Power and Authority in the Modern World 1919–1946:

Survey

● The Peace Treaties that Ended WW1 and their Consequences:

What did the Big Three Say?

● “What we demand in this war, therefore, is nothing particular to ourselves. It is that the world be made fit and
safe to live in, and particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation which, like our own, wishes to
live its own life, determine its own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealing by other peoples of the world
as against force and selfish aggression.” — Woodrow Wilson’s Speech to Congress.

● “We must not let any sense of revenge, any spirit of greed, any grasping desire override the fundamental
principles of righteousness. The mandate of this government at the next election will mean that the British
Government will be in favour of such a peace.” — David Llyod Geroge’s Speech to Parliament.

● “Germany has ruined the industries, the mines and the machinery of neighbouring countries… Germany has
despoiled her neighbours of everything she could make use of or carry away. Germany has destroyed the
shipping of all nations on the high sea, where there was no chance of rescue for their passengers and crews. It
is only for justice that restitution should be made and that these wronged peoples should be safeguarded for a
time from the competition of a nation whose industries are intact and have even been fortified by machinery
stolen from occupied territories.” — Georges Clemenceau’s Speech.

The Treaties and their Consequences:

● Treaty of Versailles:
○ Deemed the most important Treaty that came out of World War 1.
○ Signed on the 28th of June, 1919.
○ Initially, Woodrow Wilson presented the Fourteen Points on the grounds of justice. However, Britain’s
Lloyd George and France’s Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay harsher reimbursements for the harm
it had caused their respective nations.
○ German citizens were angry - they thought they should restart the War.
○ The War Guilt Clause hurt the country’s pride.

○ Territorial:
■ Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.
■ Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium.
■ The region of Saar was placed under the direction of the League of Nations.
■ Parts of West Prussia and Silesia were given to Poland.
■ Memel was placed under Lithuanian rule.
■ Accounted for Germany’s 13% loss of European territory.

○ Economic and Social:

■ Germany had to accept the ‘War Guilt Clause 231’, which led to humiliation within the nation and
its people.
■ Paid USD 33 billion as reparations.
○ Military:
■ Thoroughly thought out by the Allies so Germany could not pose a threat to Europe again.
■ German Army was limited to 100,000 men.
■ Navy was allowed only 15,000 men.
■ Only approved factories could make weapons, and the production of aeroplanes, poison gas,
tanks and submarines was banned.
 ● Treaty of Saint Germain:
○ Signed on the 10th of September 1919 by Austrian representatives.
○ Had to recognise the independence of Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.
○ Had to give up Val Canale and parts of Tyrol to Italy.
○ A limit of 30,000 men in the army was set.
○ Factories producing arms were banned.
○ Austrian-Hungary Navy was split and distributed among the Allies.
○ Banned from uniting with Germany either economically or politically.
○ Disliked that they were banned from uniting with Germany.
○ Acknowledged that they did not have the resources to complete the reparations.

● Treaty of Trianon:
○ Signed on the 4th of June 1920 by Hungarian representatives.
○ Considered this a violation of their historical character as the seeds of resentment, ethnic conflict and
interwar tension were sown.
○ An atmosphere of sorrow, anger and hatred was created.

○ Territorial:
■ Slovakia was given to Czechoslovakia.
■ Western Hungary was given to Austria.
■ Croatia-Slavonia was given to Yugoslavia.
■ Most parts of Banat and all of Transylvania were given to Romania.

○ Economic:
■ Due to the loss of land, economic resources were also lost.
■ Mountainous regions that provided lumber, ore and coal were lost - the economy, which relied on
agricultural profits, had to be reorganised.

○ Military:
■ Armed forces were constricted to only 35,000 men.

● Treaty of Neuilly:
○ Signed on the 27th of November 1919 between Bulgaria and the Allies.
○ Thrace was lost to Greece, Southern Dobruja to Romania and Bulgarian access to the Aegean Sea was
lost.
○ Paid 2.25 billion Francs in reparations.
○ Owed their neighbours' cattle and coal as benefits.
○ Army was restricted to 20,000 men.
○ The right to possess heavy artillery was declined, and warships were destroyed.
○ The harshness of the Treaty, the sense of unjustified punishment and the economic crisis allowed for
opposing political ideologies and movements to rise quickly.

● Treaty of Lausanne:
○ Signed between Turkey and the Allies on the 24th of July 1923.
○ Last Treaty of WW1.
○ Islands and territories in the Aegean Sea were handed over to Greece, and all Turkish claims on Cyprus,
Egypt and Sudan were given up.
○ Turkish channels between the Aegean and the Black Sea were now open for all nations for shipping.
○ People were left angered and bittered.

The Rise of Dictatorships after WW1

● The Conditions that Enabled Dictators to Rise to Power in the Interwar Period:

Italy:
 ● Paris Peace Conference + Treaty of Versailles:
○ After German defeat in 1918, Italy was part of the ‘Big Four’ that led talks at the Paris Peace
Conference.
○ However, they opted to leave the talks as they realised they would not be receiving territories promised
to them.
○ This led to dissatisfaction and criticism towards the British and French governments for their disloyalty.
○ Italy felt it had been “cheated”, and Japan was angry that its “Racial Equality Clause” had been rejected.

● Politics:
○ Unrest in the working class led to support for socialist groups and ideas, particularly the Communist
Party of Italy.
○ Traditional elites opposed these developments and doubted them.
○ The public’s confidence in their government had decreased as governments and prime ministers rose
and fell.

● Mass Political Movements:

○ Mussolini founded a movement of veterans and the unemployed - Fascio de Combattimento (League of
Combatants).
○ His movement wanted six things: to improve Italians’ lives, stop industrial unrest, unify the nation,
suppress communism, unify the nation and reform the government or replace it by force.
○ This movement proliferated, and he soon formed alliances with anti-Communist nationalist groups.
○ The National Fascist Party of Italy brought this movement together.
○ Mussolini’s followers beat up Socialists, extorted businesses in the name of security, broke up
Communist meetings and assassinated Communist leaders.

● Seizure of Power:
○ In 1922, Mussolini announced to his 40,000 followers that he would march on Rome whilst the
government threatened martial law on them.
○ This led to the PM’s resignation, allowing Mussolini to form a government after promising to preserve the
monarchy.

● Consolidation of Power:
○ Italy’s parliament gave Mussolini power for 12 months to restore order.
○ Mussolini took advantage of the powers granted to him and appointed Fascists in senior positions,
changing election laws and creating the Grand Fascist Council.

● Social and Economic Issues:

○ There was rising unemployment and inflation.
○ Undermined liberal democracy.
○ Workers’ strikes were widespread and businesses regularly closed.

Russia:

● WW1:
○ Entered WW1 as a part of the Triple Entente but suffered great losses against the German army.
○ The cost of the war brought the Empire close to collapse - the government had no revenue, there were
food and fuel shortages, and Russians were living in misery.

● Revolution:
○ In February 1917, a revolution of workers and soldiers caused the Tsar to abdicate the throne.
○ This was the first time a Communist government had achieved power in the world.

● Charismatic Leader:
○ Stalin learned to wield the bureaucracy to his advantage.
○ He presented himself as a humble member devoted to the cause, building support through the party.
 ○ Outmanoeuvred key members of his own party, reduced the influence of rivals and emerged as the
leader of the Soviet Union.

Japan:

● Paris Peace Conference + Treaty of Versailles:

○ Japan’s bid for a ‘racial equality’ clause was rejected - however, it was still named a ‘Big Five’ power,
being granted governorship of some of Germany’s territory.

● Great Depression:
○ The Great Depression brought the collapse of the world economy - leading to foreign nations imposing
trade barriers on Japan.
○ This increased distress in rural Japan, which depended on international silk markets for their income.

● Military:
○ Japan made military service compulsory, in which Japanese males were bound to unquestioning service
to the Emperor and the virtue of death.
○ The Japanese military rebuilt itself along modern lines and achieved independence from the civilian
Military of War.
○ This allowed the Japanese military to plan and execute operations by just consulting the Emperor rather
than civilian governments.
○ The influence of generals and admirals in the army and navy had grown to the extent that they could
seek the appointment of the PM and his cabinet to the Emperor himself. By the 1930s, only militarists
were in the Cabinet.
○ In 1936, an old law was reintroduced that allowed the army and navy to legally bring down the
government by withdrawing their support.
○ From here on, the political life of Japan was solely determined by the two factions of the Japanese army
and navy.
○ The Imperial Way Faction wanted to stage a revolution in the name of the emperor. At the same time,
the Control Faction believed that the armed forces should be the leading institution of Japanese life.
○ The victory of the Imperial Way Faction was greatly due to Hideki Tojo, the son of a samurai who was in
charge of the Japanese military police.
○ By 1938, he was the Vice-Minister of War; by 1941, he was made the Prime Minister of Japan.

● Politics:
○ The assassination of Prime Minister Hara in 1921 led to a series of coalition governments afflicted by
economic woes.
○ By 1925, the government had passed laws that forbid change to the political structure.
○ The assassination of Prime Minister Inukai marked the end of government by cabinet.

● An Overview of the Features of the Dictatorships that Emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan:

Features: Russia: Italy: Japan:

Charismatic - Lenin was ordinary - Mussolini was vain and - The Emperor ruled in
Political looking and egotistical. collaboration with
Leader: A single discouraged a cult of - He thrived on the others.
leader who holds devotion. devotion of his - Emperors were a
total power and - Stalin’s cult became followers and formed symbol of unity.
exerts control an important part of mass movements.
over citizens. Soviet culture.

Single Party - From 1922 to 1991, - In 1922 and 1923, the - All political parties
State: A state the USSR was a Fascist Party won were required to join
 where a single one-party state ruled majority of seats as the Imperial Rule
political party by the Communists. rival politicians were Assistance
holds control killed. Association.
over the - In 1926, Mussolini
government. banned all political
parties.

Ideology: A - Marxism and Leninism - Italian Fascist Ideology - Kokutai - national

state where a were considered the with a totalitarian body.
single ideology only truth. dictatorship that held - Traditional values of
governs all/most control over private service, respect, and
aspects of life. and public life. patriotism.
- Western ideas were
suppressed.

Terror, Secret - Security was upheld - Powers were given to - Scope was killing
Police and by a series of secret the Police to exile people and having the
Mass police agendas. those who opposed the population spy on
Surveillance: - Labour camps were Government. themselves.
The population established for those
is terrorised and who were suspected
monitored as a of anti-party behviour.
method of - Purges were common
control. to remove sources of
opposition.

Communication - All modes of media - Verbal communication - In 1936, the

and are censored. was targeted. Information and
Propaganda: All - Propaganda was not - It was impossible for Propaganda
means of as sophisticated but any Italian not to be Committee censored
communication still persuasive. exposed to Mussolini’s all forms of
are controlled by message. information.
the State.

Economic - Switched to a - One union for all - Shifted from Liberal

Controls: Communist economy. workers that the economic theories.
Government has Government - National Mobilisation
total control over controlled. Law.
the economy.

The Nazi Regime to 1939

● The Rise of the Nazi Party and Hitler in Germany and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic:

The Rise of the Nazi Party and Hitler:

● Nazi Campaign Techniques:
○ Hitler Himself: Hitler’s oral skills were crucial in raising the party’s popularity and securing new
members.
○ Violence: SA was used to harass political opponents.
○ Propaganda: Posters, newspapers and rallies spread the Nazi ideology.
○ Appeals to Fear: The Nazis exploited many Germans’ fear of communism and economic collapse.

● National Socialist German Workers’ Party:

○ IN 1920, NSDAP membership reached 3000.
○ In July 1921, Hitler became the leader of the party.
○ In September 1921, Hitler set up the paramilitary arm, known as the SA (Sturmabteilung).
■ Purpose was to protect party leaders, and later became engaged in violence against
Communists.
○ By mid-1923, NSDAP had 70,000 members and the SA 15,000.

● Rise of the Party:

○ Hitler spent the mid-1920s reorganising the party.
■ The country was divided into regions (Gaus), and each was assigned a Gauleiter, whose job
was to promote the party’s values.
○ Nazis staged impressive propaganda displays with rallies and marches.

● Seizure of Power (Machtergreifung):

○ On January 30th 1933, Hitler was made Chancellor of Germany.
○ By the end of 1933, Nazi control of the country was almost complete.
○ Nazi consolidation of power can be viewed as a legal process. However, terror and fear played an
undeniable part.
○ “Hitler did not seize power; he was jabbed into office by backstairs intrigue. Far from being inevitable,
Hitler’s success owed much to luck and even more to the bad judgement of his political opponents and
rivals.” — Allen Bullock

○ 27th Feb 1933: Reichstag building is set on fire.

■ Destroyed the debating chamber and the gilded dome.
■ Caused $1 million in damages.
 ■ Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch City Communist was arrested for the crime.
■ German citizens thought the Communists were finally starting their revolution.
■ The Nazis would encourage this idea, and Hitler persuaded Hindenburg that the Communists
were planning a violent uprising and emergency legislation was needed.
■ This legislation was the Reichstag Fire Decree, suspending the right to assembly, freedom of
speech and freedom of the press.
■ Allowed the Nazis to imprison political opponents, seize property and overrule laws and
governments.
■ Hitler published the Enabling Act (1933) which gave legislative powers to the Reich cabinet.
○ 5th March 1933: Nazis get 44% of the population’s vote.
○ 23rd March 1933: SA intimidates all remaining non-Nazi deputies. Reichstag votes to give Hitler the
right to make his own laws.
○ 26th April 1933: Hitler sets up the Gestapo.
○ 2nd May 1933: Trade unions are abolished.
○ 14th July 1933: Political parties are banned.
○ 20th June 1933: Hitler makes an agreement with the Pope - Hitler can take over political power in
Germany as long as he leaves the Church alone.
○ 19th August 1934: Hitler declares himself President, Chancellor and Head of the Army.

The Collapse of the Weimar Republic:

● Features of the Weimar:

○ President: Elected every seven years.
○ Reichstag: The Lower House; the German population selects each member.
○ Chancellor: Appointed by the President from the Reichstag.
○ Reichsrat: Each state of Germany sent a representative.
○ Article 48 (‘Suicide Clause’): In emergencies, the President could make laws without the Reichstag.
Could be used as a tool to suspend democracy.

● Creation of the Republic:

○ Ludendorff handed power to the German Parliament (Reichstag) in September 1918 to avoid the
possibility of a social revolution.
○ Germany’s Democratic Republic is born in November 1918.
○ Post-war environment was one of violence, revolution, defeat and chaos.
○ After elections in January 1919, Ebert was elected as the President and Scheidemann as the Chancellor.

● Political Weakness:
○ There were Constitutional weaknesses, such as proportional representation.
■ It was impossible for one party to gain all the power.
■ Several parties would always have to work together, attempting to form a majority in
government.
● This created an infirm government.
○ Political intrigue and party selfishness conspired to undermine the Republic.
○ Failed to bring fundamental socio-economic judicial change.
○ German people were distrustful of the WR, leaving it vulnerable to early opposition.
○ The humiliating terms of the Treaty were never forgotten and this was something Hitler capitalised on.
○ Policies were ineffective in dealing with the unemployment crisis, undermining German faith in
democracy.

● Social Problems:
○ The Republic was linked to German defeat in WW1 and the acceptance of the Treaty of Versailles, which
meant they faced backlash from German citizens.
○ Conservative Elites worked to undermine the Republic.
○ Chaos and violence challenged the authority of the Republic.
● Economic Problems - The Great Depression:
○ Provided the circumstances for the destruction of democracy in Germany.
○ Economy relied on the US → US investors sent money to Germany to make a profit on the interests
charged.
○ After the Wall Street Crash, the US economy went into freefall, and the consequences were immediate
in Germany.
○ Businesses in Germany collapsed → skyrocketing unemployment.
■ In 1932, unemployment was over six million.
○ Hyperinflation, combined with the Great Depression, meant that the Weimar Republic lost the support of
the middle class.
■ Normal living became impossible.
■ Everyone suffered from the shortages.
○ Other countries tried to protect their own economies by raising tariffs → Germany could no longer rely on
gaining funds through international trade.
○ In July 1931, Danat (one of the biggest banks in the country) went bankrupt.
■ Pople tried to remove their money from the banks → Germany lost capital.
○ Led to a political crisis that saw the demise of Germany as early as March 1930.
○ The suffering of the German people saw an increase in violence in political life.
○ Gave Hitler and the Nazis the opportunity they lacked in the stable period of the 1920s.

● Challenges for Power:

○ Spartacist Uprising:
■ The far left was known as Spartacists.
■ On December 30th, 1918, they became the Communist Party of Germany.
■ In early January, they called a general strike as a party member was dismissed.
■ This led to an attempt to seize power.
■ The Defence Minster had to call in right-wing volunteer units (Freikorps), and after a week of
fighting, the strike was called, and the leaders were murdered.

○ Kapp Putsch:
■ By 1920, the government was failing to control the Freikorps.
■ In March, Freikorps units began to fear unemployment.
■ They turned their arms against the Republic and marched on Berlin.
■ Ebert ordered General Seeckt (head of the Military (Reichswehr)) to resist the rebels. However,
Seeckt replied, “Reichswehr does not fire upon Reichswehr.”
■ They controlled the city and put Wolfgang Kapp as their leader.
■ Unable to stop the revels, the Government encouraged people not to cooperate with them.
■ Kapp soon realised he could not govern and fled.

○ Munch (Beer Hall) Putsch:

■ Nazis attempted to seize power in Bavaria on 8th November 1923.
■ Hitler burst into the place where the State Commissioner Bavaria von Kahr was speaking and
ordered everyone to join him in the attempted Putsch.
■ Von Har agreed; however, after the hostages were free, he ordered the arrest of the rebels.
■ On the 9th of November, Hitler and 2000 supporters marched to Muncish Centre, where police
met them.
● 16 Nazis and 4 police officers died.
● Hitler escaped but was later found and put on trial for treason.
● Was sentenced to prison for five years.
■ The lightness of Hitler’s sentence (eligible for parole in six months) shows the sympathy felt for
Hitler.
■ Wrote Mein Kampf in prison, detailing his youth, future plans for Germany and ideas on politics.
■ Was a significant occasion for the Nazi Party:
● Hitler realised that he could not achieve power through force, and he set out to
reorganise the party and seek power by winning the elections.
 ● Realised that the Nazis would need the support of the Army.
■ When Hitler left prison, the Nazi party was not in good shape.
● Party membership had fallen significantly as the failure of Munch Putsch and Hitler’s
imprisonment had a demoralising effect.

● Role of Hitler:
○ As a result of the Depression, Nazi votes rose rapidly.
○ Nazi membership sought radical solutions.
○ Gained gradual support from the Military.
○ Gained support from the middle class through ideas relating to a ‘strong government’.

● The Initial Consolidation of Nazi Power:

The Night of the Long Knives:

● At its establishment, the aim of the SA was to intimidate and suppress opposition groups.
● In 1930, Ernst Rohm was appointed control.
● In 1931, the SA reached 1 million, making it a potential threat to the Naxis.
● To consolidate Nazi power, Hitler needed to get rid of the threat to his control from inside his own power - the SA.
○ Hitler viewed the SA as a threat to his position as the SA wanted a second revolution where they would
get rid of traditional powers in Germany (industrialists, businessmen) - however, Hitler needed the
support of these groups.
● Hitler was convinced that Rohm should be murdered - this murder was important as the Nazis proved their
murderous streak.
○ Hitler, Himmler Goring and would devise hit lists and take people off to special facilities to kill them.
● On July 2nd, 1934, around 1000 people had been arrested, and over 400 people had been murdered without
any legal proceedings.
● By 1935, the SA had been reduced by half.

● The Nature of Nazi Ideology:

Roots of Nazi Ideology:

● A worldview that claimed to explain everything about the world.

● A racist worldview that believed that Aryans were the superior race of all human beings, to which all positive
developments in science, technology, art and architecture could be attributed.
● Other races, such as the Jews, were rungs below the Aryans in the hierarchy.
● This Aryan supremacy gave them the right to rule over all of humankind.
● The Jews were seen as inhumane beings, parasites, a threat to the world.
● This worldview claimed to be scientific.
○ Christian Anti-Judaism → An attack on Jewish beliefs. Jewish people were accused of rejecting and
killing the messiah God had sent. They were also accused of being in league with the Devil. This
Anti-Jew perception left an imprint on European society, which the Nazis used to their advantage.
○ Social Sciences (Social Darwinism) → Herbert Spencer argued for the survival of the fittest in the
human order. The strong must rule, and the weak must submit.
○ Modern Racism (Eugenics) → Francis Galton had developed the idea that society should promote the
propagation of certain desirable traits, promoting procreation between people who had desirable traits
and limiting it between people who had undesirable traits. The Nazis seized upon these ideas on the
basis to subjugate, persecute and destroy various kinds of people.
○ Modern Anti-Semitism → The developments in these fields impacted European attitudes towards
Jews. Jews were perceived as strangers in society, bearers of a foreign language, culture and religion.
The Jews were seen as an evil and destructive race, and their integration into society should be stopped
and reversed.
 ● Building the Nazi Society:

● The Role of Prominent Individuals in the Nazi State:

Nature of Nazi Leadership:

Prominent Individuals:

● Heinrich Himmler:
○ Known as “the second most powerful man after Hitler.”
○ Changed the trajectory of the SS by putting out racial guardianship schemes that tested men and their
fiancées to ensure they were entirely German.
■ Ensured that the desire for Aryan supremacy started from the Nazi soldiers.
○ Himmler was promoted to spread his control throughout state police departments and amalgamate them
into the State Secret Police.
■ Gestapo was infamous for upholding the regime’s political and racial aims.
○ Was the mastermind behind the Concentration Camp System - he was authorised to create a centralised
concentration camp system after creating a perfect basis, Dachau Camp.
■ By creating the ‘Final Solution’, Himmler alone was responsible for the deaths of the Jews,
political prisoners, homosexuals and prisoners-of-war.
■ Responsible for the death of 6 million Jews.

● Hermann Goering:
○ Highest ranking Nazi official.
○ Commander in Chief of the German Air Force and later, as Hitler’s successor.
○ Mobilised all sectors of the economy for the War, bringing numerous government agencies under his
control.
○ Founded the Gestapo in 1933.
 ○ Was the head of the Four Year Plan in 1940 and made huge expenditures on rearmament.
○ Pushed for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich as Austria had rich iron ore deposits.
■ The Nazi Party was made legal in Austria.
○ Going into WW2, Goering was made the chairman of the Council of Ministers for Defence of the Reich.
■ Big German victories followed one after the other in quick succession.

● Joseph Goebbels:
○ Had an interest in speaking and writing.
○ Was the Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany and one of Hitler’s closest associates.
○ Under his leadership, the Propaganda Ministry gained and exerted complete control over the news,
media, art and information.
○ Edited The Attack (Der Angriff) to promote German nationalism.
○ Became one of NSDAP’s most important speakers.
○ “In public speaking, he showed himself, with his deep, booming voice, to be almost the equal of Hitler. At
mass meetings and demonstrations, he hurled sarcasm and insults at the Berlin city government,
Communists and Jews. The little man with the long nose and glittering eyes, always wearing a trench
coat too big for him, won attention for himself, for Hitler, and the party.” — Louis Snyder
○ Realised the importance of propaganda in attracting people and became the party’s Propaganda and
Public Enlightenment Leader in 1933.
○ Exploited the Reichstag Fire, Potsdam Day and book burning to consolidate Nazi power.
○ Hitler’s views of Goebbels were that he created a unified organisation.
○ Created the Reich Film Chamber, making the pre-censorship of scripts mandatory.
○ Built up hatred towards the Allies in WW2.
○ Wanted to preserve German culture by forbidding Jews to enter theatres, movie houses and circuses.

● The relationship between Himmler, Goering and Goebbels was difficult. They held each other in contempt and
were rivals.

● Albert Speer:
○ Used his architectural talents to climb up the ranks.
○ Cleverly used huge Nazi flags to indicate the power of the Nazis in Germany.
○ In 1937, Speer was given total control over the redesign of Berlin - he designed an assembly hall that
would cater to 180,000 people and a ‘Street of Magnificence’.
○ He was appointed the Minister of Armaments at the start of WW2 and centralised all power in production
factories to himself.
○ Created the Ruin Value Theory → a building should be designed so that if it did collapse, it would leave
behind aesthetic ruins.

● The Various Methods used by the Nazi Regime to Exercise Control (Laws, Censorship, Repression,
Terror, Propaganda and Cult of Personality)

Laws:
● In April 1933, the Aryan Clause became a law, leading to the dismissal of Jewish servants, academics and
teachers.
● In April 1933, the Law Against the Overcrowding of German Schools fixed a general limit of 1.5% of a school’s
population of Jews.
● The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour banned extra-marital intercourse between
Jews and Germans.
● The Reich Citizenship Law stripped those who were not considered to be German of their citizenship.
● Reichstag Fire Decree.

Censorship:

● Involved the eradication of anything critical being spoken or written of Hitler or the Nazi party.
● Nazi student organisations, lecturers, professors and librarians were to compile a list of books to be banned.
 ● On May 10th, 1933, Nazis raided libraries and collected all copies of books on the banned list and threw them
into fires lit on the streets.

Repression:
● The act of subduing someone/something by force.
● The SA fought the Nazi’s street battles.
● The Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and the State (1933) was the legal basis for the
oppression of traitors to the republic.
● “Whatever the way in which denunciation occurred, it was obviously dangerous to speak freely in public; people
could never be sure who was listening. It was the unpredictability of denunciation, rather than its frequency, that
mattered. It caused people to believe that agents of the Gestapo, paid or unpaid, were everywhere, and that the
police knew everything that was going on … What counted was not whether or not there really were informers
everywhere, but the fact that people thought there were.” — Richard Evans, The Third Reich in Power.

Terror:
● Extreme fear.
● Intimidation towards the general population was implemented through paramilitary forces such as the SA, the SS
and the Gestapo.

● The SA → Ran a violent campaign of terror against opponents, making them terrified of voting.
○ Intimidated opponents by violence, bashing and torturing Communists and other groups who posed a
threat.
● The SS → Carried out all security-related duties. Staffed by men who perceived themselves to be the racial elite.
Protected Germany from internal and external enemies through illegal methods of control.
● Concentration Camps → One of Hitler’s main goals was to “settle the Jewish problem”. They were an effective
method of control as the knowledge of these camps soon became public and intimidated German society. The
 fear of being sent to the Camps for ‘crimes’ including writing anti-Nazi graffiti, possessing a banned book or
saying that a business was bad was powerful.
● Gestapo → Dealt with enemies of the State. Used brutal methods and had a reputation for ruthlessness. Their
goal was to terrorise a maximum amount of people with minimum effort. They tapped phones, intercepted mail
and used torture to extract information. This control method was effective as the Nazis were able to create a
terror state backed up by significant consequences.

Propaganda:
● “It is the task of state propaganda… to simplify complicated ways of thinking that even the smallest man in the
street can understand.” — Joseph Goebbels, Speech.
● Propaganda aimed to have people capitulate to the Nazi regime and to unite the nation.
● The Nazi party were a constant presence in the life of the German people through → the Swastika symbol, which
appeared on every government uniform and public building, pictures of Hitler everywhere and Germans having
to greet each other with Heil Hitler.
● Nazis deployed propaganda to denigrate their opponents, indoctrinate, enforce conformity, and project their
ideology.
● Posters were simple and inexpensive, using dramatic images and giant lettering to offer the audience a simplistic
alternative.
● Newspapers were less exploitable as the Nazi program could not be translated to a literate audience.
○ The Editors Law (1933) called for racially pure journalism, and all Jewish and socialist journalists were
fired.
● Radio broadcasts could command authority and established intimacy between the Fuhrer and the people. As
other forms of communication declined during WW2, the radio became the principal means of contact between
leadership and people.
● Film allowed Nazism an ideal medium to propagate its ideology. The excitement of the big screen viewed by a
mass audience was exploited by a regime that championed dynamism, unity, violence and revolution. They
played a big role in the dehumanisation of the Jewish. Goebbels’ Jud Suss (1940) was effective in reinforcing
anti-Semetic prejudices.
● Music was used to rouse passion and soothe fears.
● Goebbels and Hitler created a guide to propaganda → repetition, simplicity, contempt, emotion, masses, lying,
marginalisation and single view.

Source Analysis

Poster for the Anti-Semitic Museum

● Poster that marginalises the Jewish community,

portraying them in a negative light (Communists,
moneylenders).

1932 Issue of Anti-Semitic Newspaper

● Explicitly presents that Jewish people are the enemies

of the Germans.
● Places the blame for disruptions in the social order on
Jewish people.

Poster, “Yes! Leader, We Follow You!”

● Displays Hitler as the saviour of the nation and as the

embodiment of the national will.
● Increases the popularity of the Nazi regime.
 Poster, “Youth Serves the Leader”

● The youth should be dedicated to Hitler.

● A sense of community is formed around Hitler’s ideals.

Cult of Personality:
● Hitler was believed to have cured the Depression, removed the Treaty of Versailles, restored law and order and
sacrificed his joy for the nation.

● The Impact of the Nazi Regime on Life in Germany (Cultural Expression, Religion, Workers, Youth,
Women and Minorities, including Jews):

Cultural Expression:

● “We will, from now on, lead an unrelenting war of purification, and unrelenting war of extermination, against the
last elements that have displaced our Art.” — Hitler, 1937.
● Goebbels took control of artistic expression in Germany by creating the Reich Chamber of Culture.
● Hitler demanded that art should be traditional and German.
○ Modernist and abstract styles were not accepted.
Religion:
● Germany was primarily Christian when the Nazis rose to power.
● In 1933, Germany had 45 million Protestant Christians, 22 million Catholic Christians and 500,000 Jews.
● Nazis saw religion as a threat to their total power.
● Christian Churches played an integral role pre-Nazi society.
○ Catholic political parties, youth groups and social events.
● The Reich Protestant Church took symbols of Nazism → pastors delivered sermons in SS uniforms, and the
swastika was hung in the church.
● Nazis meddled in Catholic organisations, banned their newspapers and attempted to integrate the church with
Nazi ideals.
● In 1936, Catholic children were pressured into joining the Nazi Youth Group instead of the Catholic one.

Workers:
● On the 2nd of May, 1933, all trade unions were removed, their funds were seized, and their leaders were
arrested.
● Workers were indispensable for the achievement of the goal of Lebensraum.
● Germany’s armed forces had to grow, and this could only be done with men from the working class.
● Military supplies would need to be supplied by German workers.
● The Nazis reduced unemployment through the National Labour Service, where all young men aged 18-25 had to
join for six months as paid work to help Germany. They were given jobs such as building schools, and hospitals
or planting trees.
● Strength Through Joy provided affordable leisure activities for workers → workers could go on luxury holidays, 7
million people took part in sports events, free classes were offered in cookery.

Youth:
● Youth were trained to become the future through comradeship, pride, patriotism and strength.
● “In our eyes, the German youth of the future must be slim and slender, swift as a greyhound, tough as leather,
and hard as Krupp steel. We must educate a new type of man.” — Hitler, Nuremberg Rally.
● The aim for boys was to provide physical training for the military and brainwashing in regard to Nazi ideology.
○ Marching, camping, hiking, swimming, boxing, military drills and rifle shooting.
○ Had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler to prepare them to become future soldiers.
● The aim for girls was to prepare for their lives as wives and mothers.
○ Enhance fitness, create healthy bodies for babies, cooking, ironing and sewing.
○ They had to understand the importance of marrying an Aryan man.
● Indoctrinated through lengthy speeches from Youth leaders.
● By early 1939, 7.28 young Germans took part in youth organisations. However, 1.6 million still refused to join.
● Nazis used the education system to control the learning of young people.
● Education was ‘Nazified’, and most teachers supported Nazism.
○ All teachers had to join the Nazi Teachers Alliance (97% joined) and had to teach the Nazi curriculum.

Women:
● “Women’s ovaries… a national resource and property of the German state.” — Professor Wagner.
● The Law for the Encouragement of Marriage (1933) bribed women to produce children. Aryan couples would
receive 1000 Reichsmarks as a loan from the government. For every child they had, 25% of the loan did not
 have to be paid back.
● The Mother’s Cross was given to women who had children → bronze was four children, silver was six children,
and gold was eight children.
● The 1938 birthrate was approximately the same as the one for 1926.
● Encouraged to devote themselves to Children, Kitchen, and Church (Kinder, Kuche, Kirche).

Minorities, including Jews:

● The persecution of minorities occurred as they were believed to be racially impure and a threat to Aryan
Germans.
○ Jews → Always the main target of Nazi persecution.
○ Roma and Sinti → Their mixed race and nomad lifestyle made them a double target. They were
considered racially impure and unproductive.
○ Mentally Ill → Considered a threat to Aryan supremacy.
○ Homosexuals → Had to wear a pink identification badge in the Concentration Camps.

● Concentration Camp System:

○ March 1933, one of the first camps is established in Dachau.
○ Through the 1930s, the Camps expanded, and so did the range of prisoners.

● Opposition to the Nazi Regime:

● Took forms ranging from general discontent to political activism.

● Between 1933 to 1944, there were a dozen assassination attempts on Hitler’s life.
● There was little opposition as most Germans supported the regime due to decisive leadership and economic
success.
○ Most people did not know what was going on due to censorship of the media.
○ People were terrified of the Gestapo and the SS.
○ There was no organised group of opposition.
○ Propaganda was effective in keeping the support of the party.
● Nazi methods of control were effective in dissuading anyone from opposing the regime.

● Main Groups of Opposition:

○ Left-Wing Groups: The German Communist Party formed underground organisations that printed and
distributed anti-Nazi leaflets and newspapers.
■ The German Communist Party resisted the regime more overtly by forming underground
opposition and attempting to sway workers by infiltrating the German Labour Force.
○ Youth Groups: Most youths who joined these groups rejected the pressure of joining the Hitler Youth.
They rejected conformity, opposed the totalitarian state and engaged in protest against Nazism.
■ The Edelweiss Pirates rejected the militarism of the Hitler Youth and would engage in physical
altercations with Hitler Youth patrols. One of their slogans was - “Eternal war on the Hitler
Youth!”.
■ These groups were more of a nuisance rather than a major threat to the regime.
 ○ The Church: Hitler needed the initial support of the Church to pass the Enabling Act. A concordat was
negotiated - the Church would lose its political influence but would be able to retain its independence
and freedom of worship. Hitler, however, violated this concordat. Protestant Churches were absorbed
into Nazi Reich Churches. While some individuals stood up against the regime, most Catholics and
Protestants were conflicted. Unless it affected the interests of the Church or its teachings, both Churches
did not protest.
○ Conservative Elites: Aristocratic families which opposed Hitler as they believed he would be a
catastrophe for the nation.

The Search for Peace and Security in the World

● An Overview of the Search for Peace and Security 1919–1946:

○ The Ambitions of Germany in Europe and Japan in the Asia-Pacific:

○ The Intentions and Authority of the League of Nations and the UN:

Post-War Challenges:
● Nationalism and self-determination.
● The humiliation of Germany.
● Collapse of the Allied unity.
● Divided Middle East.

League of Nations:
● Successes include:
○ Settling a dispute between Finland and Sweden in 1920.
○ Helping avoid a war in Greece and Bulgaria in 1925.
○ Helping in creating a Refugee Organisation, a Health Organisation and the International
Labour Divison.

● Weaknesses include:
 ○ Members did not always agree with each other.
○ Lacked a military force.
○ Lacked major powers.
○ Japanese Invasion of Manchuria:
■ The LoN took no action except criticism of Japan. Japan left the LoN two years
later.
○ Mussolini’s Invasion of Abyssinia:
■ LoN attempted to publicly condemn Italy. However, Britain and France did not
want to push too hard as they feared Mussolini forming an alliance with Italy.
○ LoN’s lack of security failed to solve international disputes.

Birth of the UN:

● The UN was created on the 1st of January 1942 with 26 member nations to create a world
where men in all lands could live in freedom from fear.
● On the 7th of October, 1944, representatives from China, Britain, the USSR and the US met to
put together a proposal for the structure of the world organisation.
○ They proposed four bodies → General Assembly, Security Council, International Court
of Justice and the Secretariat.
● In 1945, 46 nations were invited to the San Fransisco Conference.
● The organisation came into existence on the 24th of October, 1945.

Intentions and Authority of the UN:

● The intentions of the UN were to → maintain international peace and security, take effective
measures for the prevention and removal of threats, develop friendly relations between nations
based on the principle of equal rights, achieve international cooperation in solving economic,
social and cultural problems and be the centre for harmonising actions of nations.
● The UN sought to overcome the weaknesses faced by the LoN.
○ League lacked the authority to enforce its decisions as it didn’t have military power.
○ To overcome this, all member nations of the UN made available to the Security Council
the necessary armed forces.
● In its early years, the UN had to operate during the Cold War.

Power and Authority on the UN:

● Tensions between the US and Russia increased after 1954 - for which the UN’s effectiveness
was limited.
● Despite these problems, the UN still had some early achievements:
○ A full-scale war between Jews and Arabs was bought to an end by the UN Mediator, Dr
Ralph Bunche.
● There were efforts to control the development of atomic power and weaponry, however, Cold
War tensions ensured that these efforts had little chances of success.