned.
2)The shape of control component which come in contact with hands should be comfortable
with anatomy of hand.
3)Control should be painted in red color with grey background of machine tool for attention.
4)The control operation should involve Minimum motions.
Ergonomics consideration in Display design :
5) The scale on the dial indicator should be divided in suitable linear progression such as 0-10-
20-30.
6)Number of subdivisions between divisions should be minimum.
7)Vertical figures should be used for stationary dials and radially oriented figures should be
used for rotating dials.
8) The height of letters or numbers on display should be greater or equal to reading
distance /200.
9) The pointer should have knife edge with a mirror to minimize parallax error.
10) The numbering should increase in clockwise direction on circular scale , rightward on a hori-
zontal scale and upwards on vertical scale.
Lighting :
11) The surrounding area including walls, ceiling, floor and other object should be bright and
more colored than workplace. The light should be match the needs of the task as far as illumina-
tion is concerned.
Noise:
12) If the noise level is too high, it can be stopped at source by better maintenance of equip-
ment, placing vibration isolating material,plug in ears and providing sound insulating walls.
Temperature:
13) In order to get efficiency to perform the task, the operator should feel neither too hot nor
too cold but comfortable.
14) When the heavy work is done, the temperature should be lowered and when the office work
 is done, it should be little higher.
Humidity and Air circulation:
15) Low humidity may cause discomfort through drying of the nose and throat.
16) Air humidity and air velocity become important at high temp. because they influence the
amount of sweat, which can be evaporated from body surface to produce cooling effect.
Q.25. Define Aesthetics ? State meaning of common colors used?
Ans: “Aesthetics is the branch of science which deals with nature of art and beauty. It is re-
lated to the appearance of the product .”
When there are number of products in the market, having the same qualities of efficiency,
durability and cost , the customer is naturally attracted towards the most appealing product. The
external appearance is an important feature , which gives grace and luster to the product and
dominates the markets.
Selection of proper colour is an important consideration in product aesthetics. The choice
of colour should be compatible with the conventional ideas of the operator. Following table
gives the meaning of the common colour..
Colour Meaning
RED Danger-Hazard-Hot
Orange Possible Danger
Yellow Caution
Green Safety
Blue Caution-cod
Grey Dull
Q.26. Describe the importance of aesthetic consideration in design
related to shape, colour and surface finish. (Important)
Ans: Aesthetic consideration in design related to shape ,colour& surface finish
Regarding Shape:
1) The shape should not be like blocks but various forms like sculpture, streamlined,
aerodynamic, taper should be used.
2) The component should be symmetrical at lean about one axis.
3)proper shape of a product help to make the product more attractive.
4) The shape of the product should be regular, even & proportionate
Regarding Colour:
1) The colour & shape of component should be such that it should attract and impress customer.
2) The colour should match with conventions, moods e.g. red for danger, gray for dull, yellow
for cautions, green for safe etc.
3) Too bright colour should be avoided.
4) The colour should be compatible with conventional ideas of the operator.
Regarding Surface finish
1) Products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing’
2) The surface coating processes like spray painting, anodizing, electroplating etc greatly the
aesthetic appeal of product.