MAHARANA PRATAP GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

KOTHI MANDHANA, KANPUR

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Dr. AKTU, Lucknow)

Digital Notes
[Department of Computer Application]
Subject Name : Artificial Intelligence
Subject Code : KCA-301
Course : MCA
Branch : -
Semester : IVth
Prepared by : Mr. Narendra Kumar Sharma

Reference No./MCA/NARENDRA/KCA301/2/3
 Unit – 4
MACHINE LEARNING

1. What is Machine Learning?

Machine learning is a growing technology which enables computers to learn automatically from
past data. Machine learning uses various algorithms for building mathematical models and
making predictions using historical data or information. Currently, it is being used for
various tasks such as image recognition, speech recognition, email filtering, Facebook auto-
tagging, recommender system, and many more.

In the real world, we are surrounded by humans who can learn everything from their experiences
with their learning capability, and we have computers or machines which work on our
instructions. But can a machine also learn from experiences or past data like a human does? So
here comes the role of Machine Learning.

Machine Learning is said as a subset of artificial intelligence that is mainly concerned with the
development of algorithms which allow a computer to learn from the data and past experiences
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on their own. The term machine learning was first introduced by Arthur Samuel in 1959. We
can define it in a summarized way as:

Machine learning enables a machine to automatically learn from data, improve performance from
experiences, and predict things without being explicitly programmed.

With the help of sample historical data, which is known as training data, machine learning
algorithms build a mathematical model that helps in making predictions or decisions without
being explicitly programmed. Machine learning brings computer science and statistics together
for creating predictive models. Machine learning constructs or uses the algorithms that learn
from historical data. The more we will provide the information, the higher will be the
performance.

1.1 How does Machine Learning work?

A Machine Learning system learns from historical data, builds the prediction models, and
whenever it receives new data, predicts the output for it. The accuracy of predicted output
depends upon the amount of data, as the huge amount of data helps to build a better model which
predicts the output more accurately.

Suppose we have a complex problem, where we need to perform some predictions, so instead of
writing a code for it, we just need to feed the data to generic algorithms, and with the help of
these algorithms, machine builds the logic as per the data and predict the output. Machine
learning has changed our way of thinking about the problem. The below block diagram explains
the working of Machine Learning algorithm:

1.2 Features of Machine Learning:

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o Machine learning uses data to detect various patterns in a given dataset.

 o It can learn from past data and improve automatically.
o It is a data-driven technology.
o Machine learning is much similar to data mining as it also deals with the huge amount of
the data.

1.3 Need for Machine Learning

The need for machine learning is increasing day by day. The reason behind the need for machine
learning is that it is capable of doing tasks that are too complex for a person to implement
directly. As a human, we have some limitations as we cannot access the huge amount of data
manually, so for this, we need some computer systems and here comes the machine learning to
make things easy for us.

We can train machine learning algorithms by providing them the huge amount of data and let
them explore the data, construct the models, and predict the required output automatically. The
performance of the machine learning algorithm depends on the amount of data, and it can be
determined by the cost function. With the help of machine learning, we can save both time and
money.

The importance of machine learning can be easily understood by its uses cases, Currently,
machine learning is used in self-driving cars, cyber fraud detection, face recognition,
and friend suggestion by Facebook, etc. Various top companies such as Netflix and Amazon
have build machine learning models that are using a vast amount of data to analyze the user
interest and recommend product accordingly.

Following are some key points which show the importance of Machine Learning:
o Rapid increment in the production of data
o Solving complex problems, which are difficult for a human
o Decision making in various sector including finance
o Finding hidden patterns and extracting useful information from data.

1.4 Classification of Machine Learning

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At a broad level, machine learning can be classified into three types:

 1. Supervised learning
2. Unsupervised learning
3. Reinforcement learning

1) Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is a type of machine learning method in which we provide sample labeled
data to the machine learning system in order to train it, and on that basis, it predicts the output.

The system creates a model using labeled data to understand the datasets and learn about each
data, once the training and processing are done then we test the model by providing a sample
data to check whether it is predicting the exact output or not.

The goal of supervised learning is to map input data with the output data. The supervised
learning is based on supervision, and it is the same as when a student learns things in the
supervision of the teacher. The example of supervised learning is spam filtering.

Supervised learning can be grouped further in two categories of algorithms:

o Classification
o Regression
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2) Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised learning is a learning method in which a machine learns without any supervision.
The training is provided to the machine with the set of data that has not been labeled, classified,
or categorized, and the algorithm needs to act on that data without any supervision. The goal of
unsupervised learning is to restructure the input data into new features or a group of objects with
similar patterns.

In unsupervised learning, we don't have a predetermined result. The machine tries to find useful
insights from the huge amount of data. It can be further classifieds into two categories of
algorithms:
o Clustering
o Association

3) Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is a feedback-based learning method, in which a learning agent gets a
reward for each right action and gets a penalty for each wrong action. The agent learns
automatically with these feedbacks and improves its performance. In reinforcement learning, the
agent interacts with the environment and explores it. The goal of an agent is to get the most
reward points, and hence, it improves its performance.

The robotic dog, which automatically learns the movement of his arms, is an example of
Reinforcement learning.

1.5 History of Machine Learning

Before some years (about 40-50 years), machine learning was science fiction, but today it is the
part of our daily life. Machine learning is making our day to day life easy from self-driving
cars to Amazon virtual assistant "Alexa". However, the idea behind machine learning is so old
and has a long history. Below some milestones are given which have occurred in the history of
machine learning:
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The early history of Machine Learning (Pre-1940):
o 1834: In 1834, Charles Babbage, the father of the computer, conceived a device that
could be programmed with punch cards. However, the machine was never built, but all
modern computers rely on its logical structure.
o 1936: In 1936, Alan Turing gave a theory that how a machine can determine and execute
a set of instructions.

The era of stored program computers:

o 1940: In 1940, the first manually operated computer, "ENIAC" was invented, which was
the first electronic general-purpose computer. After that stored program computer such as
EDSAC in 1949 and EDVAC in 1951 were invented.
o 1943: In 1943, a human neural network was modeled with an electrical circuit. In 1950,
the scientists started applying their idea to work and analyzed how human neurons might
work.

Computer machinery and intelligence:

o 1950: In 1950, Alan Turing published a seminal paper, "Computer Machinery and
Intelligence," on the topic of artificial intelligence. In his paper, he asked, "Can
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machines think?"
Machine intelligence in Games:
o 1952: Arthur Samuel, who was the pioneer of machine learning, created a program that
helped an IBM computer to play a checkers game. It performed better more it played.
o 1959: In 1959, the term "Machine Learning" was first coined by Arthur Samuel.

Machine Learning from theory to reality:

o 1959: In 1959, the first neural network was applied to a real-world problem to remove
echoes over phone lines using an adaptive filter.
o 1985: In 1985, Terry Sejnowski and Charles Rosenberg invented a neural
network NETtalk, which was able to teach itself how to correctly pronounce 20,000
words in one week.
o 1997: The IBM's Deep blue intelligent computer won the chess game against the chess
expert Garry Kasparov, and it became the first computer which had beaten a human chess
expert.

Machine Learning at 21st century:

o 2006: In the year 2006, computer scientist Geoffrey Hinton has given a new name to
neural net research as "deep learning," and nowadays, it has become one of the most
trending technologies.
o 2012: In 2012, Google created a deep neural network which learned to recognize the
image of humans and cats in YouTube videos.
o 2014: In 2014, the Chabot "Eugen Goostman" cleared the Turing Test. It was the first
Chabot who convinced the 33% of human judges that it was not a machine.
o 2014: DeepFace was a deep neural network created by Facebook, and they claimed that
it could recognize a person with the same precision as a human can do.
o 2016: AlphaGo beat the world's number second player Lee sedol at Go game. In 2017 it
beat the number one player of this game Ke Jie.
o 2017: In 2017, the Alphabet's Jigsaw team built an intelligent system that was able to
learn the online trolling. It used to read millions of comments of different websites to
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learn to stop online trolling.

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Machine Learning at present:
Now machine learning has got a great advancement in its research, and it is present everywhere
around us, such as self-driving cars, Amazon Alexa, Catboats, recommender system, and
many more. It includes Supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning with
clustering, classification, decision tree, SVM algorithms, etc.

Modern machine learning models can be used for making various predictions, including weather
prediction, disease prediction, stock market analysis, etc.

2. Applications of Machine learning

Machine learning is a buzzword for today's technology, and it is growing very rapidly day by
day. We are using machine learning in our daily life even without knowing it such as Google
Maps, Google assistant, Alexa, etc. Below are some most trending real-world applications of
Machine Learning:

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1. Image Recognition:
Image recognition is one of the most common applications of machine learning. It is used to
identify objects, persons, places, digital images, etc. The popular use case of image recognition
and face detection is, Automatic friend tagging suggestion:

Facebook provides us a feature of auto friend tagging suggestion. Whenever we upload a photo
with our Facebook friends, then we automatically get a tagging suggestion with name, and the
technology behind this is machine learning's face detection and recognition algorithm.

It is based on the Facebook project named "Deep Face," which is responsible for face
recognition and person identification in the picture.

2. Speech Recognition
While using Google, we get an option of "Search by voice," it comes under speech recognition,
and it's a popular application of machine learning.

Speech recognition is a process of converting voice instructions into text, and it is also known as
"Speech to text", or "Computer speech recognition." At present, machine learning algorithms
are widely used by various applications of speech recognition. Google assistant, Siri, Cortana,
and Alexa are using speech recognition technology to follow the voice instructions.

3. Traffic prediction:
If we want to visit a new place, we take help of Google Maps, which shows us the correct path
with the shortest route and predicts the traffic conditions.

It predicts the traffic conditions such as whether traffic is cleared, slow-moving, or heavily
congested with the help of two ways:

o Real Time location of the vehicle form Google Map app and sensors
o Average time has taken on past days at the same time.

Everyone who is using Google Map is helping this app to make it better. It takes information
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from the user and sends back to its database to improve the performance.
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4. Product recommendations:
Machine learning is widely used by various e-commerce and entertainment companies such
as Amazon, Netflix, etc., for product recommendation to the user. Whenever we search for some
product on Amazon, then we started getting an advertisement for the same product while internet
surfing on the same browser and this is because of machine learning.

Google understands the user interest using various machine learning algorithms and suggests the
product as per customer interest.

As similar, when we use Netflix, we find some recommendations for entertainment series,
movies, etc., and this is also done with the help of machine learning.

5. Self-driving cars:
One of the most exciting applications of machine learning is self-driving cars. Machine learning
plays a significant role in self-driving cars. Tesla, the most popular car manufacturing company
is working on self-driving car. It is using unsupervised learning method to train the car models to
detect people and objects while driving.

6. Email Spam and Malware Filtering:

Whenever we receive a new email, it is filtered automatically as important, normal, and spam.
We always receive an important mail in our inbox with the important symbol and spam emails in
our spam box, and the technology behind this is Machine learning. Below are some spam filters
used by Gmail:
o Content Filter
o Header filter
o General blacklists filter
o Rules-based filters
o Permission filters

Some machine learning algorithms such as Multi-Layer Perceptron, Decision tree, and Naïve
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Bayes classifier are used for email spam filtering and malware detection.
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7. Virtual Personal Assistant:
We have various virtual personal assistants such as Google assistant, Alexa, Cortana, Siri. As
the name suggests, they help us in finding the information using our voice instruction. These
assistants can help us in various ways just by our voice instructions such as Play music, call
someone, Open an email, Scheduling an appointment, etc.

These virtual assistants use machine learning algorithms as an important part.

These assistant record our voice instructions, send it over the server on a cloud, and decode it
using ML algorithms and act accordingly.

8. Online Fraud Detection:

Machine learning is making our online transaction safe and secure by detecting fraud transaction.
Whenever we perform some online transaction, there may be various ways that a fraudulent
transaction can take place such as fake accounts, fake ids, and steal money in the middle of a
transaction. So to detect this, Feed Forward Neural network helps us by checking whether it is
a genuine transaction or a fraud transaction.

For each genuine transaction, the output is converted into some hash values, and these values
become the input for the next round. For each genuine transaction, there is a specific pattern
which gets change for the fraud transaction hence, it detects it and makes our online transactions
more secure.

9. Stock Market trading:

Machine learning is widely used in stock market trading. In the stock market, there is always a
risk of up and downs in shares, so for this machine learning's long short term memory neural
network is used for the prediction of stock market trends.

10. Medical Diagnosis:

In medical science, machine learning is used for diseases diagnoses. With this, medical
technology is growing very fast and able to build 3D models that can predict the exact position
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of lesions in the brain.

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It helps in finding brain tumors and other brain-related diseases easily.

11. Automatic Language Translation:
Nowadays, if we visit a new place and we are not aware of the language then it is not a problem
at all, as for this also machine learning helps us by converting the text into our known languages.
Google's GNMT (Google Neural Machine Translation) provide this feature, which is a Neural
Machine Learning that translates the text into our familiar language, and it called as automatic
translation.

The technology behind the automatic translation is a sequence to sequence learning algorithm,
which is used with image recognition and translates the text from one language to another
language.

3. Machine learning Life cycle

Machine learning has given the computer systems the abilities to automatically learn without
being explicitly programmed. But how does a machine learning system work? So, it can be
described using the life cycle of machine learning. Machine learning life cycle is a cyclic process
to build an efficient machine learning project. The main purpose of the life cycle is to find a
solution to the problem or project.

Machine learning life cycle involves seven major steps, which are given below:

o Gathering Data
o Data preparation
o Data Wrangling
o Analyse Data
o Train the model
o Test the model
o Deployment
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The most important thing in the complete process is to understand the problem and to know the
purpose of the problem. Therefore, before starting the life cycle, we need to understand the
problem because the good result depends on the better understanding of the problem.

In the complete life cycle process, to solve a problem, we create a machine learning system
called "model", and this model is created by providing "training". But to train a model, we need
data, hence, life cycle starts by collecting data.

1. Gathering Data:
Data Gathering is the first step of the machine learning life cycle. The goal of this step is to
identify and obtain all data-related problems.

In this step, we need to identify the different data sources, as data can be collected from various
sources such as files, database, internet, or mobile devices. It is one of the most important steps
of the life cycle. The quantity and quality of the collected data will determine the efficiency of
the output. The more will be the data, the more accurate will be the prediction.

This step includes the below tasks:

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o Identify various data sources

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o Collect data
 o Integrate the data obtained from different sources

By performing the above task, we get a coherent set of data, also called as a dataset. It will be
used in further steps.

2. Data preparation
After collecting the data, we need to prepare it for further steps. Data preparation is a step where
we put our data into a suitable place and prepare it to use in our machine learning training.
In this step, first, we put all data together, and then randomize the ordering of data.

This step can be further divided into two processes:

o Data exploration:
It is used to understand the nature of data that we have to work with. We need to
understand the characteristics, format, and quality of data.
A better understanding of data leads to an effective outcome. In this, we find
Correlations, general trends, and outliers.
o Data pre-processing:
Now the next step is preprocessing of data for its analysis.

3. Data Wrangling
Data wrangling is the process of cleaning and converting raw data into a useable format. It is the
process of cleaning the data, selecting the variable to use, and transforming the data in a proper
format to make it more suitable for analysis in the next step. It is one of the most important steps
of the complete process. Cleaning of data is required to address the quality issues.

It is not necessary that data we have collected is always of our use as some of the data may not
be useful. In real-world applications, collected data may have various issues, including:
o Missing Values
o Duplicate data
o Invalid data
o Noise
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So, we use various filtering techniques to clean the data.

It is mandatory to detect and remove the above issues because it can negatively affect the quality
of the outcome.

4. Data Analysis
Now the cleaned and prepared data is passed on to the analysis step. This step involves:

o Selection of analytical techniques

o Building models
o Review the result

The aim of this step is to build a machine learning model to analyze the data using various
analytical techniques and review the outcome. It starts with the determination of the type of the
problems, where we select the machine learning techniques such
as Classification, Regression, Cluster analysis, Association, etc. then build the model using
prepared data, and evaluate the model.

Hence, in this step, we take the data and use machine learning algorithms to build the model.

5. Train Model
Now the next step is to train the model, in this step we train our model to improve its
performance for better outcome of the problem.

We use datasets to train the model using various machine learning algorithms. Training a model
is required so that it can understand the various patterns, rules, and, features.

6. Test Model
Once our machine learning model has been trained on a given dataset, then we test the model. In
this step, we check for the accuracy of our model by providing a test dataset to it.

Testing the model determines the percentage accuracy of the model as per the requirement of
project or problem.
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7. Deployment
The last step of machine learning life cycle is deployment, where we deploy the model in the
real-world system.

If the above-prepared model is producing an accurate result as per our requirement with
acceptable speed, then we deploy the model in the real system. But before deploying the project,
we will check whether it is improving its performance using available data or not. The
deployment phase is similar to making the final report for a project.

4. Supervised Machine Learning

Supervised learning is the types of machine learning in which machines are trained using well
"labelled" training data, and on basis of that data, machines predict the output. The labelled data
means some input data is already tagged with the correct output.

In supervised learning, the training data provided to the machines work as the supervisor that
teaches the machines to predict the output correctly. It applies the same concept as a student
learns in the supervision of the teacher.

Supervised learning is a process of providing input data as well as correct output data to the
machine learning model. The aim of a supervised learning algorithm is to find a mapping
function to map the input variable(x) with the output variable(y).

In the real-world, supervised learning can be used for Risk Assessment, Image classification,
Fraud Detection, spam filtering, etc.

4.1 How Supervised Learning Works?

In supervised learning, models are trained using labelled dataset, where the model learns about
each type of data. Once the training process is completed, the model is tested on the basis of test
data (a subset of the training set), and then it predicts the output.

The working of Supervised learning can be easily understood by the below example and
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diagram:
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Suppose we have a dataset of different types of shapes which includes square, rectangle, triangle,
and Polygon. Now the first step is that we need to train the model for each shape.

o If the given shape has four sides, and all the sides are equal, then it will be labelled as
a Square.
o If the given shape has three sides, then it will be labelled as a triangle.
o If the given shape has six equal sides then it will be labelled as hexagon.

Now, after training, we test our model using the test set, and the task of the model is to identify
the shape.

The machine is already trained on all types of shapes, and when it finds a new shape, it classifies
the shape on the bases of a number of sides, and predicts the output.

4.2 Steps Involved in Supervised Learning:

o First Determine the type of training dataset
o Collect/Gather the labelled training data.
o Split the training dataset into training dataset, test dataset, and validation dataset.
o Determine the input features of the training dataset, which should have enough
knowledge so that the model can accurately predict the output.
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o Determine the suitable algorithm for the model, such as support vector machine, decision
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tree, etc.
 o Execute the algorithm on the training dataset. Sometimes we need validation sets as the
control parameters, which are the subset of training datasets.
o Evaluate the accuracy of the model by providing the test set. If the model predicts the
correct output, which means our model is accurate.

4.3 Types of supervised Machine learning Algorithms:

Supervised learning can be further divided into two types of problems:

1. Regression
Regression algorithms are used if there is a relationship between the input variable and the
output variable. It is used for the prediction of continuous variables, such as Weather forecasting,
Market Trends, etc. Below are some popular Regression algorithms which come under
supervised learning:
o Linear Regression
o Regression Trees
o Non-Linear Regression
o Bayesian Linear Regression
o Polynomial Regression

2. Classification
Classification algorithms are used when the output variable is categorical, which means there are
two classes such as Yes-No, Male-Female, True-false, Spam Filtering, etc.
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o Random Forest
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o Decision Trees
 o Logistic Regression
o Support vector Machines

4.4 Advantages of Supervised learning:

o With the help of supervised learning, the model can predict the output on the basis of
prior experiences.
o In supervised learning, we can have an exact idea about the classes of objects.
o Supervised learning model helps us to solve various real-world problems such as fraud
detection, spam filtering, etc.

4.5 Disadvantages of supervised learning:

o Supervised learning models are not suitable for handling the complex tasks.
o Supervised learning cannot predict the correct output if the test data is different from the
training dataset.
o Training required lots of computation times.
o In supervised learning, we need enough knowledge about the classes of object.

5. Unsupervised Machine Learning

In the previous topic, we learned supervised machine learning in which models are trained using
labeled data under the supervision of training data. But there may be many cases in which we do
not have labeled data and need to find the hidden patterns from the given dataset. So, to solve
such types of cases in machine learning, we need unsupervised learning techniques.

5.1 What is Unsupervised Learning?

As the name suggests, unsupervised learning is a machine learning technique in which models
are not supervised using training dataset. Instead, models itself find the hidden patterns and
insights from the given data. It can be compared to learning which takes place in the human brain
while learning new things. It can be defined as:

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning in which models are trained using
unlabeled dataset and are allowed to act on that data without any supervision.
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Unsupervised learning cannot be directly applied to a regression or classification problem
because unlike supervised learning, we have the input data but no corresponding output data. The
goal of unsupervised learning is to find the underlying structure of dataset, group that data
according to similarities, and represent that dataset in a compressed format.

Example: Suppose the unsupervised learning algorithm is given an input dataset containing
images of different types of cats and dogs. The algorithm is never trained upon the given dataset,
which means it does not have any idea about the features of the dataset. The task of the
unsupervised learning algorithm is to identify the image features on their own. Unsupervised
learning algorithm will perform this task by clustering the image dataset into the groups
according to similarities between images.

5.2 Why use Unsupervised Learning?

Below are some main reasons which describe the importance of Unsupervised Learning:
o Unsupervised learning is helpful for finding useful insights from the data.
o Unsupervised learning is much similar as a human learns to think by their own
experiences, which makes it closer to the real AI.
o Unsupervised learning works on unlabeled and uncategorized data which make
unsupervised learning more important.
o In real-world, we do not always have input data with the corresponding output so to solve
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such cases, we need unsupervised learning.

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5.3 Working of Unsupervised Learning
Working of unsupervised learning can be understood by the below diagram:

Here, we have taken an unlabeled input data, which means it is not categorized and
corresponding outputs are also not given. Now, this unlabeled input data is fed to the machine
learning model in order to train it. Firstly, it will interpret the raw data to find the hidden patterns
from the data and then will apply suitable algorithms such as k-means clustering, Decision tree,
etc.

Once it applies the suitable algorithm, the algorithm divides the data objects into groups
according to the similarities and difference between the objects.

5.4 Types of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm:

The unsupervised learning algorithm can be further categorized into two types of problems:

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 o Clustering: Clustering is a method of grouping the objects into clusters such that objects
with most similarities remains into a group and has less or no similarities with the objects
of another group. Cluster analysis finds the commonalities between the data objects and
categorizes them as per the presence and absence of those commonalities.
o Association: An association rule is an unsupervised learning method which is used for
finding the relationships between variables in the large database. It determines the set of
items that occurs together in the dataset. Association rule makes marketing strategy more
effective. Such as people who buy X item (suppose a bread) are also tend to purchase Y
(Butter/Jam) item. A typical example of Association rule is Market Basket Analysis.

5.5 Unsupervised Learning algorithms:

Below is the list of some popular unsupervised learning algorithms:
o K-means clustering
o KNN (k-nearest neighbors)
o Hierarchal clustering
o Anomaly detection
o Neural Networks
o Principle Component Analysis
o Independent Component Analysis
o Apriori algorithm
o Singular value decomposition

5.6 Advantages of Unsupervised Learning

o Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as compared to supervised
learning because, in unsupervised learning, we don't have labeled input data.
o Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get unlabeled data in comparison to
labeled data.

5.7 Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning

o Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than supervised learning as it does
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not have corresponding output.

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 o The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be less accurate as input data is
not labeled, and algorithms do not know the exact output in advance.

6. Difference between Supervised and Unsupervised Learning

The main differences between Supervised and Unsupervised learning are given below:

Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning

Supervised learning algorithms are trained Unsupervised learning algorithms are trained
using labeled data. using unlabeled data.

Supervised learning model takes direct Unsupervised learning model does not take
feedback to check if it is predicting correct any feedback.
output or not.

Supervised learning model predicts the output. Unsupervised learning model finds the
hidden patterns in data.

In supervised learning, input data is provided In unsupervised learning, only input data is
to the model along with the output. provided to the model.

The goal of supervised learning is to train the The goal of unsupervised learning is to find
model so that it can predict the output when it the hidden patterns and useful insights from
is given new data. the unknown dataset.

Supervised learning needs supervision to train Unsupervised learning does not need any
the model. supervision to train the model.

Supervised learning can be categorized Unsupervised Learning can be classified

in Classification and Regression problems. in Clustering and Associations problems.

Supervised learning can be used for those Unsupervised learning can be used for those
cases where we know the input as well as cases where we have only input data and no
corresponding outputs. corresponding output data.

Supervised learning model produces an Unsupervised learning model may give less
accurate result. accurate result as compared to supervised
learning.

Supervised learning is not close to true Unsupervised learning is more close to the
Artificial intelligence as in this, we first train the true Artificial Intelligence as it learns similarly
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model for each data, and then only it can as a child learns daily routine things by his
predict the correct output. experiences.
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It includes various algorithms such as Linear It includes various algorithms such as
Regression, Logistic Regression, Support Clustering, KNN, and Apriori algorithm.
Vector Machine, Multi-class Classification,
Decision tree, Bayesian Logic, etc.

7. Decision Tree Classification Algorithm

o Decision Tree is a Supervised learning technique that can be used for both
classification and Regression problems, but mostly it is preferred for solving
Classification problems. It is a tree-structured classifier, where internal nodes represent
the features of a dataset, branches represent the decision rules and each leaf node
represents the outcome.
o In a Decision tree, there are two nodes, which are the Decision Node and Leaf
Node. Decision nodes are used to make any decision and have multiple branches,
whereas Leaf nodes are the output of those decisions and do not contain any further
branches.
o The decisions or the test are performed on the basis of features of the given dataset.
o It is a graphical representation for getting all the possible solutions to a
problem/decision based on given conditions.
o It is called a decision tree because, similar to a tree, it starts with the root node, which
expands on further branches and constructs a tree-like structure.
o In order to build a tree, we use the CART algorithm, which stands for Classification
and Regression Tree algorithm.
o A decision tree simply asks a question, and based on the answer (Yes/No), it further split
the tree into subtrees.
o Below diagram explains the general structure of a decision tree: 25
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7.1 Why use Decision Trees?
There are various algorithms in Machine learning, so choosing the best algorithm for the given
dataset and problem is the main point to remember while creating a machine learning model.
Below are the two reasons for using the Decision tree:

o Decision Trees usually mimic human thinking ability while making a decision, so it is
easy to understand.
o The logic behind the decision tree can be easily understood because it shows a tree-like
structure.

7.2 Decision Tree Terminologies

 Root Node: Root node is from where the decision tree starts. It represents the entire dataset,
which further gets divided into two or more homogeneous sets.

 Leaf Node: Leaf nodes are the final output node, and the tree cannot be segregated further
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after getting a leaf node.

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 Splitting: Splitting is the process of dividing the decision node/root node into sub-nodes
according to the given conditions.

 Branch/Sub Tree: A tree formed by splitting the tree.

 Pruning: Pruning is the process of removing the unwanted branches from the tree.

 Parent/Child node: The root node of the tree is called the parent node, and other nodes are
called the child nodes.

7.3 How does the Decision Tree algorithm Work?

In a decision tree, for predicting the class of the given dataset, the algorithm starts from the root
node of the tree. This algorithm compares the values of root attribute with the record (real
dataset) attribute and, based on the comparison, follows the branch and jumps to the next node.

For the next node, the algorithm again compares the attribute value with the other sub-nodes and
move further. It continues the process until it reaches the leaf node of the tree. The complete
process can be better understood using the below algorithm:

o Step-1: Begin the tree with the root node, says S, which contains the complete dataset.
o Step-2: Find the best attribute in the dataset using Attribute Selection Measure (ASM).
o Step-3: Divide the S into subsets that contains possible values for the best attributes.
o Step-4: Generate the decision tree node, which contains the best attribute.
o Step-5: Recursively make new decision trees using the subsets of the dataset created in
step -3. Continue this process until a stage is reached where you cannot further classify
the nodes and called the final node as a leaf node.

Example: Suppose there is a candidate who has a job offer and wants to decide whether he
should accept the offer or Not. So, to solve this problem, the decision tree starts with the root
node (Salary attribute by ASM). The root node splits further into the next decision node (distance
from the office) and one leaf node based on the corresponding labels. The next decision node
further gets split into one decision node (Cab facility) and one leaf node. Finally, the decision
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node splits into two leaf nodes (Accepted offers and Declined offer). Consider the below
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diagram:
7.4 Attribute Selection Measures
While implementing a Decision tree, the main issue arises that how to select the best attribute for
the root node and for sub-nodes. So, to solve such problems there is a technique which is called
as Attribute selection measure or ASM. By this measurement, we can easily select the best
attribute for the nodes of the tree. There are two popular techniques for ASM, which are:

o Information Gain
o Gini Index

1. Information Gain:
o Information gain is the measurement of changes in entropy after the segmentation of a
dataset based on an attribute.
o It calculates how much information a feature provides us about a class.
o According to the value of information gain, we split the node and build the decision tree.
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 o A decision tree algorithm always tries to maximize the value of information gain, and a
node/attribute having the highest information gain is split first. It can be calculated using
the below formula:
Information Gain= Entropy(S)- [(Weighted Avg) *Entropy(each feature)

Entropy: Entropy is a metric to measure the impurity in a given attribute. It specifies

randomness in data. Entropy can be calculated as:

Entropy(s)= -P(yes)log2 P(yes)- P(no) log2 P(no)

Where,
o S= Total number of samples
o P(yes)= probability of yes
o P(no)= probability of no

2. Gini Index:
o Gini index is a measure of impurity or purity used while creating a decision tree in the
CART(Classification and Regression Tree) algorithm.
o An attribute with the low Gini index should be preferred as compared to the high Gini
index.
o It only creates binary splits, and the CART algorithm uses the Gini index to create binary
splits.
o Gini index can be calculated using the below formula:
Gini Index= 1- ∑jPj2

7.5 Pruning: Getting an Optimal Decision tree

Pruning is a process of deleting the unnecessary nodes from a tree in order to get the optimal
decision tree.

A too-large tree increases the risk of overfitting, and a small tree may not capture all the
important features of the dataset. Therefore, a technique that decreases the size of the learning
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tree without reducing accuracy is known as Pruning. There are mainly two types of
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tree pruning technology used:

 o Cost Complexity Pruning
o Reduced Error Pruning.

7.6 Advantages of the Decision Tree

o It is simple to understand as it follows the same process which a human follow while
making any decision in real-life.

o It can be very useful for solving decision-related problems.

o It helps to think about all the possible outcomes for a problem.
o There is less requirement of data cleaning compared to other algorithms.

7.7 Disadvantages of the Decision Tree

o The decision tree contains lots of layers, which makes it complex.
o It may have an overfitting issue, which can be resolved using the Random Forest
algorithm.
o For more class labels, the computational complexity of the decision tree may increase.

8. Statistical Modeling
Statistical modeling is the use of mathematical models and statistical assumptions to generate
sample data and make predictions about the real world. A statistical model is a collection of
probability distributions on a set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.

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8.1 What is Statistical Modeling?
Statistical modeling refers to the process of applying statistical analysis to datasets. A statistical
model is a mathematical relationship between one or more random variables and other non-
random variables. The application of statistical modeling to raw data helps data scientists
approach data analysis in a strategic manner, providing intuitive visualizations that aid in
identifying relationships between variables and making predictions.
Common data sets for statistical analysis include Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, census data,
public health data, social media data, imagery data, and other public sector data that benefit from
real-world predictions.

8.2 Statistical Modeling Techniques

The first step in developing a statistical model is gathering data, which may be sourced from
spreadsheets, databases, data lakes, or the cloud. The most common statistical modeling methods
for analyzing this data are categorized as either supervised learning or unsupervised learning.
Some popular statistical model examples include logistic regression, time-series, clustering, and
decision trees.

Supervised learning techniques include regression models and classification models:

 Regression model: a type of predictive statistical model that analyzes the relationship
between a dependent and an independent variable. Common regression models include
logistic, polynomial, and linear regression models. Use cases include forecasting, time
series modeling, and discovering the causal effect relationship between variables.
 Classification model: a type of machine learning in which an algorithm analyzes an
existing, large and complex set of known data points as a means of understanding and
then appropriately classifying the data; common models include models include decision
trees, Naive Bayes, nearest neighbor, random forests, and neural networking models,
which are typically used in Artificial Intelligence.

Unsupervised learning techniques include clustering algorithms and association rules:

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 K-means clustering: aggregates a specified number of data points into a specific number
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of groupings based on certain similarities.

  Reinforcement learning: an area of deep learning that concerns models iterating over
many attempts, rewarding moves that produce favorable outcomes and penalizing steps
that produce undesired outcomes, therefore training the algorithm to learn the optimal
process.

There are three main types of statistical models: parametric, nonparametric, and semiparametric:

 Parametric: a family of probability distributions that has a finite number of parameters.

 Nonparametric: models in which the number and nature of the parameters are flexible
and not fixed in advance.
 Semiparametric: the parameter has both a finite-dimensional component (parametric)
and an infinite-dimensional component (nonparametric).

8.3 Difference between statistical and machine learning

Machine learning learns from data that does not have explicitly programmed instructions.
Statistical learning, on the other hand, relies on rule-based programming, i.e., it is formalized in
the way variables relate to one another.

Machine learning can learn from billions of attributes and observations. Statistical learning is
based on a much smaller dataset and significantly fewer attributes.

9. Naïve Bayes Classifier Algorithm

o Naïve Bayes algorithm is a supervised learning algorithm, which is based on Bayes
theorem and used for solving classification problems.
o It is mainly used in text classification that includes a high-dimensional training dataset.
o Naïve Bayes Classifier is one of the simple and most effective Classification algorithms
which helps in building the fast machine learning models that can make quick
predictions.
o It is a probabilistic classifier, which means it predicts on the basis of the probability
of an object.
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o Some popular examples of Naïve Bayes Algorithm are spam filtration, Sentimental
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analysis, and classifying articles.

9.1 Why is it called Naïve Bayes?

The Naïve Bayes algorithm is comprised of two words Naïve and Bayes, Which can be described
as:
o Naïve: It is called Naïve because it assumes that the occurrence of a certain feature is

independent of the occurrence of other features. Such as if the fruit is identified on the
bases of color, shape, and taste, then red, spherical, and sweet fruit is recognized as an
apple. Hence each feature individually contributes to identify that it is an apple without
depending on each other.
o Bayes: It is called Bayes because it depends on the principle of Bayes' Theorem.

Bayes' Theorem:
o Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' Rule or Bayes' law, which is used to determine

the probability of a hypothesis with prior knowledge. It depends on the conditional

probability.
o The formula for Bayes' theorem is given as:

Where,

P(A|B) is Posterior probability: Probability of hypothesis A on the observed event B.

P(B|A) is Likelihood probability: Probability of the evidence given that the probability of a
hypothesis is true.

P(A) is Prior Probability: Probability of hypothesis before observing the evidence.

P(B) is Marginal Probability: Probability of Evidence.

9.2 Working of Naïve Bayes' Classifier:

Working of Naïve Bayes' Classifier can be understood with the help of the below example:

Suppose we have a dataset of weather conditions and corresponding target variable "Play". So
using this dataset we need to decide that whether we should play or not on a particular day
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according to the weather conditions. So to solve this problem, we need to follow the below steps:
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 1. Convert the given dataset into frequency tables.
2. Generate Likelihood table by finding the probabilities of given features.
3. Now, use Bayes theorem to calculate the posterior probability.

Problem: If the weather is sunny, then the Player should play or not?

Solution: To solve this, first consider the below dataset:

Outlook Play

0 Rainy Yes

1 Sunny Yes

2 Overcast Yes

3 Overcast Yes

4 Sunny No

5 Rainy Yes

6 Sunny Yes

7 Overcast Yes

8 Rainy No

9 Sunny No

10 Sunny Yes
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11 Rainy No
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12 Overcast Yes

13 Overcast Yes

Frequency table for the Weather Conditions:

Weather Yes No

Overcast 5 0

Rainy 2 2

Sunny 3 2

Total 10 5

Likelihood table weather condition:

Weather No Yes

Overcast 0 5 5/14= 0.35

Rainy 2 2 4/14=0.29

Sunny 2 3 5/14=0.35

All 4/14=0.29 10/14=0.71

Applying Bayes'theorem:

P(Yes|Sunny)= P(Sunny|Yes)*P(Yes)/P(Sunny)

P(Sunny|Yes)= 3/10= 0.3

P(Sunny)= 0.35
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P(Yes)=0.71
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So P(Yes|Sunny) = 0.3*0.71/0.35= 0.60

P(No|Sunny)= P(Sunny|No)*P(No)/P(Sunny)

P(Sunny|NO)= 2/4=0.5

P(No)= 0.29

P(Sunny)= 0.35

So P(No|Sunny)= 0.5*0.29/0.35 = 0.41

So as we can see from the above calculation that P(Yes|Sunny)>P(No|Sunny)

Hence on a Sunny day, Player can play the game.

9.3 Advantages of Naïve Bayes Classifier:

o Naïve Bayes is one of the fast and easy ML algorithms to predict a class of datasets.
o It can be used for Binary as well as Multi-class Classifications.
o It performs well in Multi-class predictions as compared to the other Algorithms.
o It is the most popular choice for text classification problems.

9.4 Disadvantages of Naïve Bayes Classifier:

o Naive Bayes assumes that all features are independent or unrelated, so it cannot learn the
relationship between features.

10. Expectation-Maximization Algorithm (EM Algorithm)

In the real-world applications of machine learning, it is very common that there are many
relevant features available for learning but only a small subset of them are observable. So, for
the variables which are sometimes observable and sometimes not, then we can use the
instances when that variable is visible is observed for the purpose of learning and then predict
its value in the instances when it is not observable.

On the other hand, Expectation-Maximization algorithm can be used for the latent variables
(variables that are not directly observable and are actually inferred from the values of the other
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observed variables) too in order to predict their values with the condition that the general form
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of probability distribution governing those latent variables is known to us. This algorithm is
actually at the base of many unsupervised clustering algorithms in the field of machine
learning.
It was explained, proposed and given its name in a paper published in 1977 by Arthur
Dempster, Nan Laird, and Donald Rubin. It is used to find the local maximum likelihood
parameters of a statistical model in the cases where latent variables are involved and the data
is missing or incomplete.

Algorithm:
1. Given a set of incomplete data, consider a set of starting parameters.
2. Expectation step (E – step): Using the observed available data of the dataset, estimate
(guess) the values of the missing data.
3. Maximization step (M – step): Complete data generated after the expectation (E) step is
used in order to update the parameters.
4. Repeat step 2 and step 3 until convergence.

The essence of Expectation-Maximization algorithm is to use the available observed data of

the dataset to estimate the missing data and then using that data to update the values of the
parameters. Let us understand the EM algorithm in detail.

 Initially, a set of initial values of the parameters are considered. A set of incomplete
observed data is given to the system with the assumption that the observed data comes from
a specific model.
 The next step is known as “Expectation” – step or E-step. In this step, we use the observed
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data in order to estimate or guess the values of the missing or incomplete data. It is
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basically used to update the variables.

 The next step is known as “Maximization”-step or M-step. In this step, we use the complete
data generated in the preceding “Expectation” – step in order to update the values of the
parameters. It is basically used to update the hypothesis.
 Now, in the fourth step, it is checked whether the values are converging or not, if yes, then
stop otherwise repeat step-2 and step-3 i.e. “Expectation” – step and “Maximization” – step
until the convergence occurs.

10.1 Flow chart for EM algorithm –

10.2 Usage of EM algorithm –

 It can be used to fill the missing data in a sample.
 It can be used as the basis of unsupervised learning of clusters.
 It can be used for the purpose of estimating the parameters of Hidden Markov Model
(HMM).
 It can be used for discovering the values of latent variables.

10.3Advantages of EM algorithm –
 It is always guaranteed that likelihood will increase with each iteration.
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 The E-step and M-step are often pretty easy for many problems in terms of implementation.
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 Solutions to the M-steps often exist in the closed form.

10.4 Disadvantages of EM algorithm –
 It has slow convergence.
 It makes convergence to the local optima only.
 It requires both the probabilities, forward and backward (numerical optimization requires
only forward probability).

11. Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning is an area of Machine Learning. It is about taking suitable action to
maximize reward in a particular situation. It is employed by various software and machines to
find the best possible behavior or path it should take in a specific situation. Reinforcement
learning differs from the supervised learning in a way that in supervised learning the training
data has the answer key with it so the model is trained with the correct answer itself whereas in
reinforcement learning, there is no answer but the reinforcement agent decides what to do to
perform the given task. In the absence of a training dataset, it is bound to learn from its
experience.

Example: The problem is as follows: We have an agent and a reward, with many hurdles in
between. The agent is supposed to find the best possible path to reach the reward. The
following problem explains the problem more easily.

The above image shows the robot, diamond, and fire. The goal of the robot is to get the reward
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that is the diamond and avoid the hurdles that are fire. The robot learns by trying all the
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possible paths and then choosing the path which gives him the reward with the least hurdles.
Each right step will give the robot a reward and each wrong step will subtract the reward of the
robot. The total reward will be calculated when it reaches the final reward that is the diamond.

11. 1 Main points in Reinforcement learning –

 Input: The input should be an initial state from which the model will start
 Output: There are many possible output as there are variety of solution to a particular
problem
 Training: The training is based upon the input, The model will return a state and the user
will decide to reward or punish the model based on its output.
 The model keeps continues to learn.
 The best solution is decided based on the maximum reward.

11.2 Difference between Reinforcement learning and Supervised learning:

Reinforcement learning Supervised learning

Reinforcement learning is all about making In Supervised learning the decision is
decisions sequentially. In simple words we can made on the initial input or the input given
say that the output depends on the state of the at the start
current input and the next input depends on the
output of the previous input
In Reinforcement learning decision is dependent, Supervised learning the decisions are
So we give labels to sequences of dependent independent of each other so labels are
decisions given to each decision.
Example: Chess game Example: Object recognition

11.3 Types of Reinforcement: There are two types of Reinforcement:

1. Positive –
Positive Reinforcement is defined as when an event, occurs due to a particular behavior,
increases the strength and the frequency of the behavior. In other words, it has a positive
effect on behavior.
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Advantages of reinforcement learning are:

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 Maximizes Performance
  Sustain Change for a long period of time
Disadvantages of reinforcement learning:

 Too much Reinforcement can lead to overload of states which can diminish the results

2. Negative –
Negative Reinforcement is defined as strengthening of a behavior because a negative
condition is stopped or avoided.
Advantages of reinforcement learning:

 Increases Behavior
 Provide defiance to minimum standard of performance
Disadvantages of reinforcement learning:

 It Only provides enough to meet up the minimum behavior

11.4 Various Practical applications of Reinforcement Learning –

 RL can be used in robotics for industrial automation.
 RL can be used in machine learning and data processing
 RL can be used to create training systems that provide custom instruction and materials
according to the requirement of students.

RL can be used in large environments in the following situations:

1. A model of the environment is known, but an analytic solution is not available;

2. Only a simulation model of the environment is given (the subject of simulation-based
optimization)
3. The only way to collect information about the environment is to interact with it .
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References
1. Stuart Russell, Peter Norvig, “Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach”, Pearson
Education
2. Elaine Rich and Kevin Knight, “Artificial Intelligence”, McGraw-Hill
3. E Charniak and D McDermott, “Introduction to Artificial Intelligence”, Pearson Education
4. Dan W. Patterson, “Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems”, Prentice Hall of India
5. https://www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning
6. https://www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-decision-tree-classification-algorithm
7. https://www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-naive-bayes-classifier
8. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ml-expectation-maximization-algorithm/
9. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-reinforcement-learning/

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