Cell: unit of life

Cell (home of organelles)- “Any aqueous compartment surrounded by plasma

membrane/cell membrane is known as cell”. It is fundamental, structural and
functional unit of living organisms or life, capable to carry about all the life
activities, it can exist independently, and can perform all the life processes. The
word cell is derived from the Latin word ‘cellula’ which means “a little room”.

Discovery of cell-

• Robert Hooke (1665)- he saw cork cell (non-living) for very first type
though his microscope.
• Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1674)- saw living cell in pond for the first
time.
• Robert Brown (1831) discovered and named the nucleus in plant cells.
• J.E. Purkinje (1839) gave the term protoplasm for the living fluid
substance present inside the cell.
• Haeckel (1866)- established that the nucleus was responsible for storing
and transmitting hereditary characters.

*Cell Theory- Jakob Matthias Schleiden (1838), first proposed the idea that all
plants consist of cells. In 1839, Theodor Schwann (1839) independently asserted
that all animals and plants are made up of cells. The cell theory was refined further
in 1855, R. Virchow presented the idea that all cells arise from pre-existing cells
(His actual aphorism was ‘Omnis cellulae a cellula’). Thus, the cell theory
comprises of the following postulates :

• 1. All organisms are composed of cells and cell products (e.g., secretions).
• 2. All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and
functional units of life.
• 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells only. No cell can originate
spontaneously or de novo (anew) but comes into being only by division of
already existing cells.
• 4. Every organism starts its life as a single cell. Viruses are an exception to
cell theory.

Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleoplasm

Protoplast = cell devoid of cell wall
Cytoplasm = cell - nucleus
Cytosol = cytoplasm – organelles
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
On the basis of cell organisms can be divided in two groups-
1. Acellular- cell and plasma membrane absent-
A. DNA/RNA- Virus,
B. ssRNA- Viroid.
2. Cellular- cell and plasma membrane present: these organisms can be
further divided on the basis of nucleus-
A. True nucleus absent: Prokaryotes- unicellular, have primitive and
incomplete cells, lack nuclear membrane around their genetic substances
(nucleoid) and also don’t have membrane bound organelles
(mitochondria), contains single chromosome-
a) Bacteria
b) Archaebacteria
c) Cyanobacteria
B. True nucleus present: Eukaryotes-
a) Unicellular- algae, protozoans, yeast
b) Multicellular- are composed of collections of cells that
function in a coordinated manner, with different cells
specialized to perform the particular tasks- Autotrophs-
Plants; Heterotrophs- Animals.

Cell shape- Cell may have diverse shapes: polyhedral, spherical, spindle shaped,
elongated, branched, discoidal.

Cell size- Size ranges between 0.2 to 5.0 micrometre (bacteria) to 18 cm (ostrich’s
egg).

Structure of prokaryotic cell:

Prokaryotic cells are the most primitive cells. It has a single membrane
system. They include bacteria, viruses, blue-green algae, mycoplasmas,
rickettsias, spirochetes etc. Cyanobacteria or blue green algae are the largest
and most complex prokaryote, in which photosynthesis of higher plants type have
evolved. Prokaryotes are included in the kingdom Monera and the super
kingdom Prokaryota. The Prokaryotes have the following characters:

1. The size of prokaryotic cells ranges between 1 to 10 μm. They occur in a variety
of forms.

2. Prokaryotic cell consists of three main components:

I. Outer covering: It is composed of inner cell or plasma membrane,

middle cell wall and outer slimy capsule.
 • Cell membrane: Cell membrane made up of lipids and proteins,
is thin and flexible and controls the movement of molecules
across the cell. Respiratory enzymes are carried by it for energy
releasing reactions. Mesosomes, the in-folds of plasma
membrane bears respiratory enzymes and these are considered
analogous to mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Similarly, the
pigments and enzymes molecules that absorb and convert the
light into chemical energy in photosynthetic cells are also
associated with the plasma membrane’s in-folds called
photosynthetic lamella. These lamellae are analogous to the
chloroplast of eukaryotic cells. Plasma membrane plays role in
replication and division of nuclear material. Since the in-folds
remain continuous with the cell membrane, they are not
considered as separate compartments. Thus, prokaryotic cell is
non-compartmentalized.
• Cell wall : It is a rigid or semi-rigid non-living structure that
surrounds the cell membrane and its thickness ranges between
1.5 to 100 μm. Chemically it is composed of peptidoglycans. .
Some bacteria such as mycoplasmas lack cell wall.
• Slimy capsule: A gelatinous coat outside the cell wall is the slimy
capsule. It is composed of largely of polysaccharides and
sometimes it may have polypeptides and other compounds also.
It protects the cell against desiccation, virus attacks,
phagocytosis and antibiotics.

II. Cytoplasm: Prokaryotic cytoplasm contains proteins, lipids,

glycogen and inorganic ions along with enzymes for biosynthetic
reactions and ribosomes, tRNA and mRNA for protein synthesis.
Prokaryotic cytoplasm has some special features as follows:

a. It lacks cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,

Golgi apparatus, Centrosomes, vacuoles, Lysosomes,
microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
b. The only cytoplasmic organelle found in prokaryotic cells is the
ribosomes. They are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes i.e., 70S
and lie free in the cytoplasm. They form poly-ribosomes at the
time of protein synthesis. They are the sites of protein synthesis.
c. Like eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cell does not
show streaming movement or cyclosis.
d. Gas vacuoles are also formed in some prokaryotic cells
e. The cell does not show phagocytosis, pinocytosis and exocytose,
substances enter and leave the cell through the cell membrane.
 f. They may contain deposits of polysaccharides or inorganic
phosphates.

III. Nucleoid: Nuclear envelope is absent in prokaryotic cell and the

genetic material lies directly into the cytoplasm. Such nuclear
material is known as nucleoid. Nucleoid consists of greatly coiled
single pro-chromosome. It shows the following special features:

a. A short and simple pro-chromosome is present which is

attached at least at one point on cell membrane.
b. Mostly there is single copy of chromosome, the prokaryotic cell
is haploid.
c. The DNA is naked as it is not associated with basic histone
proteins. It is double stranded, helical and circular.
d. The amount of DNA is lesser than eukaryotic cell and it codes
fewer proteins. Replication of DNA is continuous throughout
the cell cycle. Transcription and translation occurs in
cytoplasm and processing of mRNA is not required.
e. The processes like meiosis, gamete formation or fertilization
are absent. Conjugation is seen in some bacteria.
f. Mitotic apparatus absent. g. There is no nucleolus.
g. Cell membrane folds or mesosomes help to segregate the
replicated products of chromosomes into daughter cells.

Plasmids: In some prokaryotic cells, in addition to nucleoid, a small circular

double stranded DNA molecule is present. It is called plasmid. Plasmids have
1000 to 30,000 base pairs and they generally encode proteins required by the
organism to resist antibiotic and other toxic material.

Flagellum: It is a whip like locomotory structure found in many bacteria. It is

150Å thick and 10 to 15μm long. As the flagellum does not have any surrounding
membrane, it grows at the tip. It has two main parts: Filament and basal body.

1. (i) Filament- Filament extends out of cell into the medium and it is
composed of many intertwined spiral chains of the subunits of a protein
called flagellin. Flagellin differs from actins or tubulin.
2. (ii) Basal Body- The basal body attaches the flagellum to the cell and
generates the force to rotate it. It is composed of many components and
numerous proteins. It has two parts: shaft and hook.

Pili: These are short, rod like non-motile processes or fimbriae present on many
bacteria. These are formed of pilin protein. They are usually less than 10 nm thick.
They help in attachment of bacteria to surfaces or food or to one another. Tubular
sex Pili are present in some bacteria.
 Structure of eukaryotic cell
All cell have three major functional regions:
1) Cell membrane or plasma membrane, and cell wall,
2) The nucleus, and
3) The cytoplasm
Cell membrane or plasma membrane- it is boundary of cell and present in all
cellular organisms. Selectively permeable, delicate, living and 7-10 nm thick. It
is formed of lipids (phospholipids, key element), proteins, cholesterol and
polysaccharides.
In 1972, Singer and Nicolson suggested a model, called fluid mosaic
model, to explain the ultrastructure of the plasma membrane or any other
membrane of the cell.
According to them, plasma membrane is made up of a bilayer (two
molecule thick layers) of phospholipids. Two types of protein molecules
‘floated about’ in the fluid phospholipid layer : Intrinsic proteins, which
completely covers the lipid bilayer and extrinsic proteins, which occur either on
the outer surface or on the inner surface of the lipid membrane.

The proteins are present not to give strength to the membrane but to
serve as (i) enzymes (catalyse chemical reactions within the membrane), (ii)
transport proteins or permeases (for movement of water soluble ions) ; (iii)
pumps (for active transport) and (iv) receptor proteins (for endocytosis).

Functions-

i. It gives definite shape to cell by defining its boundary.

ii. It binds the semifluid content of the cell.
iii. Flexibility of plasma membrane helps in endocytosis and exocytosis.
 iv. Its semi-permeability function as mechanical barrier- it allows some
solute to cross it easily than others by- diffusion, osmosis and mediated
transport.
v. Protects cell content and maintains integral environment of cell.
vi. Function as physical barrier between cytoplasm and environment.
vii. Participate in synthesis and assembly of cell wall molecules.
viii. Helps in recognition of foreign substances and defend against
microbes.

*Transport across Plasma Membrane

Passive Transport: Passive means that no energy expenditure required

to cross the membrane. The plasma membrane is differentially permeable - which
means that certain substances can move across the membrane and others cannot
There are 3 ways passive transport is accomplished across the plasma membrane:
Diffusion, Osmosis. and Facilitated Transport-

Diffusion: Molecules that pass freely follow a concentration

gradient from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. This phenomena is called diffusion. Diffusion continues
until equilibrium is reached and the molecules are distributed evenly
inside and outside the cell.

Examples:
• Spread of aroma of strong perfume in a room when someone enters
room with a strong odour of perfume.
• O2 concentration inside cell as opposed to outside cell.

Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a differentially permeable

membrane due to concentration differences inside and outside the cell.

1. Isotonic solutions: Solutions where the concentration of water and

solutes are equal both inside the cell and outside the cell. There is no
gradient and therefore no net loss or gain of water by the cell
2. Hypotonic solutions: Solutions where the concentration of water outside
the cell is greater than inside the cell conversely. The concentration of
solute (like NaCl) outside the cell is less than that inside the cell there is a
now a gradient and water moves into the cell (area of lower
concentration). If the gradient is great enough - the cell may take on so
much water that it bursts.
3. Hypertonic solutions: Solutions where the concentration of water outside
the cell is less than inside the cell conversely. The concentration of
solute (like NaCl) outside the cell is greater than that inside the cell. The
 gradient is now the opposite of a hypotonic solution and water moves out
of the cell (area of high concentration) if the gradient is great enough -
the cell may shrink or shrivel.

*Plasmolysis. When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there
is a shrinkage or contraction of the protoplasm away from the cell wall,
this phenomenon is called plasmolysis.

Facilitated Transport: The plasma membrane stops the passage of

many useful molecules. Facilitated Transport is the use of channel and
carrier proteins of the cell membrane to transport molecules across the
plasma membrane. Facilitated Transport does not require the expenditure
of energy because molecules are moving down the concentration gradient
in the same direction they would naturally move.

Active transport: Active transport occurs when a carrier protein acts

as a pump that moves a substance against its concentration gradient. Both
transport proteins and an expenditure of energy are required to move
molecules against their concentration gradient. e.g. The sodium-potassium
pump carries Na+ to the outside of the cell and K+ to the inside of the cell.

Bulk Transport: Allows large macromolecules to enter and exit the

cell. Large macromolecules include polypeptides, polysaccharides,
polynucleotides and others. These molecules are too large to be transported by
carrier proteins. An expenditure of energy is required as vesicles must be formed
to transport macromolecules across membrane.

1. Endocytosis- Involves the passage of macromolecules from outside the

cell to inside. The ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma
membrane, by cell invagination and formation of the vesicle. It is a
collective term that describes three similar processes : phagocytosis (cell
eating- engulfing solid particles), pinocytosis/potocytosis (cell drinking-
ingestion of fluid) and receptor-mediated endocytosis. All of them
require energy. Phagocytosis: The process by which a cell engulfs a solid
particle to form an internal vesicle known as phagosome is called
phagocytosis, also called eating of cell. Pinocytosis: The process of intake
of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell
membrane is called pinocytosis, also called drinking of cell.
2. Exocytosis- Involves the passage of macromolecules from inside the cell
to outside. The membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the plasma
membrane and extrude its contents to the surrounding medium. The
undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle moved
out by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface.
Cell wall- Present in plants, fungi, bacteria and many protists, outside the plasma
membrane, non-living, highly permeable and thick.

The cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin (a polymer of N-

acetylglucosamine residues), and cell of bacteria is made up of murein
(peptidoglycans). While, plant cell wall is made up of insoluble cellulose
(microfibrils- fibrous polysaccharides), secreted outside the plasm membrane for
protection, rigidity, support and mechanical strength. Plant cell wall is two major
types: primary (approx. 25% cellulose, 25% hemicellulose, 35% pectin, 1-8%
protein) and secondary (45% cellulose, 20-30% hemicellulose, sometimes lignin
present) cell wall. A this layer is also present in between cells at junctions, called
middle lamella, high in pectin (calcium and magnesium pectate).

Funtions:

• It provides definite shape and rigidity.

• It provides mechanical strength to support.
• It counteracts osmotic pressure by exerting wall pressure, restricts
endosmosis and prevents bursting of cells in hypotonic medium.
• It have narrow pores, called pits, through which fine strands of cytoplasm,
called plasmodesmata.

Nucleus: Large, centrally located, spherical and surrounded by nuclear

membrane (nuclear envelop). It is controlling centre of eukaryotes, contains
genetic material of cell. Most eukaryotes are uninucleate but some may have
many nuclei (multinucleate, e.g. Paramecium is binucleate), while, some cell may
do not have nucleus at all e.g. red blood cells. Nucleus may have four
components-
 i. Nuclear envelope- It is consists of two layer- outer and inner nuclear
membrane, and the space between outer and inner membrane called
perinuclear space. The outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic
reticulum, shares perinuclear space. Acts as barrier that separates
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. It contains nuclear pores for transport of
macromolecules between cytoplasm and nucleus.
ii. Nucleoplasm or nuclear sap- Viscous fluid enclosed by nuclear
membrane. It contains enzymes, ribosomes, nucleolus and chromatin
threads.
iii. Nucleolus- Dense, spherical-shaped structure present inside nucleolus.
Rich in protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid). During cell division
nucleolus disintegrates and reformed after the cell division. Nucleolus
plays indirect role in protein synthesis by producing ribosomes (factory
of ribosomes).
iv. Chromatin material- It is thin, darkly stained, intermingled mass of
chromatin, composed of genetic substance DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and histone protein. During non-dividing phase of the cell these chromatin
threads remain highly entangled but during cell division, they condensed
into short rod-shaped structure called chromosomes.

Distinct functional segments of DNA are called genes. DNA stores

all the information necessary for the cell to function (i.e., metabolism), to
grow and to reproduce further cells of the next generation.

Function-

Cytoplasm- part of protoplasm, occupies the space between the plasma

membrane and nuclear membrane. The inner granular mass of the cytoplasm is
often called endoplasm, while the outer, clearer (glassy) layer is called cell
cortex or ectoplasm.
The cytoplasm is about 90% of water, 2% carbohydrates and proteins, and 1%
inorganic materials, minerals, vitamins, etc. Cytoplasm consists of an aqueous
ground substance, the cytosol, containing a variety of cell organelles and other
inclusions such as insoluble waste and storage products (starch, glycogen, lipid,
etc.). Cytoplasm contains cytosol containing cell organelles.

Cytosol: It is the soluble part of cytoplasm. It forms the ground substance or

“background material” of the cytoplasm and is located between the cell
organelles. Cytosol contains a system of protein fibres called cytoskeleton.

Function:

• Cytosol (cytoplasm) acts as a store of vital chemicals such as amino acids,

glucose, vitamins, ions, etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis. Synthesis
of fatty acids, nucleotides, and some amino acids also take place in the
cytosol.
• Living cytoplasm is always in a state of movement.

Cell organelles: The organelles can be divided into three groups on the basis of
presence of membrane-

1) Single membrane bounded organelles- Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi

apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, Peroxisomes.
2) Double membrane bounded organelles- Mitochondria, Plastids.
3) Organelles without membrane- Ribosome and Centrioles.

Mitochondria: Albert von Kolliker studied mitochondria in muscle cell in

1857; Richard Altmann first recognized them as cell organelle in 1894; Term
"mitochondria' coined by Carl Benda in 1898.
 The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane-
bound organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria range from 0.5 to
1.0 μm in diameter. These structures are described as "the powerhouse of the
cell" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. The number of mitochondria in a
cell can vary widely by organism, tissue, and cell type. For instance, red blood
cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver cells can have more than 2000.

The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized

functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, A
mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid
bilayers and proteins. The two membranes have different properties. Because of
this double- membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a
mitochondrion. They are:

1. the outer mitochondrial membrane

2. The inter membrane space (the space between the outer and inner
membranes)
3. the inner mitochondrial membrane,
4. The cristae space(formed by infoldings of the inner membrane),and
5. The matrix(space within the inner membrane).

Mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins; so, they are
regarded as semiautonomous organelles. Mitochondria stripped of their outer
membrane are called mitoplasts. It contains large numbers of integral membrane
proteins called porins. Outer membrane is porous. The outer membrane also
contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty
acids, oxidation of epinephrine, and the degradation of tryptophan. These
enzymes include monoamine oxidase, rotenone-insensitive NADH-
cytochrome c- reductase, kynurenine hydroxylase and fatty acid Co-A ligase.

The inner membrane is thrown into folds and, therefore, have an area
several times the surface of area of the outer membrane). These folds are called
cristae and are studded (dotted) with small rounded bodies known as F1 particles
or oxysomes. The interior cavity of the mitochondria is filled with a
proteinaceous (gel-like) matrix, which contains a few small-sized ribosomes, a
circular DNA molecule (DNA of mitochondria resembles that of bacterial cell;
hence it is also called as endo-symbiotic organelle) and phosphate granules.
Mitochondria are absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals.

Function-
• Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration.
 • The mitochondria synthesize, energy-rich compounds (ATP), they are
known as ‘power house’ of the cell. The energy stored in ATP is used by
the cell.
• Signalling through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species.
• Regulation of the membrane potential.
• Apoptosis-programmed cell death.
• Calcium signalling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis).
• Regulation of cellular metabolism.
• Certain heme synthesis reactions.
• Steroid synthesis.

*ATP: ATP stands for the organic compound adenosine triphosphate. ATP is
generally known as energy carrier or energy currency of the cell. It is a
common cellular fuel, i.e., it is used to drive numerous energy-requiring processes
of the cell. The body of an organism uses the energy stored in ATP for 1.
synthesis of chemical compounds (e.g., DNA replication, transcription of
RNAs, and synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids) and 2. mechanical
work, such as contraction of muscles (for movement, locomotion, peristalsis),
movement of cilia and flagella, conduction of nerve impulse and production of
heat, electricity (e.g., electric eel), and light (e.g., fire flies).

Plastids: Plastids occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells.
Plastids also have their own genome (i.e., DNA) and ribosomes. They are self-
replicating organelles like the mitochondria, i.e., they have the power to divide.
Plastids are of following three types :

1. Chromoplasts. Coloured plastids (except green colour).

2. Chloroplasts. Green-coloured plastids.
3. Leucoplasts. The colourless plastids.

Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are present in green algae and higher plants. They
have a green pigment called chlorophyll and they are involved in the
photosynthesis of food. So chloroplasts are the “kitchens of the cells”.
 Each chloroplast is bounded by two unit membranes like the
mitochondria. It shows two distinct regions : 1. Grana are stacks of membrane-
bounded, flattened discoid sacs (called thylakoids) containing the molecules of
chlorophyll. They are the main functional units of chloroplasts. 2. Stroma is the
homogeneous matrix in which grana are embedded. Stroma contains a variety of
photosynthetic enzymes, starch grains, DNA and ribosomes. Granum is the site
of light reaction during photosynthesis, while stroma is the site of dark reaction
during photosynthesis.

Functions -
• Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilises it to manufacture food for the
plant.
• Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for
pollination.
• Leucoplasts store food in the form of carbohydrates (starch), fats and
protein.

Endoplasmic Reticulum- Albert Claude in Belgium and Keith Porter at

Rockfeller Institue in 1945. It is largest single membrane bound intercellular
compartment. It is membranous network enclosing a fluid-filled lumen (ER
lumen), which almost fills up the intracellular cavity. Sometimes, At one end ER
is connected to the outer membrane of the nucleus and at the other end to the
plasma membrane. ER occurs in three forms : cisternae (i.e., closed, fluid-filled
sacs), vesicles and tubules. ER is absent in red blood cells of mammals.

• ER membranes are differentiated in to two types, depending on whether

ribosomes are associated with their cytoplasmic surfaces: 1. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) with ribosomes attached on its surface for
synthesizing proteins. 2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) which is
without ribosomes and is meant for secreting lipids.
• Rough ER: Composition - studded with ribosomes. Function- protein
synthesis
 • Smooth ER: Composition - lacks ribosomes. Function- SER provides
surface for the synthesis of fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids, steroids
and visual pigments.
•

Functions-

• SER of liver of vertebras helps in detoxification.

• SER plays important role in biosynthesis of lipids (glycolipids,
phospholipids) and cholesterol.
• SER is site for calcium regulation (stores calcium).
• SER synthesize steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone
and cortisol.
• Digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes of lysosomes are produced by
RER.
• Plasm membrane and other cellular membranes are formed by
ER. e.g. Plasma membrane-

RER SER Golgi Apparatus Secretory Vesicle Plasma

Membrane

Ribosomes: Discovered by George Palade in 1955. Ribosomes are of two types

70S and 80S. ‘S’ is Svedberg unit. 80S in eukaryotes & 70S in prokaryotes. They
are small, spherical structures of which 70S ribosomes are around 200Å in
diameter, while 80S are 250 to 300Å in diameter. The 70S ribosomes are found
in the prokaryotic cells and in the mitochondria and plastids of eukaryotic cells.
The 80S ribosomes occur in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells. Membrane-
bound ribosomes found on rough ER and free ribosomes found in cytoplasm.
Membrane is absent around them.
Funtions:

1. Attached Ribosomes- The ribosomes provide space and enzymes for the
synthesis of proteins in the cell. The ribosomes bound to the ER
membranes synthesize: (i) integral proteins for cellular membranes, (ii)
lysosomal proteins and (iii) secretary proteins for export as secretions.
2. Free Ribosomes- The free ribosomes produce structural and enzymatic
proteins for use in the cell itself. These proteins include glycolytic enzymes
and most extrinsic membrane proteins, such as spectrin.

Golgi bodies: Camillo Golgi in 1898 discovered the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
apparatus has been variously named as Golgisome, Golgi material, Golgi
membranes, Golgi body, etc. These are the stack of flattened parallel-
arranged sacs and vesicles found in association of endoplasmic reticulum. They
are composed of many lamellae, tubules, vesicles and vacuoles. Their
membranes are supposed to be originated from ER and are composed of
lipoproteins.

In plant cells the Golgi complex is called dictyosome that secretes

required materials for the formation of cell wall at the time of cell division. It
helps in the formation of acrosome of sperms, release of hormones, enzymes
and other synthetic materials. The Golgi complex consists of four to six
stacked, flattened membranous sacs (cisterns). The cis (entry) face faces the
rough ER, and trans (exit) face faces the cell’s plasma membrane. Between the
cis and trans faces are the medial cisternae. The cis, medial, and trans cisternae
each contain different enzymes that permit each to modify, sort, and package
proteins received from the rough ER for transport to different destinations.
Functions-

• Formation of secretary vesicles

• Synthesis of carbohydrates
• Formation of Glycoproteins & Formation of Lipoproteins
• Formation of lysosomes
• The Golgi complex stores cell secretions such as proteins and lipids.
• The Golgi apparatus provides membrane material for the plasma membrane when the
later must enlarge for the formation of pinocytotic and phagocytotic vesicles and for
the formation of cleavage furrow during the division of animal cells.

Lysosomes: Plant and animal cells. Lysosomes are single membrane-enclosed

vesicles that form from the Golgi complex, these are important products of the
secretary pathway in cells. They are rounded, elliptical or highly irregular in
shape. Lysosomes are also known as "suicidal bags", having a multiple
hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting all kinds of materials inside or outside
the cell. Lysosomes are tiny bags filled with dense material rich in acid
phosphatase (tissue dissolving enzymes) and other hydrolytic enzymes. They
consist of two parts: (i) limiting membrane and (ii) inner dense mass.

1. Limiting membrane: This membrane is single and is composed of

lipoprotein. Chemical structure is homologous with unit membrane of
plasmalemma, consisting of bimolecular layer.
2. Inner dense mass: This enclosed mass may be solid or of very dense
contents. Some lysosomes have a very dense outer zone and a less dense
inner zone. Some others have cavities or vacuoles within the inner
granular material. Lysosomes are of various types and they help in
intracellular digestion. Their contents vary with the stage of digestion.

Functions-

• Digestion of harmful and unwanted materials.

• Renewal of cells and organelles.
• Lysosomes function in digestion of substances that enter the cell by
endocytosis, and transport the final products of digestion into the cytosol.
• They digest worn-out organelles (autophagy).
• They digest their own cellular contents (autolysis).
• They carry out extracellular digestion (as happens when sperm release
lysosomal enzymes to aid in penetrating an oocyte).

Vacuoles: Space in the cytoplasm enclosed by a membrane called a tonoplast.

Vacuoles are fluid-filled or solid- filled and membrane-bounded spaces and
derived from the Golgi complex. They store water, glycogen and proteins. The
vacuolar membrane is typically a single unit membrane and is often associated
with the maintenance of water balance (e.g., they serve as osmoregulatory
organelles in protozoans) or ingestion of nutrient material (food vacuole). In
plant cells, the vacuoles are large, distinct and permanent. In mature plant cells
the vacuole occupies almost the entire (i.e., 90%) volume of the cell. The vacuole
is filled with cell sap which is a watery solution rich in sugars, amino acids,
proteins, minerals and metabolic wastes (such as anthocyanins, alkaloids).

Functions:
• Temporary storage for biological molecules and ions.
• Bring food into cells.
• Provide structural support.
• Store metabolic wastes.
• Vacuoles help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell (osmoregulation).
• They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cells.
• They store toxic metabolic by-products or end products of plant cells.

Peroxisomes: Plant and animal cells. They are bounded by a single membrane.
Peroxisomes are mostly found in kidney and liver cells. spherical organelles
containing powerful oxidative enzymes. Peroxisomes are similar in structure to
lysosomes, but are smaller. They contain enzymes (oxidases) that use molecular
oxygen to oxidize (remove hydrogen atoms from) various organic substances.

Functions-

• Peroxisomes are specialized for carrying out some oxidative reactions,

such as detoxification or removal of toxic substances from the cell

Centrosomes: Animal cells only. Discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883

and was described and coined by Theodor Boveri in 1888. (9+0) there is a clear
zone around centrioles, near the nucleus, that includes a specialized portion of
cytoplasm, called centrospheres. Its matrix is called kinoplasm that bears two
rounded bodies the “centrioles”. Centrioles form the spindles of microtubules at
the time of cell division. Centrioles are absent in plant cell and the spindle is
formed without their help. Membrane around the centrioles is absent. Sometimes
a granular disc, called satellites, appears around the centriole.

Functions-

• Involved in the formation of spindle and astral rays

• They help in organizing spindle fibers and astral rays during mitosis and meiosis.
• They provide basal bodies giving rise to cilia and flagella.
Cytoskeleton: Plant and animal cells Composition - microtubules, intermediate
filaments, actin filaments. Function - maintains cell shape and assists movement
of cell parts.

Microtubules: The microtubules are hollow, unbranched cylinders. They may

occur singly or in bundles, and radiate from the centriole to the periphery of the
cell. The ultra fine tubules of protein (tubulin) traversing the cytoplasm of plant
and animal cells providing the structural framework to the cell, determine the cell
shape and general organization of the cytoplasm are known as microtubules.
Tubules are made up of 13 individual filaments. Microtubules help in transport
of water and ions, cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis) and the formation of spindles
during cell division.

Cilia, basal bodies and flagella: Cilia are the minute structures covering the
surface in some cells. Both cilia and flagella originate from the basal bodies or
blepharoplast lying in cytoplasm. They consist of nine outer fibrils with the two
larger fibrils in the centre. Each fibril consists of two microtubules, or has 9+2
arrangement. Cilia and Flagella are the structure born by certain cells. They are
composed of microtubules made of the protein tubulin. They have 9 + 2 plan of
microtubule. Both grow at the base. They act as locomotory organelles, moves
by their beats or undulations for they get the energy by breakdown of ATP
molecule.

Basal granules: The spherical bodies found at the base of cilia and flagella are
called the basal bodies. Each of them is composed of nine fibrils and each fibril
consists of the three microtubules, out of which two enter the cilia or flagella.
Differences between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

A prokaryotic cell is surrounded by a A eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a double
1.
single membrane layer. membrane layer.
In most cases the cell wall surrounds the
Cell wall is present in protists, most fungi and
membrane and composed
2. plants and is composed of chitin in most fungi
of carbohydrates, lipids proteins and
and or cellulose in others.
certain amino acids.
Respiratory enzymes are present on cell
3. Absent on the cell membrane.
membranes.
They occur within the chloroplast.
4. Thalakoids occurs free in cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm lacks organelles like
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
Golgi apparatus, centrosomes, All the cell organelles are present in the cell
5.
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, along with ribosomes.
microtubules and micro bodies. While
ribosomes are present.
Gas vacuoles may occur while sap
6. Sap vacuoles are commonly present.
vacuoles are absent.
70S ribosomes are present that lie free 80S ribosome’s are present, either free or
7.
in cytoplasm or attached to mRNA. bound to ER and nuclear envelope or mRNA.
These processes take place in many protists
8. Endocytosis and exocytose do not occur.
and in animals.
Process of meiosis or gamete In these cells the process of meiosis, gamete
9. formation or true fertilization does not formation and true fertilization occur in
occur. most cases of sexual reproduction.
Cells are diploid, while haploid cells also
10 Cells are haploid.
occur.
Nuclear envelope is absent and nuclear
Nuclear envelope surrounds the nuclear
material lie in cytoplasm and is called
11 material. The structure is called nucleus. It
nucleoid. Nucleoid contains a single
contains two to many chromosomes.
chromosome.
One or more nucleoli are present within the
12 Nucleolus absent.
nucleus.
Nuclear DNA is linear and is associated with
Circular DNA is present without
13 proteins, while extra nuclear DNA is present
associated proteins.
without proteins.
These structures are absent.
Plasmids and pili occur in many
14
prokaryotic cells
Flagella if present are simple, consist of Flagella, if present are complex, have 9+2
15 a single fibril and are formed of a pattern of microtubules formed of a protein
protein flagellin. tubulin.
Most prokaryotes are asexual
16 Most of them are sexual organisms.
organisms.