Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition

Chapter 3

Cells and Tissues

Edited by ISD- Anatomy & Physiology

Faculty in October 2022

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Objectives
1. Define a generalized cell and identify the three major
cell regions.
2. Describe the chemical composition of plasma
membrane and relate it to membrane functions.
3. Describe the nucleus in detail.
4. Identify and describe the organelles of a cell and
indicate the function of each
5. Define cell diversity and explain it by giving examples.

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Objectives
6. Define selective permeability of plasma membrane
and state the difference between active and passive
transport across plasma membrane.

7. Discuss the mechanisms used to move substances

back and forth across a plasma membrane including
diffusion (simple and facilitated diffusion and osmosis),
filtration, active transport, solute pumping, exocytosis,
endocytosis, phagocytosis and pinocytosis

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 Objectives

8. Name the four major tissue types and their chief

categories.
9. Explain how the four major tissue types differ
structurally and functionally.
10.Give the chief locations of the various tissue types in
the body.
11.Describe the process of tissue repair (wound healing)

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Part : Cells
One

• Cells are the structural units of all living things.

• The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells.
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
organisms
• Cells are about 60% water

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 Anatomy of a Generalized Cell

In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:

1. Plasma membrane

2. Nucleus

3. Cytoplasm

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Figure 3.3a Anatomy of the Generalized Animal Cell Nucleus

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 The Plasma Membrane
• Transparent barrier that contains cell contents and
separates them from surrounding environment.
• It regulates the transport of substances into and out of
the cell (selectively permeable)
• Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
– Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
– Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the
phospholipids
– Sugars: attached to lipids forming glycolipids
which are attached to the extracellular portion of
the membrane.
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Figure 3.1 Structure of the Plasma Membrane

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• Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma
membrane
– Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads”
are oriented on the inner and outer surfaces of
the membrane
– Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar
“tails” form the center (interior) of the
membrane
▪This interior makes the plasma
membrane relatively impermeable to
most water-soluble molecules

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Role of proteins
– Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
▪Enzymes
▪Receptors for hormones or other chemical
messengers (neurotransmitters) for signal
transduction.
▪Transport as channels or carriers
▪Cell-to-cell interaction (joining or recognition)

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The Nucleus
• The largest cell organelle .
• Control center of the cell. It contains genetic material
known as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. It is
responsible for transmitting the genetic information.
• DNA has genes which have all the instructions for
building the whole body. It is needed for building
proteins and cell reproduction (division).
• Three regions of nucleus:
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
2. Nucleolus
3. Chromatin
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Figure 3.3b Anatomy of the Generalized Animal Cell Nucleus

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Nuclear envelope (membrane)
– Consists of a double membrane that bounds
the nucleus.
– The outer membrane is continuous with
endoplasmic reticulum.

– Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange

of material with the rest of the cell

– Encloses the jellylike fluid called the

nucleoplasm

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• Nucleolus
– Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli which are sites of
ribosome assembly.
– Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of protein synthesis

• Chromatin
– Threadlike material which is composed of DNA wound around
histones (proteins)
– Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when the cell
is not dividing.
– When the cell divides, chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes.

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 The Cytoplasm
• It is the cellular material outside the nucleus and
inside the plasma membrane.
• Site of most cellular activities.
• Three major components of the cytoplasm:
1. Cytosol: fluid that suspends other elements and
contains nutrients and electrolytes.
2. Inclusions: chemical substances, such as stored
nutrients (such as lipid droplets) or cell
products, that float in the cytosol.
3. Organelles: metabolic machinery of the cell that
perform functions for the cell.
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Figure 3.4 Structure of the Generalized Cell

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Mitochondria
– “Powerhouses” of the cell
– Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane
(inner and outer membrane).
– Inner membrane folded into projections called cristae.
– Carry out reactions (aerobic respiration) in which
oxygen is used to break down food into ATP
molecules
– Metabolically active cells such as liver and muscle
cells have large number of mitochondria whereas
relatively inactive cells like an unfertilized egg cell
has fewer mitochondria

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Ribosomes
– Made of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– Sites of protein synthesis in the cell

– They are found at two locations:

▪Free in the cytoplasm
▪Attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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 21

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

– Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry substances
(mainly proteins) within the cell
– Continuous with the nuclear membrane
– Two types: Rough ER and Smooth ER

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

▪Studded with ribosomes
▪Synthesizes proteins and phospholipids which are
transported to other areas of cells in small sacs of
membrane called transport vesicles
▪Abundant in cells that make and export proteins
(such as pancreatic cells)
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Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a Protein by the Rough ER

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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
▪Lacks ribosomes
▪Site of lipid and steroid (cholesterol)
synthesis, lipid metabolism and
detoxification of drugs and pesticides
▪Found in abundance in liver cells and cells
making steroid- based hormones such as
sex hormones (ovaries and testes)

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Golgi Apparatus
– Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
– Function: modifies and packages proteins arriving
from the rough ER via transport vesicles

– Produces different types of packages:

▪Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
▪In-house proteins and phospholipids (pathway
2)
▪Lysosomes (digestive enzymes) (pathway 3)

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Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi Apparatus in Packaging
the Products of the Rough E R

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Lysosomes (stomach of the cell)
– Membranous sacs that contain powerful digestive
enzymes (hydrolases) which have been
previously made by rough ER and packaged by
golgi apparatus.

– Site of intracellular digestion.

– Digestive enzymes can digest worn-out or
nonusable cell structures

– Especially abundant in white blood cells called

phagocytes that dispose bacteria and cell debris

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Figure 3.4 Structure of the Generalized Cell

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Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase and catalase
enzymes
▪Detoxify harmful and toxic substances such as
alcohol, formaldehyde, and free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals) such as (HO) hydroxyl.
▪Break down free radicals
▪Catalase (peroxidase) breakdown free radicals
and convert them to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
and then to water (H2O).
▪Numerous in liver and kidney cells which are
active in detoxification.

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Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell with an internal framework
that determines cell shape, supports
organelles, and provides the machinery for
intracellular transport
– Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules

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• Microtubules: made of tubulin proteins. They
support the cell and give it shape. Form centrioles,
cilia and flagella.

• Microfilaments: made of actin proteins. Involved in

muscle contraction, help form the cytoskeleton and
microvilli.

• Intermediate filaments: help form the

cytoskeleton. Stable cytoskeletal elements. They
resist mechanical forces acting on the cell.

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Centrosome
• The centrosome is made up of two hollow cylinders
called centrioles
• Each centriole is a rod-shaped body made of nine
triplets of microtubules
Function:
• They generate microtubules
• They direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division

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Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function
For Self study and Revision

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 Cell Extensions
• Surface extensions found in some cells:
a) Cilia: are whiplike extensions that move materials
across the cell surface. Made by microtubules from
the centrioles.
-Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
b) Flagella: they are longer extensions made by
microtubules from the centrioles. They propel the
cell.
-The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
c) Microvilli: are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the
plasma membrane. They increase surface area for
absorption (small Intestine)
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 Cell Diversity
• The human body houses over 200 different cell types
• Cells vary in size, shape, and function
• Cell shape reflects its specialized function
1. Cells that connect body parts:
– Fibroblast: secretes cable-like protein fibers
– Erythrocyte (red blood cell): carries oxygen in the
bloodstream

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2. Cells that cover and line body organs
– Epithelial cells:
▪Packed together in sheets
▪Intermediate fibers resist tearing during
rubbing or pulling

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3. Cell that stores nutrients
– Fat cells: lipid droplets
stored in cytoplasm

4. Cell that fights disease

– White blood cells, such as
the macrophage: digests
infectious microorganisms

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 Membrane Transport
• Solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more
components:

a) Solvent: dissolving medium present in the

larger quantity; the body’s main solvent is
water
b) Solutes: components in smaller quantities
within a solution such as sugar and
electrolytes.

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• Intracellular fluid
– Nucleoplasm and cytosol
– Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts
dissolved in water

• Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid/Tissue Fluid)

– Fluid on the exterior of the cell
– Contains thousands of ingredients, such as
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts,
waste products

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• The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable
barrier as some materials can pass through, while
others are excluded. For example, nutrients can enter
the cell while undesirable substances are kept out

• Two basic methods of transport

a) Passive processes: substances are transported
across the membrane without any energy input
(ATP) from the cell
b) Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic
energy (ATP) to drive the transport process

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 A&P Flix™: Membrane Transport

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/
apf-membrane-transport

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Passive processes: diffusion and filtration
a) Diffusion
▪Molecule movement is from high
concentration to low concentration, down a
concentration gradient
▪Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
▪Size of the molecule and temperature affect
the speed of diffusion

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• Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the
following applies:
– The molecules are small enough to pass through
the membrane’s pores
– The molecules are lipid-soluble
– The molecules are assisted by a membrane
carrier

Figure 3.9 Diffusion

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Types of diffusion

1) Simple diffusion
▪Unassisted
movement of solutes
▪Solutes are lipid-
soluble or small
enough to pass
through membrane
pores

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2) Osmosis
– It is simple diffusion of water
across a selectively
permeable membrane
– Water molecules easily cross
the plasma membrane
through aquaporins (special
protein channels)
– Water moves down its
concentration gradient

Figure 3.10b Diffusion Through the

Plasma Membrane

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Osmosis—A Closer Look
a) Isotonic solutions have the
same solute and water
concentrations as cells; cells
gain and lose water at the
same rate
b) Hypertonic solutions
contain more solutes than the
cells do; water is drawn out of
the cell shrink
c) Hypotonic solutions contain
fewer solutes (more water)
than the cells do; water is
drawn into the cell swell
and rapture A Closer Look 3.1 IV
Therapy and Cellular
“Tonics”
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

3) Facilitated diffusion
▪Transports lipid-insoluble substances
(water-soluble such as glucose), charged
substances (ions), and substances too large
for passage through membrane pores

▪Examples of substances that move by

facilitated diffusion–glucose (via carrier
proteins) and chloride ions (via protein
channels).

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Figure 3.10c d Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane

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Passive processes
b) Filtration
▪Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by hydrostatic (fluid) pressure
▪A pressure gradient must exist that
pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from
a high-pressure area to a lower-pressure
area
▪Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work
properly

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Active processes
– ATP is used to move substances across a
membrane
– Active processes are used when:
▪Substances are too large to travel through
membrane channels
▪The membrane may lack special protein
carriers for the transport of certain
substances
▪Substances may not be lipid-soluble
▪Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient (low high)

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
– Two most important types are active transport
and vesicular transport

1. Active transport
▪Amino acids, some sugars, and ions
are transported by protein carriers known
as solute pumps
▪ATP energizes solute pumps
▪In most cases, substances are moved
against concentration gradients

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• Active transport example: sodium-potassium
pump
– Necessary for nerve impulses
– Sodium and potassium are pumped against
their concentration gradients
– Sodium is transported (pumped) from inside
the cell where its concentration is low to the
outside of the cell where there is high
concentration of sodium with the help of ATP
– Potassium is transported (pumped) into the
cell in the same manner.

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Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-Potassium Pump, a
Solute Pump

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• Active processes
2. Vesicular transport:
– Substances are moved across the membrane
“in bulk” via vesicles; without actually crossing
the plasma membrane directly

– Types of vesicular transport

a) Exocytosis
b) Endocytosis
–Phagocytosis
–Pinocytosis

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a) Exocytosis

– Used to actively secrete hormones, mucus,

and other products outside the cell.
– Material is carried in a membranous sac called
a vesicle that migrates to and combines with
the plasma membrane
– Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
– Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6

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Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi Apparatus in Packaging
the Products of the Rough E R

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a) Endocytosis
1. Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed)
in a membranous vesicle
2. Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane
and moves into the cell
3. Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a
lysosome. Contents are digested by lysosomal
enzymes release content in cytosol
4. In some cases, the vesicle is released by
exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell
5. Membranes and receptors, if present, are
recycled to plasma membrane

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
Types of endocytosis
a) Phagocytosis—“cell eating
-Cell engulfs large particles such
as bacteria or dead body cells
-Pseudopods are cytoplasmic
extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria or
dead body cells) from external
environment
-Phagocytosis is a protective
mechanism, not a means of Figure 3.13b Events and
getting nutrients Types of Endocytosis

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Types of endocytosis

b) Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
▪ Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid
containing dissolved proteins or fats
▪ Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges fuse
around droplet of fluid
▪ Routine activity for most cells, such as those
involved in absorption (small intestine)

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Figure 3.13a Events and Types of Endocytosis

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Types of endocytosis

c) Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
▪Method for taking up
specific target molecules
▪Receptor proteins on the
membrane surface bind
only certain substances
▪Highly selective process
of taking in substances
such as enzymes, some Figure 3.13c Events and
hormones, cholesterol, Types of Endocytosis
and iron

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 Body Tissues

• Groups of cells that are similar in structure and

function are called tissues.

There are four major tissue types

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Nervous tissue
4. Muscle Tissue

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• Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:
– Cover and line body surfaces
– Often form sheets with one free surface
(apical surface) and an anchored surface
(basement membrane)
– Avascular (no blood supply)
– Regenerates easily if well nourished

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 Epithelial Tissue
• Locations:
– Body coverings
– Body linings
– Glandular tissue
• Functions:
– Protection
– Absorption
– Filtration
– Secretion

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Classification of Epithelial Tissue

– Number of cell layers

▪Simple—one layer
▪Stratified—more than one layer

– Shape of cells
▪Squamous—flattened, like fish scales
▪Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
▪Columnar—shaped like columns

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 Simple Epithelial Tissue

– Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration

– Very thin (so not suited for protection)

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 Simple Squamous Epithelium

– Single layer of flat cells.

– Locations—usually forms membranes

▪Lines air sacs of the lungs
▪Forms walls of capillaries
▪Forms serous membranes that line and
cover organs in ventral cavity (?)

– Function: filtration or diffusion

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 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
– Single layer of cubelike
cells

– Locations
▪Common in glands
and their ducts
▪Forms walls of
kidney tubules
▪Covers the surface
of ovaries

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 Simple Columnar Epithelium
– Single layer of tall cells
▪Goblet cells secrete mucus

– Locations
▪Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to
anus
▪Epithelial membranes mucous
membranes (mucosae) line body cavities
opening to the body exterior such as anus.

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
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 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
– All cells rest on a basement membrane
– Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
others and their nuclei appear at different
heights above the basement membrane. As a
result, this epithelium gives a false (pseudo)
impression that it is stratified (hence its name).

– Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated

and known as pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium. Goblet cells produce
mucus that catch/trap dust and debris, and cilia
propel the mucus upward and away from the
lungs.
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 Stratified Epithelial Tissue
– Consist of two or more cell layers
– Function primarily in protection

• Stratified Squamous Epithelium

– Most common stratified epithelium in the body.
– Consists of many cell layers

– Named for cells present at the free (apical)

surface, which are squamous. Whereas cells
close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or
columnar.
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– Functions as a protective covering where
friction is common

– Locations—lining of the:
▪Skin (outer portion/layer) – keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium

▪Mouth, esophagus and vagina– Non-

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

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Non-keratinized

Skin - Keratinized
Stratified Squamous
Epithelium

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• Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of
cuboidal cells

• Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells

are columnar, and cells underneath vary in size
and shape

• Stratified cuboidal and columnar

– Rare in human body
– Found mainly in ducts of large glands

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 Transitional Epithelium

– Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium

– Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal or columnar while
those at the free surface vary in appearance.
– Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching.
➢ When the organ is not stretched: many layers, and
superficial cells are rounded and domelike.
➢ When the organ distended with urine: membrane
stretched. The surface cells flattened and become
squamous like. Number of layers become less due to the
ability of the transitional cells to slide past one another and
change their shape. This allows:
• the ureter wall to stretch as greater volume of urine flows
through it.
• The bladder to store more urine without increasing
pressure in it.
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Functions: in stretching and the ability to return to
normal shape.

Location: lining of urinary system organs (Urinary

bladder, ureters and part of the urethra)

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 Glandular Epithelia
– A gland: consists of one or more cell layers
that make and secrete a particular product
(secretion) by exocytosis.

– Secretions contain protein molecules in an

aqueous (water-based) fluid

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• Two major gland types
1. Endocrine glands
• Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into
blood vessels
• Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and
pituitary

2. Exocrine glands
• Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial
surface
• Examples: sweat and oil glands
• Liver, and pancreas are both internal and
external types of glands
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 Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body to connect body
parts
• Includes the most abundant and widely distributed
tissues

• Functions
– Protecting
– Supporting
– Cushioning
– Insulating
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• Characteristics of connective tissue
– Variations in blood supply
▪Many connective tissues are well vascularized
There are exceptions:
▪Tendons and ligaments have a poor blood
supply.
▪Cartilages are avascular

– Extracellular matrix
▪Connective tissues are made of different types of
cells plus varying amounts of nonliving material
surrounding the cells called extracellular matrix

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• Two main elements of the extracellular matrix
1. Ground substance: mostly water, along with
adhesion proteins (serve as glue) and
polysaccharide molecules (trap water) cause
the matrix to vary from fluid to gel-like to firm in its
consistency.

2. Fibers
▪Collagen (white) fibers with high tensile strength
– resist breaking under high tension.
▪Elastic (yellow) fibers which can stretch and
recoil
▪Reticular fibers are fine collagen that form
internal skeleton of soft organs such as spleen
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
• Types of connective tissue from most rigid to
softest, or most fluid:
– Bone
– Cartilage
– Dense connective tissue
– Loose connective tissue
– Blood

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 Bone (Osseous Tissue)
– Composed of:
▪Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae
(cavities)
▪Hard matrix of calcium salts
▪Large numbers of collagen fibers
– Functions to protect and support the body

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 Cartilage

– Less hard and more flexible than bone

– Found in only a few places in the body
– Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell
type

– Types of cartilage
▪Hyaline cartilage
▪Fibrocartilage
▪Elastic cartilage

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 Hyaline Cartilage
– Most widespread type of cartilage
– Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy,
rubbery matrix

– Locations
▪Trachea
▪Soft part of the nose
▪Attaches ribs to the breastbone
▪Covers ends of long bones
▪Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
▪Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones

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Elastic cartilage
– Provides elasticity
– Location: supports the external ear

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Fibrocartilage
– Highly compressible
– Location: forms cushion-like discs between
vertebrae of the spinal column (intervertebral
discs)

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• Dense Connective Tissue: two types
a) Dense regular fibrous tissue
– Main matrix element is collagen fiber
– Contains rows of fibroblasts (cells that make
fibers)
– Locations
o Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
o Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and
are more elastic (contains more elastic fibers)
than tendons
b) Dense irregular fibrous tissue
– Dermis—lower layers of the skin

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 Loose Connective Tissue

– Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than

other connective tissues (except blood: no
fibers)

– Types
▪Areolar
▪Adipose
▪Reticular

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 Areolar Connective Tissue
– Most widely distributed connective tissue
– Soft, pliable (flexible) tissue like “cobwebs”

– Functions as a universal packing tissue and

“glue” to hold organs together and in them in
their places. Cushions and protects the body
organs it wraps.

– A soft layer of areolar tissue is called lamina

propria that underlies all mucous membranes

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– When viewed through microscope, most of the matrix
appears to be empty spaces, which explains its name
(Areola = small open space)
– All fiber types form a loose network
– In inflammation, this tissue can soak up excess fluid
(causes edema)

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 Adipose Connective Tissue
– An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells dominate
– Functions
▪Insulates the body
▪Protects some organs such as heart and kidneys
▪Serves as a site of fuel storage (fat under the skin)

– Locations
▪Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
▪Fat pads around kidneys and heart
▪Fat “depots” /storage where fat is stored and
available for fuel if needed: hips, breasts, and belly

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 Reticular Connective Tissue
– Delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers
with reticular cells.

Locations
– It forms stroma (internal framework) of
lymphoid organs such as:
▪Lymph nodes
▪Spleen
▪Bone marrow

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 Blood (Vascular Tissue)
– Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as
blood plasma
– It contains soluble fibers which are visible only during
blood clotting
– Functions:
• as the transport vehicle for the cardiovascular
system, carrying:
▪Nutrients
▪Wastes
▪Respiratory gases

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 Muscle Tissue
• Muscle tissue contracts, or shortens, to produce
movement
• Muscle tissue is irritable (able to respond to stimuli)

Three types of muscle tissue

1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth

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 Skeletal Muscle Tissue
– Packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs known
as skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton.
– When the skeletal muscles contract, they pull on bones
or skin
– Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
– Produces gross body movements or facial expressions

– Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells

▪Striations (stripes)
▪Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
▪Long, cylindrical shaped cells

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 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
– Involuntarily controlled
– Found only in the heart
– Pumps blood through blood vessels

– Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells

▪Striations
▪One nucleus per cell
▪Short, branching cells
▪Intercalated discs contain gap junctions that
allows ions to pass freely from cell to cell rapid
conduction of the electrical signals to contact
across the heart.
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
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 Smooth (Visceral) Muscle Tissue
– Involuntarily controlled
– Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,
uterus, and blood vessels
– Peristalsis, a wavelike motion, is a typical activity

– Characteristics of smooth muscle cells

▪No visible striations (non-striated cells)
▪One nucleus per cell
▪Spindle-shaped cells

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 Nervous Tissue
• Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses to and from body parts
• Characteristics:
– Irritability (respond to stimuli)
– Conductivity (transmit impulses)
• Location: brain, spinal cord and nerves
• Composed of neurons (nerve cells) and nerve
support cells called neuroglia that insulate,
protect, and support neurons

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Nervous Tissue

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Summary of Tissues / Self Study

Figure 3.22: summarizes the tissue types

and functions in the body

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Figure 3.22 Summary of the Major Functions, Characteristics,
and Body Locations of the Four Tissue Types: Epithelial,
Connective, Muscle, and Nervous Tissues (page: 121)

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 Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
• Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two
ways:
1. Regeneration
• Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells

2. Fibrosis
• Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue
scar tissue

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
• Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends
on:
1. Type of tissue damaged
2. Severity of the injury

• Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than

ragged tears of the tissue

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Events of tissue repair
1. Inflammation sets the stage

▪Injured cells release inflammatory chemicals

(Histamine) that make the capillaries very
permeable

▪This causes clotting proteins to migrate to the

injured area from the bloodstream

▪The leaked clotting proteins form a clot that

walls off the injured area

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2. Granulation tissue forms
▪Granulation tissue is a delicate pink tissue
composed largely of new capillaries that
grow into the damaged area from
undamaged blood vessels nearby.

▪Also, granulation tissue contains

phagocytes dispose of blood clot and
fibroblasts; cells that produce collagen
fibers.
▪The rebuilt collagen fibers form the scar
tissue that fill up the gap caused by injury
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3. Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair
▪As the surface epithelium begins to regenerates, it
makes its way between granulation tissue and scab
(dried blood).
▪The scab soon detaches.

▪The final result: is a fully regenerated surface

epithelium covering an underlying area of fibrosis or
scar tissue

▪Whether scar is visible or invisible depends on

severity of wound

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• The ability of the different tissues to regenerate varies
widely:
o Tissues that regenerate easily
o Epithelial tissue such as skin epidermis and mucous
membranes)
o Fibrous connective tissues and bone
o Tissues that regenerate poorly
o Skeletal muscle and cartilage
o Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
– Cardiac muscle
– Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord

Note: if wounds are deep or very large, damaged

tissues may be completely replaced by scar tissue
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