THE NATURE OF INQUIRY

RESEARCH METHODS AS SIMPLY A TECHNICAL EXERCISE FOR UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD

THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY POSITIVISM

The views of social science represent different
Moully (1978) experience, reasoning and ways of looking at social reality and are Turns to observation and reason as means
research as complementary and constructed on correspondingly different ways of understanding behaviour; explanation
overlapping features. of interpreting it. proceeds by way of scientific description.

Epistemological Concern human Subjective–

Reasoning (3) Research Science Ontological Duncan 1968 Giddens (1975)
assumptions Nature objective
assumptions
Comprehend the Is a combination of The suggestion of assumptions dimension
Bases of Used by philosophers 1. Methodological
world (deductive, both experience hypotheses Concern the very and social scientists,
knowledge, its The relationship procedures of
inductive and the and reasoning and The logical nature or essence Subjectivist: always present and
nature and forms, between human natural science
combined must be regarded development of of the social Normalism this derives from an
how it can be beings and their applied to the social
inductive- as the most these hypotheses. phenomena being Anti-positivism acceptance of
acquired, and how environment. sciences as an
deductive ) successful The clarification investigated. Voluntarism natural science as
it is communicated Identified direct observer of social
Deductive approach to the and interpretation Realist position, Idiographic, the paradigm of
to other human implications for the reality.
reasoning is based discovery of truth of scientific contends that human knowledge.
beings, affects methodological 2. The end-product of
on the syllogism by Kerlinger (1970) findings and their objects have an Objectivist:
how one will go concerns of investigations by
Aristotle. Research has synthesis into a independent Realism
about uncovering researchers, since social scientists
Francis Bacon three conceptual existence and are Positivism
knowledge of the contrasting can be formulated
study of a number characteristics of framework. not dependent for it Determinism
social behaviour. ontologies, of natural science.
of individual cases problem-solving on the knower. Nomothetic
epistemologies and
an hypothesis and identified earlier,
models of human
eventually to a namely,
beings.
generalisation. experience. Laws or law-like generalizations.

Positivism involves a definite view of social

Research is Research is self- Research is scientists as analysts or interpreters of
systematic and correcting empirical their subject matter.
controlled - Positivism, the clearest possible ideal of
Scientific methods The scientist turns to An nomothetic approach (Burrell and Morgan 1979)
knowledge. Is less successful, however,
Basing its operations have built-in experience for
contrast strikingly with the order and
on the inductive- mechanisms to validation. As Characterised by procedures and methods designed to discover
regularity of the natural world.
deductive model protect scientists Kerlinger (1970) general laws.
outlined above. from error. subjective, personal Importance of the subjective experience of individuals in the creation
belief has to have of the social world, then the search for understanding focuses upon
a reality check different issues and approaches them in different ways.
against objective, Understanding of the way in which the individual creates, modifies
empirical facts and interprets the world.
and tests.

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 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY

THE TOOLS OF SCIENCE

THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIENCE THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Concepts express generalizations from
The kinds of assumptions held by scientists: particulars, anger, achievement, alienation, Set of procedures which show not only how
velocity, intelligence, democracy. Is the findings have been arrived, are sufficiently
relationship between the word (or symbol) and clear for fellow-scientists to repeat them.
an idea or conception.
Empiricism Principle of Deductive and
Determinism
parsimony inductive methods
Events have causes, Knowledge only of reasoning Cuff and Payne (1979)
Phenomena should Scientific Hypothesis by Function by
are determined by derive from
be explained in the Result in two Concepts by Kerlinger 1970 Medawar 1972 A scientific approach necessarily involves
other circumstances; experience, theory or
Are events in the hypothesis depends most economical way competing theories Hughes 1976 standards and procedures for
on the nature of the possible. of knowledge, the All advances of demonstrating the ‘‘empirical warrant’’
natural world Conjectural
Interpreted in various rational and the 1. They do not exist scientific match or fit between its statements.
determined by other empirical evidence statement of the
ways: that it is empirical. independently of us: understanding, at
circumstances: the for its support. relations between two
preferable to account The concept of they are indeed our every level, begin with
universe does or more variables,
for a phenomenon. generality presents inventions enabling a speculative
not behave often the result of
much us to acquire some adventure, an
capriciously.
understanding. considerable study, An Eight Stage Model
less of a problem to imaginative
2. They are limited reflective thinking
natural scientists preconception of
in number and in and observation. Stage 1: Hypotheses, hunches and guesses.
workin what might be true.
this way contrast Stage 2: Experiment designed; samples
with the infinite taken; variables isolated.
number of Stage 3: Correlations observed; patterns
phenomena they identified.
are required to Stage 4: Hypotheses are formed to explain
explain. regularities.
Stage 5: Explanations and predictions
tested; falsifiability.
Functions of science:
Stage 6: Laws developed or disconfirmation
Criteria for good hypotheses: (hypothesis rejected).
Problem-seeking, question-asking, hunch-encouraging, hypotheses-
Stage 7: Generalizations made.
producing function.
Statements about the relations between Stage 8: New theories.
Testing, checking, certifying function
Organizing, theorizing, structuring function variables.
History-collecting, scholarly function. Carry clear implications for testing the
Technological side; instruments, methods, technique. stated relations.
Administrative, executive and organizational side. Two ancillary criteria: Disclose compatibility
Publicizing and educational functions. with current knowledge.
Are expressed as economically as possible.

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 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY

CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL SCIENCE: A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD NATURALISTIC APPROACHES NORMATIVE AND INTERPRETIVE
PARADIGMS
Discusses naturalistic approaches as alternatives to positivism in social
Critics argue that positivism's mechanistic
science, emphasizing understanding individuals' interpretations and It differentiates between the positivist-
and reductionist view of the world neglects
experiences within specific contexts. based "normative" paradigm and the anti-
important aspects of human experience
positivist "interpretive" paradigm in social
and knowledge
sciences, focusing on their different
approaches to studying human behaviour
Rejection of Humanistic Naturalistic/Qualit Sociology and theory building.
Positivism: Psychology: ative/Interpretive .
Dehumanization: Limted Scope Other critics Approaches:
Model of humans Phenomenology,
Oppose general, ethnomethodolog
Kierkegaard Fails to consider as positive, active, Paradigm
Holbrook (1977): universal laws in People are y, and symbolic Interpretative
(1974): Objectivity meaning-making and purposive.
Ignores inner human behavior. intentional and interactionism.
as dehumanizing, and agency. Emphasize General theories.
world, morality, Advocate for interpretative in Share a focus on Subjective world of
hindering self- understanding Behavior (response
and subjectivity. understanding their actions. lived experiences individuals
realization. Trivial Findings: individuals in to stimuli)
Hampden-Turner individuals' They actively and qualitative Intentional action
Ions (1977): Social science context. External reality
(1970): Biased perspectives and construct their methods. (future-oriented)
Quantification results seen as Use idiographic (society, institutions)
view focusing on interpretations. social world, not Each has its own Action (meaningful
leading to irrelevant and approaches Universal theory of
repetitive Reject detached, passive recipients. specific nuances behavior)
depersonalization. banal. (focusing on human behaviour
aspects. objective observer Situations are fluid and contributions. Shared experiences.
Roszak (1970): ce Overly controlled individuals) over "Rational edifice"
role. and context- Understand
alienates us from methods create nomothetic Understand how
dependent. individuals'
ourselves and unrealistic (finding general reality "hangs
Events and interpretations
laws). Phenomenology:
nature. outcomes. individuals are together" Build diverse,
Science of Persons Focus on lived
Habermas (1972): unique and less . context-specific
Movement in Social experiences.
Scientism generalizable. theories.
Ethnomethodology
silences debate Study the social Gain insight into
: Study everyday
about values and world in its natural specific contexts and
practices and
morals. state, minimizing meanings.
meaning-making.
researcher
Symbolic
intervention.
Interactionism:
Understanding
Focus on symbols
situations through
and shared
participants' eyes.
meanings.

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 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY

PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND SYMBOLIC CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND

INTERACTIONISM INTERPRETIVE APPROACHES
Understanding individuals' interpretations and experiences within
Overemphasis on Meaning and Subjectivity
specific contexts.

Phenomenology Ethnomethodology Symbolic Neglecting false Neglect of External Influences Methodological

Interactionism: consciousness Concerns
Subjective
Rex argues that Power dynamics and structural
consciousness Individuals act based
forces: Both approaches may Accuracy of
and direct on meanings they relying solely on
downplay the impact of power qualitative
experience attribute to things. participants'
Studying everyday structures and social inequalities methods: Concerns
Meaning-making Meaning is a perspectives might
practices and on individual behavior and about the validity
and continuous, social miss broader
meaning-making meaning-making. and reliability of
interpretation process, not fixed. objective realities.
Questioning social Limited scope: They might focus data collected
Diverse strands Focus on interaction Incomplete and
order and taken-for- too narrowly on individual through interviews
(e.g., Husserl's and "taking the role of misleading reports:
granted assumptions experiences and interactions, and observations
Bernstein criticizes
4
transcendental, Two types: linguistic the other."
neglecting larger societal compared to
Schutz's Goal: Understand the overemphasis on
(conversations) and contexts. controlled
existential) dynamic nature of participants'
situational (broader quantitative
Goal: Understand interaction and meanings, as they
contexts) methods.
the meaning meaning-making. might be biased or
Goal: Understand how
structure of Methods: unreliable.
people make sense of
everyday life. and sustain Studying interactions
Methods: interactions. and individuals'
"Epoche" Methods: interpretations
bracketing Analyzing indexicality Analyzing self-
assumptions to and reflexivity in presentations and
reveal underlying language and actions negotiations
essence Disrupting situations
Reflexivity - to reveal underlying
examining own processes
consciousness

Chapter 1: The nature of inquiry - 202071028