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Cell Modifications

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. For it to cater its other tasks and functions the cell has to
undergo modification. Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is a process that occurs after cell
division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can perform their function
efficiently and effectively.

Types and Examples of Cell Modifications

1. Apical Modification

 A type of cell modification that is found on the

apical surface of the cell

Pseudopods

 These are temporary, irregular lobes formed

by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells.

 Bulge outward to move the cell in order to

engulf the prey

Cilia and Flagella

 Cilia are usually short, hair – like Structures that

move in waves

 Flagella are long whiplike structures

 Formed from microtubules

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Villi and Microvilli

 These are finger-like projections

that arise from the epithelial layer
in some organs.

 They help to increase surface area

for faster and more efficient
adsorption

 Microvilli are smaller projections

 They arise from the cell’s surface that also increase surface area allowing faster and more efficient
absorption

Extra-Cellular Matrix (ECM)

 It is a compound secreted by the cell on

its apical surface

 Cell wall is the extra cellular structure in

plant cells that distinguishes them from
animal cells

 Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of

ECM in animal cells

2. Lateral Modification

 A type of cell modification that is found

on the basal surface of the cell

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Gap Junction

 It is also known as communicating junctions

 Closable channels that connect the cytoplasm

of adjoining animal cells

Tight Junction

 It acts as barriers that regulate the

movement of water and solutes between
epithelial layers

 It prevents leakage of the ECF

Adhering Junction

 It anchors junction on the lateral surface of

the cell

 It is similar to the anchoring junction of the

basal surface of the cell

3. Basal Modification

 A type of modification that is found

on the basal surface of the cell

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Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes

 The anchoring junction on the Basal surface of

the cell

 Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and

Extracellular matrix components such as the
basal lamina that underlie epithelia

 Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and

cadherins

The cell has three types of modification: namely apical modification, lateral modification and basal
modification. Apical modification occurs at the top part of the cell. Examples of these are the microvilli, cilia,
stereocilia and flagella. Lateral modification happens at the sides of the cell. The tight junction, adhering
junction, gap junctions, desmosomes are the good example of it. Basal modification occurs at the bottom part
of the cell. The basal folding and hemidesmosomes are the best examples of this type of modification. Other
specialized modifications include the development of a nerve cells, muscle cells, red blood cells and sperm
cells. In plants, some identified specialized cells include the root hairs and the guard cells.

Specialized Animal Cell

Animal cells are specialized in many ways. Red blood cells are specialized to transport oxygen. Cells
specialized to produce proteins are found in the pancreas. Pancreatic cells also possess large number of other
organelles needed for protein export, including a well-developed golgi apparatus and clusters of storage
vacuoles loaded with enzymes.
The human ability to move is the result of the specialized structure of muscle cells. Skeletal muscle
cells are packed with fibers arranged in a tight, regular pattern.

Specialized Plant Cell

The guard cell is an example of a specialized plant cell. It monitors the plant internal condition,
changing their shape according to those conditions.

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Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a repeating sequence of cellular growth and division during the life of an organism. A
cell spends 90 percent of its time in the first three phases of the cycle, which are collectively called interphase.
A cell will enter the last two phases of the cell cycle only if it is about to divide. The five phases of the cell cycle
are summarized below:

1. First growth (G1) phase. During the G1 phase, a cell grows rapidly and carries out its routine functions. For
most organisms, this phase occupies the major portion of the cell’s life. Cells that are not dividing remain in
the G1 phase. Some somatic cells, such as most muscle and nerve cells, never divide. Therefore, if these cells
die, the body cannot replace them.

2. Synthesis (S) phase. A cell’s DNA is copied during this phase. At the end of this phase, each chromosome
consists of two chromatids attached at the centromere.

3. Second growth (G2) phase. In the G2 phase, preparations are made for the nucleus to divide. Hollow protein
fibers called microtubules are rearranged during G2 in preparation for mitosis.

4. Mitosis. The process during cell division in which the nucleus of a cell is divided into two nuclei is called
mitosis. Each nucleus ends up with the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the original cell.

5. Cytokinesis. The process during cell division in which the cytoplasm divides is called cytokinesis.

Control of the Cell Cycle

If a cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase, how do cells “know” when to divided? How is the
cycle controlled? Just as traffic lights control the flow of traffic, cells have a system that controls the phases of
the cell cycle. Cells have a set of “red light-green light” switches that are regulated by feedback information
from the cell. The cell cycle has key checkpoints (inspection points) at which feedback signals from the cell can
trigger the next phase of the cell cycle (green light). Other feedback signals can delay the next phase to allow
for completion of the current phase (yellow or red light).

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1. Cell growth (G1) checkpoint. This checkpoint makes the decision of whether the cell will divide. If
conditions are favorable for division and the cell is healthy and large enough, certain proteins will stimulate
the cell to begin the synthesis (S) phase. During the S phase, the cell will copy its DNA. If conditions are not
favorable, cells can typically stop the cell cycle at this checkpoint. The cell cycle will also stop at this checkpoint
if the cell needs to pass into a resting period. Certain cells, such as some nerve and muscle cells, remain in this
resting period permanently and never divide.

2. DNA synthesis (G2) checkpoint. DNA replication is checked at this point by DNA repair enzymes. If this
checkpoint is passed, proteins help to trigger mitosis. The cell begins the many molecular processes that are
needed to proceed into mitosis.

3. Mitosis checkpoint. This checkpoint triggers the exit from mitosis. It signals the beginning of the G1 phase,
the major growth period of the cell cycle.

When Control Is Lost: Cancer

Certain genes contain the information necessary to make the proteins that regulate cell growth and
division. If one of these genes is mutated, the protein may not function, and regulation of cell growth and
division can be disrupted. Cancer, the uncontrolled growth of cells, may result. Cancer is essentially a disorder
of cell division. Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms.

Some mutations cause cancer by over-producing growth-promoting molecules, thus speeding up the
cell cycle. Others cause cancer by inactivating the control proteins that normally act to slow or stop the cell
cycle

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