Chapter 2 Statistical Concepts in Research
Chapter 2 Statistical Concepts in Research
DATA STRUCTURE
• Type or Scale of Data/ Variable/
Measurement
• Data Distribution
Types of Variable/Data
According to Relationship
CONTINUOUS, or INTERVAL
DISCRETE True measurements but has e.g. Temperature
NO "true zero" value
ORDINAL
QUALITATIVE categories that have a
e.g. level of satisfaction
VARIABLE particular order
CATEGORICAL or NOMINAL
DISCRETE categories that have NO e.g. sex/gender
particular order
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
MAIN TYPES
An Interval or ratio type of
Parametric tests data are continuous in
nature. Hence, it often
Non-Parametric tests resembles the normal
distribution.
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
MAIN TYPES
In an ordinal type of data,
Parametric tests although categorical in nature,
are sometimes treated with
Non-Parametric tests parametric tests.
Distribution
• Normal Distribution
• Non Normal Distribution
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
MOREOVER…..
One must examine and be familiar on
the quantitative research design or
methodologies as these will guide you
on the appropriate statistical test.
REVIEWING…..
Data Collection:
RESEARCH DESIGN Longitudinal (repeated measure) vs.
and METHODS Cross-sectional
Purpose:
Descriptive vs. Exploratory vs.
Explanatory
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
REVIEWING…..
Data Analysis
Descriptive vs. Correlational vs.
OBJECTIVES Comparative
Purpose:
Descriptive vs. Exploratory vs.
Explanatory
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
REVIEWING…..
Significant Differences among
• one-sample group
HYPOTHESIS • two-sample groups
• kth-sample groups
is it…..
• independent (cross-sectional)
• dependent/ paired/
matched/ repeated (longitudinal)
Significant Association/
Relationship
Criteria in Deciding
the Statistical Test
Example:
Z-test can only be used when
number of observation/ sample
is 30 or above.
Thanks!!!!
Sampling Distribution,
Sample Size Estimation, and
Sampling Techniques
Systematic error: not calibrated
measuring tool; observer’s error
due to fatigue; wrong implementation of LESS ACCURATE
protocols; inappropriate design;
inappropriate statistical analysis, etc.
In most cases,
observing the entire
POPULATION is not
practical. Although,
it is the best.
SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION
To understand the
population, we tend to
only observe “a part” of
the population which was
Sample formally called it as
SAMPLE
SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION
Being the
representatives of
the Population
where:
an estimate (i.e. mean) can
1.96 for Z0.05 or 95% confidence level
be used to judge the 2.58 for Z0.01 or 99% confidence level
precision of the estimate of
the population mean. Unknown Population Variance
where:
where:
p = sample proportion
n = sample size
SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION
Confidence Interval
of the PROPORTION
an estimate (i.e.
proportion) can be used where:
to judge the precision 1.96 for Z0.05 or 95% confidence level
of the estimate of the 2.58 for Z0.01 or 99% confidence level
population proportion.
MEAN
PROPORTION
SAMPLING PLAN in WHY?????
the conceptualization
of you research is As mentioned, SAMPLING PLAN
indeed very important… affects the precision of
estimates and statistical
1. Estimation of the significance to the
required sample size population you are trying
to explain/ describe.
2. Technique in sampling
from the population
SAMPLE SIZE
ESTIMATION
the number of
participants in a
sample drawn from a
target population How can we be confidence
or assured that the
representatives (sample)
Take note that the estimates are sufficient/ enough/
and tested significance from adequate to detect
the sample technically statistical significance?
generalize the population it
was drawn from……..
SAMPLE SIZE
ESTIMATION
Sullivan (n.d)
Boston University
Cochran (1963)
Where:
Adjusted n0 = sample size from infinite
Cochran (1963) population.
N = determine number of the target
population
SAMPLE SIZE
ESTIMATION
In SURVEY researches…..
Yaname’s Formula
(1967)
This formula resembles
that of the Slovin’s Where:
Formula. However, the N = determine number of the target
first publication of the population
e = margin of error (max. of 0.05/ 5%)
formula was authored by
Yamane hence the use of
Yamane’s instead of
Slovin’s.
SAMPING TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY Sampling
Techniques Are techniques of
which every
observation units/
NON-PROBABILITY respondents has an
Sampling Techniques EQUAL CHANCE of
being selected.
Process:
RANDOM SELECTION
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES