LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL NOTES

The Spanish Colonization of the Philippines

A. The Expiditions and Conquest of the Philippines

Ferdinand Magellan – sailed from San Lucar, Spain in 1519 on board

five(5) very antiquated ships with a crew of 235 men and reached the
Philippines on March 17, 1521.He called the entire archipelago as Islands of
Saint Lazarus He was killed in a battle in April 1521 by Lapulapu.
Victoria- the only (and the smallest) ship with eighteen(18)
Europeans and four(4)Malays to complete the voyage back to Spain in 1522
led by Sebastian del Cano.
Limasawa- it was where the first mass was celebrated in the
Philippines on March 31, 1521.

Aside from proving that the earth is round and the discovery of the Pacific
Ocean the voyage of Magellan put the Philippines on the map of the world.

The 1525 Loaisa Expedition- led by Garcia Jofre de Loaisa and

Sebastian del Cano. Loaisa died on July 30, 1526 and del Cano died four
days later. Alonso de Salazar took over and reached Mindanao( called by the
Spaniards as Vizcaya)

The 1527 Saavedra Expidition – tasked to find out what happened

to Loaisa Expedition. Reached Surigao but hurriedly left due to hostility of the
natives. Saavedra died upon reaching the Caroline Islands.

The Villalobos Expedition (1542-1546) – led by Ruy Lopez de

Villalobos with six(6) ships and 370 men they departed from Juan
Gallego(Navidad), Mexico in November 1542 with mission of establishing a
colony in the Philippines. They reached Banganga Bay in Davao Oriental on
Feb. 2, 1543. The greatest contribution of of the Villalobos Expedition was the
naming of Tandaya or Kandaya(Leyte) as Las Phelipinas in honor of then
crown-prince Philip II by Bernardo de la Torre, commander of the ship San
Juan de Letran.

The Legazpi- Urdaneta Expidition(1564)- on November 21, 1564

four(4) ships with 380 men left Mexico. The pilot was Fr. Andres de
Urdaneta and Miguel Lopez de Legaspi the head of the expedition.On
February 13, 1565 they reached the west coast of Samar. Legaspi contracted
a blood compact with Si Gala and Si Katunaw of Bohol.

The first Spanish settlement was planted in Cebu which was finally
called by the Spaniards as the City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus( because
of infant Jesus’ image found by the conquistadores). The second spanish
settlement was in Panay island, founded in 1569 along Panay River.
 Juan de Salcedo headed the mission to Luzon, claiming the Lubang,
Talim and Mindoro.
Upon learning that foreign trade that was taking place in Manila did not
reached Cebu Legaspi sent Marshall Martin de Goiti to Manila. Goiti had a
blood compact with Rajah Matanda, Rajah Sulayman and Rajah Lakandula.
Rajah Sulayman resisted the coming of the Spaniards. He sought the help of
the chieftains of Hagonoy and Macabebe. On June 23, 1571 Rajah Sulayman
died in a battle against the Spaniards. The next day (June 24, 1571) Legaspi
declared Manila the capital of the colony and renamed it Nueva Castilla.

B. Spanish Colonial Institutions in the Philippines

1. Political Institutions
From 1565 to 1821 the Philippines was captaincy-general administered by the
Spanish king through the viceroyalty of Nueva Espana(Mexico).

Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies (Real y Supremo

Consejo de las Indias) established in 1524 was the lawmaking body and
administrator of the Spanish empire. The Ministry of the Colonies (Ministerio
de Ultramar) by May 1863, had supplanted the Council of Indies.

A. Governor-general – spokesman and representative of the king of Spain

in the Philippines

 As a captain-general he was the commander of the army and the navy.

He was also the president of the Real Audiencia (Supreme Court), the islands
highest judicial body.

 He was also the vice-real patron (he had the power over ecclesiastical
appointments in the church and even the right to supervise mission work).

B. Alcalde-Mayor (Provincial Governor)

 headed the alcaldia(previously the encomienda), provincia or lalawigan

for the pacified provinces.

 He exercised the multiple prerogatives as judge, inspector of

encomiendas, chief of police, tribute collector and even vice-regal patron
and captain-general of the province.

 Also enjoys the special privilege of engaging in trade through indulto de

comercio.

Encomienda- (overseen by the encomiendero)

is not a land grant but an administrative unit for the purpose of collecting
tribute from the natives. Supplanted eventually by alcaldia.
 Corregimientos- unpacified areas or military districts were headed by
corregidores.

Cabildos (city council)- there were two alcaldes, twelve

regidores( councilors), chief of police, secretary and other officers. The seat
of the office was known as the Ayuntamiento (city hall).
The six cities during 17th century were Manila, Cebu, Vigan, Cagayan
(Nueva Segovia) Arevalo(in Iloilo) and Naga (Nueva Caceres)

C. Gobernadorcillo (later replaced by capitan municipal in 1894)

 headed the pueblo or municipio.

 The highest position that can be attained by a native Filipino.
 He must be 25 years of age, a cabeza de barangay for four years and
literate in oral or written spanish.

 Among his multifarious functions were preparation of the padron (tribute

list); recruitment and distribution of men for draft labor, communal public
work (as in construction and repair of minor bridges) and quinto (military
conscription), postal clerk and judge in civil suits involving P44.00 or less

 He was assisted by three supernumeraries or inspectors, constables

(aguacils) four tenientes segundos, lieutenants of districts (teniente del
barrio) and a secretary (directorcillo)

Cabeza de Barangay- headed the barrio or barangay. His main

role was as tax and contribution collector for the gobernadorcillo. The cabezas
were exempted from taxation. He was also responsible for peace and order
and recruited polistas (forced laborer) for communal public works. Cabezas
who had served for 25 years were exempted from forced labor .

The Residencia and the Visita – the institutions that were meant to
check the abuse of power of royal officials.

Residencia- it was the judicial review of a residenciado (one judged)

conducted at the end of his term of office, supervised publicly by a juez de
residencia
Imposed on a residenciado found guilty of public misconduct were either
heavy fines, sequestration of properties, or imprisonment or a combination of
all three penalties.

Visita- was conducted clandestinely by a visitador-general sent from

Spain and might occur any time within the officials term, without any previous
notice.
A specific visita meant an investigation of a specific official or a province; a
general visita meant an investigation of the whole viceroyalty or captaincy-
general.
 Reduccion(resettlement)- the process of bringing the natives from
disparate barangay into town or pueblo ( under the sound of the bell).
Fr. Juan de Plasencia was resposible for the reduccion plan which he
presented to the Synod of Manila (1582) and approved by missionaries of all
religious orders.

Convento/casa real/plaza complex- pueblos where the church

and the convent would be constructed. All Christian converts were required
to construct their houses around the church.

In 1595 King Philip II decrees Manila the capital of Philippine

Islands. One year earlier he partitioned the Philippines among religious orders.

Consequences of the Establishment of Spanish Political Institutions:

 Fragmentation of traditional social control – traditional rulers were
stripped of their social and political authority.
 It arrested the natural evolution of indigenous communities
 Depletion of male population due to pacification campaigns and Moro
wars
 Islands of the archipelago were brought to a single political authority
 Loss of freedom on the part of the Filipinos.
 The high influence of Catholic church on the state.

2. Economic Institutions

Taxation-income generating mechanisms introduced by the Spanish

colonial government consisting of direct and indirect taxes, monopolies of
special crops and items such as spirituous liquors(1712-1864), betel
nut(1764), tobacco (1782-1882), explosives(1805-1864).

Buwis(tribute)- maybe paid in cash or kind, partly or wholly, as

palay or tobacco, chicken, textiles, or even wax and special regional produce
depending on the area of the country.

Diezmos Prediales – tithes (taken as share of your income

that must be given to church)

Sanctorum – tax for church support

Samboangan (donativo de Zamboanga)- a special tax of one

half reales collected for the purpose of crushing the Moro raids.

Bandala- annual enforced sale or requisitioning of goods

particularly of rice or coconut oil

Cedula Personal (replaced tribute by 1884)-residence tax

 Exempted from Taxes were: descendants of the Filipino chiefly
class who served in the pacification campaign of the conquistadores; laborers
of the arsenal and artillery yard of Cavite; mediquillos (Filipinos who had
medical experience but no title); vaccinators; college and university students
of Santo Tomas, San Jose, San Juan de Letran and San Carlos(Cebu).

Everyone, whether Filipino or other nationalities over eighteen years

of age were required to pay cedula personal.

b. Polo y Servicio Personal or Prestacion Personal (forced

labor)- Drafted laborers (polista) were either Filipinos or Chinese male
mestizos ranging from 16 to 60 years old, who were obligated to give
personal service to community project, like construction and repair of
infrastructure, church construction,or cutting logs for forty (40) days until
1884, when labor was reduced to fifteen days.

Falla- payment to be made if one wanted to be exempted from forced labor

c. Encomienda- a grant of administrative unit for the privilege

of collecting tribute.

Two Types: realenga (royal crown encomienda);

private encomienda

Tribute are collected yearly from all 19 – 60 year old Filipino males

d. Manila – Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565 – 1815)- exchange of

goods between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico.
e. The Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country
(1780ca. – 1895) – established by Governor-general Jose Basco y Vargas
following the royal order. It created monopolies of tobacco, areca nut,
spirituous liqours and explosives which brought untold hardships to Filipinos.
It encouraged the farming of indigo, spices, cotton, mulberry for silk
production, bee- keeping, mining, and inventions.
f. Royal Philippine Company (1785- 1814) – created for the
purpose of uniting American and Asian commerce. It was granted exclusive
monopoly of bringing to Manila not only the Philippine but also Chinese and
Indian goods and shipping them directly to Spain. The Manila – Acapulco
trade deteriorated as the Royal Philippine Company reaped profits.
g. Infrastructure, Telecommunications and Public Utilities
Development – roads and a railway sytem was constructed. Telephone
service was started in 1890. Ships sailed from Manila to Hongkong weekly
while Manila-Barcelona trip was monthly.Inter-island shipping to Visayas and
Mindanao was mainly through steamers and steamboats.
h. The Rise of the Haciendas (mid 19th century) – the export
crop economy (cultivation of crops for export such as tobacco and sugarcane)
encourage the acquisition of vast tracks of lands.
Maura Law (the Royal Decree of February 13, 1894) gave landholders only
one year within which to secure legal title to their lands, resulting to
widespread landgrabbing.

Consequences of the Establishment of Spanish Economic

Institutions
 Neglect of traditional agriculture due to the promotion of export crop
economy.
 Forced labor lead to depletion of male population and neglect of
traditional agriculture.
 Export crop economy, forced labor and taxation deepened the poverty
suffered by native Filipinos.
 Hacienda system led to and magnified the bifurcation of social classes –
the soci-economic divide between the rich and the poor became more
evident.

3. Socio-cultural and Educational Institutions

 Introduction of Christianity and the building of churches and monasteries

 Introduction of Christian holidays and fiesta celebration honoring the
saints
 Establishment of schools so that children “would learn the alphabet,
language, Christian doctrine and customs, policies and transmit them in
the towns”
 Introduction of Castillan culture

Colegio de Manila – established by the Jesuits in 1595. The

subsequent year the Colegio de Ninos was founded. Colegio Maximo de San
Ignacio (1589); College of San Ildefonso (University of San
Carlos, Cebu, 1599); College of San Jose – a residential college;
Ateneo de Manila University- started as Escuela Pia for poor
boys (1817) then it became the College of Immaculate Conception and was
converted into Ateneo Municipal de Manila in 1865;
Univesity of Santo Tomas (1611)- originally called the Colegio de
Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario
The first boarding schools for Spanish girls in the Philippines were the
Colegios (secondary schools)
Santa Isabel College (1632)- considered to be the oldest school for
girls in the Philippines
Beaterios- exclusive colegios for daughters of upper-class Spaniards
called beatas
Governor Narciso Claveria – decreed (1849) that Filipinos should
adopt Hispanic names based on compiled names of saints, indigenous and
Chinese patronymics, flora and fauna, geographical names and arts.
Hispanic dances and music , religious dramas of the Sinakulo, Zarsuela and
the komedya or moro-moro were introduced as well.
A papal bull of Pope Gregory XIII (1578) formalizes the diocesan
authority in Manila and the construction of Manila Cathedral
Compadrazgo (ritual co-parenthood)came with baptism and
marriages and further strengthened existing extended kinship relations.
Doctrina Christiana- one of the earliest book published in the
country (1593)
Francisco Baltazar – considered as the prince of tagalog poets
Governor Francisco Tello was instructed by the crown to teach
Filipinos the Castillan language. The order was however resisted by the friars
for fear that a common lingua franca would lead to national unity.
Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay – considered to be the first Filipino
engraver
Tomas Pinpin –considered as the first Filipino printer

Consequences of the Introduction of Christianity, Spanish Culture

and Education

 Prohibition of exercise of indigenous beliefs and practices

 Adoption of Spanish surnames and first names.
 The change in the manner of Filipino dressing
 The emergence of mestizo class
 The influence of Spanish language and alphabet
 The adoption of Gregorian calendar and the Western method of keeping
time
 Introduction of Spanish music and dances
 The popularity of Spanish dishes
 The fracturing of indigenous identities

II. The World During Rizal’s Time

A. The Enlightenment Thought and Enlightenment Project
 Jean Jacques Rousseau
 Immanuel Kant
 Nicholas de Condorcet
B. The Royal Absolutism, French Revolution and the Rise of
Nationalism
C. Spain and the World in 19th Century
The Enlightenment Thought and Enlightenment Project

 Beginning in mid-1500s a few scholars published works that challenged

the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church.
 These scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories.
 They launched a change in European thought that historians call the
Scientific Revolution.
 The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural
world.
 That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to
question accepted beliefs.
 The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
began eventually developed into a new approach in science called the
scientific method.
 In the wake of Scientific Revolution, and the new ways of thinking it
prompted, scholars and philosophers began to reevaluate old notions
about other aspect of society.
 They sought new insight into the underlying beliefs regarding government,
religion, economics, and education.
 Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement
that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve
problems.
 Known also as the Age of Reason
 The Enlightenment reached its height in mid-1700s in France and the
social critics using Enlightenment thoughts were called philosophes.
 These critics believed that people could apply reason to all aspect of life.

Core Belief of the Philosophes

1. Reason. Enlightenment thinkers believed truth could be discovered

through reason or logical thinking.

2. Nature. The philisophes believe that what was natural was also
good and reasonable.

3. Happiness. The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that

people should find happiness in the afterlife and urged people to seek well-
being on earth.

4. Progress. The philosophes stressed the limitless possibility for

human improvement through the use of reason.

5. Liberty. The philosophes called for the liberties that the English
people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights.
 Changing Idea: the Right to Govern

Old Idea New Idea

A monarch’s rule is justified by divi A government’s power com

ne right es from the consent of the
governed

Enlightenment Thinkers

1. Jean Jaques Rousseau(1712- 1778)

 “ Man is by nature good, and that only our institutions have made him
bad.”
 “Man is born free but everywhere he is in chain.”
 Civilization is the cause of man’s unhappiness.
 corruption of society is caused by learning in arts and sciences
 Before art and literature molded our behavior and taught our passions to
speak an artificial language our morals were rude but natural.
 Modern manners have made everyone conform in speech, dress, and
attitude always following the laws of fashion, never the promptings of our
own nature, so that we no longer dare appear to be what we really are.
 The herd of mankind all act exactly alike and thus we never know even
among our friends with whom we are dealing.
 Human relationships are now full of deceptions, whereas earlier men
could easily see through one another, an advantage which prevented
their having many vices.
 Rousseau directed his attacks against luxury and against political leaders
who emphasized the economic aspect of politics
 He reminded his contemporaries that “politicians of the ancient world
were always talking about morals and virtue; ours speak of nothing but
commerce and money.”
 Luxury could produce a brilliant but not a lasting society, for although
money can buy everything else, it cannot buy morals and citizens.
 The question is no longer whether man is honest but whether he is clever,
not whether the book is useful but whether it is well-written.
 Rewards is lavished on ingenuity, but virtue is left unhonored.
 A stable society is based upon a set of opinion or values which the
majority accept as a rule for their thought and behavior.
 Rousseau believed that these firmly held opinions can be undermined by
philosophy and science
 Each society is unique and its genius is its special local set of values but
science and philosophy seek to discover universal truth.
 The pursuit of universal truth exposes local opinion as less than truth and
thereby destroys its authority.
 Science emphasizes the requirement of proof and eveidence, yet the
dominant opinions about the most important subject cannot be
demonstrated beyond doubt thereby losing their binding force.
 Science requires an attitude of doubt which is contrary to mood of ready
acceptance of opinion. What keeps society together is faith not
knowledge.
 Man is born free and everywhere he is in chain. In a state of nature man
was happy...because he lived entirely for himself and therefore possessed
absolute independence.
 In state of nature man is motivated by a natural sentiment which inclines
every animal to watch over his own preservation, and which, directed in
man reason and pity, produces humanity and virtue
 As man develops social contacts, he also develops vices, for now he is
motivated by artificial sentiment which is born in society and which leads
every individual to make more of himself than every other.
 This inspires men all the evils they perpetrate on each other...including
intense competition for the few places of honor, envy, malice, vanity,
pride and contempt.
 The solution is social contract.

2. Marquis Antoine Nicholas de Condorcet (1743-1794)

“ Will men approach a condition in which everyone will have the knowledge
necessary to conduct himself in the ordinary affairs of life, according to the
light of his own reason, to preserve his mind free from prejudice, to
understand his rights and to exercise them in accordance with his conscience
and his creed?”

Hope For the Future Condition of Mankind:

 The abolition of inequality within nations.
 The progress of equality within each nation.
 The true perfection of mankind.

The time will come when:

 The sun will only shine on free men who know no other master but their
reason;
 When tyrants and slaves, priests and their stupid or hypocritical
instruments will exist only in works of history and on the stage....
 To learn to recognize and so to destroy, by force of reason, the first seeds
of tyrrany and superstition, should they ever dare to reappear amongst us.
 History have shown that there is a great difference between:
 The rights that the law allow its citizens and the rights that they actually
enjoy;
 The equality established by political codes and that which in fact exists
among individuals.

Main Causes of this Differences:

1. Inequality in wealth
2. Inequality in status between the man whose means of subsistence is
hereditary and the man whose means is dependent on the length of his life
or...part of his life in which he is capable of work
3. Inequality in education
 With greater equality of education, there will be greater equality in
industry and so in wealth;
 Equality in wealth necessarily leads to equality in education;
 Equality between nations and equality between a single nation are
mutually dependent.
 A well directed system of education rectifies natural inequality in ability
instead of strengthening it...
 good laws remedy natural inequality in the means of subsistence...
 in societies where laws have brought this same equality, liberty...will be
more widespread, more complete than in the total independence of
savage life..

Major Ideas of Enlightenment

Idea Thinker Impact

Natural Rights: Life, Lib John Locke Fundamental to US Declaration of Independence

erty, Property

Separation of Powers Montesquieu France, US , and Latin American nations use separation of powers

in their new constitution

Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in US Bill of Rights and French Declaration of Rights
expression
of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate

censorship
Abolishment of torture Beccaria Guaranteed in US Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced

in nation of Europe and Americas

Religious freedom Volraire Guaranteed in US Bill of Rights and French Declaration of Rights of
Man and Citizen;

European monarchs reduce persecution

Womens equality Wollstonecraft Womens rights group formed in Europe and north America

Legacy of Enlightenment
1. Belief in Progress- the successes of Scientific Revolution gave
people the confidence that human reason could solve social problems.

2. A more secular outlook – people began to question openly their

religious belief and the teaching of the church. One by one scientists
discovered that mysteries of the universe could be explained mathematically..

3. Importance of individual-(the rise of individualism) people began

to turn away from the the church and royalty for guidance and looked to
themselves instead
B. Royal Abolutism, French Revolution and the Rise of Nationalism
 1n 1789 the French Assembly passed the Declaration of Rights of Man
and Citizen
 This document insisted that political authority or sovereignty could not be
found in any individual
 Instead sovereignty came from the nation
 Nation is a group of people with common language, culture, ethnicity or
religion
 The American and French Revolution led to a new kind of state- the
nation-state.
 The feeling of unity as a nation is called nationalism
 Revolutionary France combined nationalism with a call for political
equality and constitutional government
 Napoleon’s conquest helped spread these ideas through Europe
 National movements developed in resistance to Napoleon
 Nationalist everywhere began demanding freedom from king or foreign
rule

Spain in the Nineteenth Century

 In 1814, in a spontaneous demonstration of nationalism, the Spaniards
managed to drive back the French forces and gain independence
 In 1820, revolts in southern Italy and Spain were crushed by Austria,
Prussia, and Russia
 These countries had agreed to end nationalist revolt and keep monarchs
in power

Causes of the Failure of the Spaniards to Establish New Institutions

 Succession of monarchs like Ferdinand VII and Isabela II who were unfit
to rule.
 The split among the intellectuals into two irreconcilable camps, the
conservatives and the liberals who failed to advance adequate practical
solutions to alleviate the country’s ills.
 The attitude of an indifferent and politically ignorant people which blocked
the way to any development.

 After Ferdinand VII regained his throne he laid aside the liberal reforms
granted by the provisional government before his restoration
 He flouted the Constitution and the Cortes
 The abolitionists rallied behind Carlos, Ferdinand VII younger brother and
conspired against the king
 The liberals, unable to gain popular support, sought the help of few
liberally-inclined army officers to reinforce the Constitution and restore
peace.
 The liberals attempted to set up a constituttional government, despite
objections fron the king.
 Isabela II ascended the throne after the death of Ferdinand VII
 The 35-year reign of Isabela II was marked by successive premiership of
five military politicians
 The Spanish Constituion was modified thrice: in 1845, 1852 and 1855
 The country see-sawed between absolutism & liberalism

Causes of 1868 Revolution that Ended Isabela II Reign

1. Her tendency towards absolutism
2. Her repeated betrayals of her prime ministers
3. The increasing dissemination of liberal ideas made her extremely unpopular
and ineffective

 After 2 years of indecision the leaders of revolution offered the crown to

Amadeo of Savoy
 Abdicated the throne after 2 years for failure to reconcile the two
opposing camps
 This ended the threats of monarchy and ushered in the birth of Spanish
Republic
 Its 6 years of existence saw bitter strife, frequent changes of presidents
and ministers, and eventually a new Carlist war.
 As a result the monarchy was restored and Isabela’s son, Alfonso XII was
made king in 1875.
 His minister, Canovas del Castillo, strengthened the monarchy,
suppressed all republican attempts to create trouble, overthrow the Carlist
Movement and restored peace.
 A new Cortes convoked with a new Constitution in 1876
 The constitution embodied democratic features such as: a partly elected
senate; religious tolerance; freedom of the press; trial by jury; universal
manhood suffrage
 Parliamentary monarchy was set up.
 Legislative power and power to change the Constitution were given jointly
to the king and the Cortes
 In practice the sovereignty of the people was farce.
 Elections were managed from Madrid.
 While giving majority votes to the government candidate, Madrid kept the
opposition party well disposed to carry on the game by granting its
candidate an adequate number of votes
 The will of the monarch prevailed through his powerful minister.
 King Alfonso died in 1885.
 Minister Canovas del Castillo sought to perpetuate himself in power and
appointed Mateo Sagasta minister.
 To safeguard their position and that of the two-party system the two
official agreed on alternate premiership.
 The Canivite system brought peace but it also deprive the country of the
development of political practices that would have established a better
foundation for constitutional governmant
 During this period of political setback the economy of the country suffered
greatly.
 Constant change of power resulted in confusion and insecurity thus
preventing the rapid growth of commerce and industry.
 After the war of independence (1804-1814) slow econmic recovery began.
 The initiative of middle class, the flow of foreign capital, the efforts of the
government quickened the phase of Spanish development.
 Spanish masses, however, lived in poverty and social misery so that in
later part of the 19th century, leaders demanded protection of social and
economic rights.
 The doctrine of socialism and anarchism gradually spread in Spain.
 They founded their organizations, published their official organs,
increasingly used strikes and sabotage, defying old restraints to win
political and economic concessions
 By 1868 concepts of the tyranny of capital, the rights of labor,
antimilitarism, hatred of the wealthy and atheism were widespread.
 The uncertainty of Spanish political situation affected her remaining
territorial possessions.
 While she fought the French and attempted various forms of government,
Spain lost all her colonies except Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the
Philippines
 The last decade of the 19th Century witnessed popular unrest in colonies
such as the Philippines

The Philippines During Rizal’s Time (1764-1898)

 British forces attacked Manila in 1762 and occupied it until 1764
 The rise of British power led to maritime peace imposed by Britain’s navy.
 European merchants and smugglers used the maritime peace to trade
directly with China
 Galleon trade began losing money due to competition from European
merchants. Galleon trade ended (1811 for eastbound ship and 1815 for
westbound ship)
 British rule opened the Philippines to world trade and Spain was not able
to reverse the trend or stop the illegal entry of comodities into the
Philippines
 The Philippines lost custom’s revenue and commercial raison détat
 Exiles from Spanish America competed for jobs and influence with
Philippine born Spaniards
 Economic growth and industrialization in the wider world created new
markets for raw materials.
 The development of Philippine agricultural and minereal resources
became the logical replacement for galleon trade.
 Land became more important resource
 Manila and other port cities became commercial, managerial and
professional centers
 Governor-General Jose Basco Y Vargas repealed the ban on Chinese
merchants, which helped bring internal trade to life
 He began to open Manila to foreign traders, both Asians and non-Asian
 He established the tobacco monopoly – a government-auctioned right to
produce, sell and/or operate a monopoly.

Positive Result of Tobacco Monopoly

 The colony was able to remit revenue to Spain;
 Cultivation of tobacco led to production of cigar which is the colony’s
export in 19th Century
 Clearing of forested land for tobacco pioneered the way for other
commercial crops( abaca and sugar)to be cultivated in interior regions of
the colony.

 In 1834 the Royal Philippine Company was abolished and Manila was
officially opened for trade and residence to merchants of any nationality
coming from any foreign port.
 Discrimination against Chinese ships trading at Manila ended.
 Trading privileges of alcaldes mayores were abolished in order to
stimulate private trade. This opportunity was taken up by Chinese
immigrants who played an important part in cash cropping.
 Chinese immigrants link provincial producers to world market through a
combination of well-placed agents and credit from Western commercial
firms.
 American and British firms advanced imported goods on credit, allowing
Chinese businesses to operate with little of their own capital.
 These firms also conveyed demand information from foreign markets...a
key factor in the development of sugar plantation
 By 1840s, 90% of total export revenue came from six Philippine grown
cash crops: sugar, tobacco, abaca (hemp) fiber and cordage, indigo,
coffee and cotton
 Throughout the colony, the cash economy replaced trade in kind and by
1830s only three provinces still paid tribute in rice.
 In 1850s and 1860s, the ports of Iloilo and Cebu opened to foreign
shipping, stimulating trade and agriculture in Visayas.
 Soon new tracts of forested land in Negros Island were cleared for sugar.
 Metropolitan Manila’s (Intramuros and its growing suburbs) opening to
foreign traders made it a call for ships from India, China and east coast of
United States
 Population increased from 100,000 in 1822 to 150,000 by mid-century
 More Spaniards came to the Phils after 1869
 Forces of modernization were felt in the Phils well before the 20th century.
 Modernization of the economy required the use of cash.
 This led many farmers into export crop production, which in turn made
them dependent upon purchased rice to fed their families.
 Population grow from perhaps 2.2 million in 1820 to 4 million in 1846 and
6.5 million in 1898
 All the above-mentioned factors led to land loss on the part of many
families and accumulation on the part of others
 When peasants need money they turned for loan to an indio or mestizo
member of the principalia in a system called pacto de retroventa.
 Families who cannot buy back their land stayed on as sharecroppers or
tenants
 Accumulation of land also occured through land grabbing, often by
powerful religious orders
 Cultivators stayed on as tenant labor, but didn’t deal directly with friar
owners or lay managers. Instead, large tracts of lands were rented to
principalia inquilinos, who sublet the small parcels to peasant cultivators

The Three-tiered System of Crop Production

1.The Friars – the ultimate economic, spiritual and political

rulers of the country side.

2. Indio-mestizo Elites – gained considerable wealth. Without

doing a stroke of work they make more than the estate owners
themselves.

3. Cultivators- descended into precarious hand- to-mouth

existence.

 Collection and distribution network evolved and landholders accumulated

wealth but planting, harvesting and processing method remained crude
and no investment in technical improvement was done.
 The uneven impact of economic changes devastated rural population.
 In the northern Luzon provinces supplying tobacco monopoly, the
government’s strict prohibition on growing any other crops sparked
revolts and population flight.
 The central plains of Luzon were transformed from a forested area into a
rice – producing zone in a process that concentrated land ownership in
the hands of the few and dispossessed original homesteaders.
 In western Visayas, the weaving industry collapsed after British firms
imported cheap cotton, pushing the industry’s female labor force into
indebtedness and poverty
 Sugar industry grew by depressing wages and constantly acquiring new
land rather than by investing capital on new technology for more
intensive and efficient cultivation of existing plantations.
 The arbitrary rule of the friars and systematic corruption of alcaldes
mayores, gobernadorcillos and cabezas demands reforms
 The most urgent problems facing reformers were social unrest rising from
corruption in administration of the tribute, the polos, and justice;
escalating Muslim raids, which destabilized the communities and disrupted
trade; and a government debt of 5.6 million pesos.
 Political instability in Spain was reflected in the governance of the
Philippines. Between 1800 and 1860, 24 governors were appointed.
 Attempt to separate the executive and judicial powers of the government
was fully implemented in 1890s.
 Attempt to limit the power of the friars failed.

Accelerators of Filipino Nationalism

1. Opening of the Philippines to World Commerce
 Foreign consulates were established in the Philippines: Russia and US in
1817; France and Germany in 1835; Great Britain in 1834; Japan in 1888
 Provincial ports were opened: Sual in Pangasinan , Iloilo and Zamboanga
in 1855; Cebu in 1860; Legaspi, Albay and Leyte in 1873
 The opening of ports created a greater demand for export crops such as
rice, sugar, abaca, tobacco, and indigo where Filipino and Chinese
mestizo social elites profited highly.

2. Rise of the Middle Class and the Ilustrados

 As a result of great economic transformation a middle class of Asian and
Eurasian mestizos emerged in the Philippines
 The clase media rose from the economic boom derived from expanded
agriculturre and commerce on by the rising native entrepreneurs
 They formed the town principalia, an elite social group composed of
former gobernadocillos and minor native bureaucrats owning at least
P50.00 in land taxes, decorated personnel and schoolmasters
 Personal possessions;education; size, construction materials and location
of the house in the calle real (main street); ownership of livestock,
sugarmills, imported furniture tableware; and use of Don and Dona, were
indicators of social status

3.Influx of liberal ideas

 The opening of Suez canal in 1869 madde the travel to Spain and back
shorter.
 Liberal ideas of Liberty, Fraternity and Equality and democratic ideas
coming from United States began to penetrate into the country through
Spaniards and Filipino migrant abraod.
 The ideas of liberalism may be traced to the secondary and tertiary
education made available to the Filipinos.
 The ideas of John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau (social contract
theory) left an indelible mark on Filipino inteligentsia

4. The governorship of Carlos Maria de la Torre

 He refused to have security for himself and went unescorted

 Abrogated flogging of Filipino deserters and instead provided a one month
imprisonment.
 Abolished press espionage and proclaimed freedom of speech

5. Racial Discrimination

6. Regular – Secular Conflicts

 Parishes were transfered from regular clergy to the seculars
 Secularization was transmuted into the Filipinization of the Church
 In 1583 Philip II proclaimed that parish administration pertained to the
seculars
 1753 Ferdinanad VII proclaimed that there were enough competent
seculars to supplant the regulars
 Secularization of parishes actually toook place during the tenure of Arch.
Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa y Rufina( 1767-87)
 With Jesuit expulsion in 1768 parishes were taken over by the seculars
 By 1826 parishes were again returned to the regulars
 1861 decree returned the secular-run parishes to the Recollects

Cavite Mutiny and GomBurZa Martyrdom

 In January 1872 Filipino soldiers mutinied in the Cavite arsenal

 Father Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora were accused as
instigators and subsequently executed

IV.The Life of A Hero

Short Biography

Jose Rizal
 born in Kalamba Laguna,on June 19, 1861, son of Francisco Mercado and
Teodora Alonso.
 He was baptized by Fr. Rufino Collantes and his godfather was Fr.
Pedro Casanas
 Jose Rizal has ten siblings, the oldest was Saturnina and the youngest
was Soledad. His only brother was Paciano.
 Maestro Celestino was the first tutor of Rizal
 Justiniano Aquino Cruz was his first school teacher
 His wrote his first poem at the age of eight(8) and was entitled Sa Aking
Mga Kababata
 January 20 1872 – Gomburza Martyrdom
 June 1872 the arrest and imprisonment of Riza’ls mother
 June 10, 1872 Rizal entered Ateneo
 April 1877 Rizal enrolled in the University of Santo Tomas
 1879 – Rizal’s poem To the Filipino Youth won the prize for best poem
 November 3, 1882 Rizal enrolled at Universidad Central de Madrid in two
courses- Medicine and Philosophy and Letters.
 Shortly after his arrival he joined the Circulo Hispano-Filipino
 March 1883, Rizal joined the masonry(masonic lodge Acacia)
 June 25 1884, Rizal delivered a speech Brindis (Salute to Luna and
Hidalgo) for the double victory of Filipino artists in the National Exposition
of Fine Arts in Madrid (Luna- Spolarium; Hidalgo- Christian Virgins
Exposed to the Populace)
 Rizal started writing the Noli toward the end of 1884, finished it on
February 21, 1887 and came off the press on March 21,1887 in Berlin,
Germany . Maximo Viola lend money to Rizal for the printing of the Noli.
 Rizal came home on August 1887. IN Calamba he established a medical
clinic. His first patient was his mother, who was almost blind. He treated
her eyes but could not yet perform a surgical operation for the cataract
was not yet ripe.
 Rizal came to be called Dr. Ulliman for the news had spread that a great
doctor from Geremany had arrived. Within a few months he earned P900
and by February 1888 he earned a total of P5,000.
 Eventually he was summoned by Governor-general Terrero ( a liberal
minded Spaniard) on the controversy over the Noli.
 As the church had decided to prohibit the circulation of the Noli, Rizal was
provided with a bodyguard by Governor Terrero in the person of Lt. Jose
Taviel de Andrade.
 Influenced by the Noli Governor General Terrero ordered the investigation
of the friar estates. The Calamba folks solicited Rizal’s help in gathering
facts and listing their grievances.
 The findings of Rizal was signed by the tenants and three officials of
Calamba Hacienda.
 Rizal’s exposure of the deplorable conditions of tenancy in Calamba
infuriated the friars. They exerted pressure on the Governor General to
eliminate Rizal.
 Governor General Terrero summoned and “advised” Rizal to leave the
Philippines.
 February 3, 1888 Rizal leave again the Philippines. On May ,1888 he
arrived in London. He proceeded on annotating Antonio de Morga’s
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Historical Events of the Philippine Islands)
and published it in 1890 in Paris.
 December 31, 1888, inauguration of Asociacion La Solidaridad and Rizal
was chosen as an honorary president. In February 15, 1889 the
newspaper La Solidaridad was founded
 Rizal while attending the Universal Exposition of Paris 1889 founded the
Indios Bravos and R.D.L.M. Society
 Rizal started writing the El Fili in Calamba in October 1887 and finished
it on March 29, 1891 in Biarritz, a resort city in French Riviera. The
printing of El Fili was started on July 1891 in Ghent Belgium and came off
the press on September 18, 1891. It was made possible by the help of
Valentin Ventura who lent money to Rizal.
 Rizal left Ghent on October 31, 1891 and arrived in Hongkong on
November 20, 1891. On December of that same year Rizal’s family arrived
in Hongkong from Calamba, Laguna. In Hongkong Rizal practiced his
profession as an opthalmic surgeon.
 Rizal decided to return to the Philippines and left Hongkong on June 21,
1892 together with his sister Lucia and arrived in the Philippines on June
26, 1892.
 On July 31, 1896 Rizal left Dapitan to volunteer as a doctor in Cuba. Rizal
arrived in Manila on August 6, 1896 to catch a trip for Spain. As the boat
had left for Spain before their arrival Rizal was transferred to a Spanish
cruiser Castilla and stayed there from August 6 to September 2.
 August 19,1896 – the Katipunan was discovered by Fr. Mariano Gil .
 Rizal left for Spain on August 30, 1896. Governor-General Ramon Blanco
ordered his arrest on September 30, 1896 on board the ship Isla de
Panay.
 On October 3, the ship arrived in Barcelona and Rizal was detained in his
cabin for 3 days under the orders of General Eulogio Despujol, the same
one who ordered his banishment to Dapitan.
 October 6, 1896 – Rizal is sent back to the Philippines on board the ship
Colon and arrived in Manila on November 3, 1896. Rizal was transferred
to Fort Santiago.
 On November 20 the preliminary investigation of Rizal started under
judge advocate Colonel Francisco Olive and lasted for five(5) days.
 On December 8, 1896, Rizal was allowed to choose his defense lawyer
from the army. He chose Lt. Luis Taviel de Andrade the brother of Lt.
Jose Taviel de Andrade his bodyguard on his first homecoming.
 Rizal’s case was forwarded to Malacanang Palace on December 13, 1896,
the same day that General Camilo Polavieja replace Governor Blanco as
governor-general of the Philippines.
 On December 26, 1896 the trial of Rizal for the case of rebellion
commence. The military court pronounced him guilty and sentenced to
death.
 December 28, 1896 Polavieja approved the decision of the court martial
and ordered the execution of Rizal on December 30 at 7am at
Bagumbayan Field(Luneta).
The Education of Rizal
Early Education
 Rizal’s first teacher was his mother
 His first tutor was Maestro Celestino and the second was Maestro Lucas
Padua
 Leon Monroy, a classmate of Rizal’s father became his tutor in Spanish
and Latin. After Monroy’s death Rizal’s parents decided to send him to a
private school in Binan
 His teacher was Maestro Justiniano Cruz.
 He left Binan after a year and a half of schooling
 On June 10 1872 Rizal took the entrance exam at Ateneo Municipal
 Jose was the first in their family to use the surname Rizal because their
family name Mercado had come under suspicion of Spanish authorities
 Rizal’s first professor was Father Jose Bech.
 To improve his Spanish, Rizal took private lessons at Sta. Isabel College
 Father Francisco de Paula Sanchez was considered by Rizal to be hid best
professor
 In his leisure hours Rizal cultivated his literary talent under the guidance
of Father Sanchez.
 He studied painting under the famous Spanish painter Agustin Saez and
sculptor under Romualdo de Jesus a noted Filipino sculptor.
 He graduated in Ateneo at the top of the class
 March 23, 1877 Rizal received from his Alma Mater the degree of Bachelor
of Arts with highest honors.
 In April 1877 Rizal enrolled at the UST taking up the course on Philosophy
and Letters
 Upon the advice of Father Pablo Ramon, rector of Ateneo he decided to
study medicine (1878-79)
 Rizal also took surveying course in Ateneo during his first school term at
UST.
 In 1879 Rizal won the first prize for his poem To the Filipino Youth
 In 1880 his allegorical drama The Council of Gods won the first prize in
literary contest.
 Rizal finished his course in medicine in 1882
 On November 3, 1882 Rizal enrolled in the Universidad Central de Madrid
 He took up Medicine and Philosophy and Letters
 He also studied painting and sculpture in the Academy of Fine Arts of San
Fernando.
 He took lessons in French, German and English under private instructors
 He practiced fencing and shooting arms in Hall of Arms of Sanz y
Carbonell
 Rizal also got involved in student demonstrations on Nov. 22-24, 1884
 Rizal completed his Licentiate in Medicine on June 21, 1884
 The next academic year (1884-85) he studied and passed all the subjects
leading to the degree of Doctor of Medicine
 He was not awarded the diploma due to the fact that he was not able to
present the thesis required and failed to pay the fees
 He was also awarded the degree of Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters
on June 19, 1885 with the rating of excellent

Rizal’s Travels
From Philippines to Europe:
 On May 3,1882, Rizal departed on board the steamer Salvadora bound for
Singapore
 On May 9,1882 the steamer docked at Singapore. Rizal registered at Hotel
de la Paz and spent two days sightseeing in the city.
 Rizal transferred to French steamer Djemnah which left Singapore on May
11
 On May 17 the Djemnah reach Point Galle, a seacoast town of Ceylon (Sri
Lanka). The steamer reached Colombo, the capital city the next day.
 From Colombo the voyage crossed the Indian Ocean to the Cape of
Guardafui, Africa.
 The next stopover was in the city of Aden, and from there the Djemnah
proceeded to the city of Suez, the Red Sea terminal of the Suez
Canal.Rizal took sightseeing.
 It took 5 days to traverse Suez Canal and Rizal landed at Port Said
 From Port Said the steamer proceeded to
 Europe and reached Naples, Italy on June 11
 On June 12 the Djemnah reached the French port of Marseilles and
stayed for two and a half days.
 On June 15 he boarded a train for Barcelona and reached it on June 16
 From Barcelona Rizal eventually moved to Madrid to enroll at Central
Universidad de Madrid on Nov. 3, 1882
 From June 17- August 20, 1883 Rizal had his first summer vacation in
Paris.
 After graduating in 1885 Rizal proceeded to Paris in November 1885 and
stayed there for about four months. He worked as an assistant to Dr.
Louis de Weckert, a leading French opthalmologist from Nov. 1885 to
Feb.1886.
 On Feb. 1, 1886, Rizal left Paris for Germany. He visited Strasbourg and
other German border towns
 He arrived at Heildelberg on Feb.3, 1886. He worked at University Eye
Hospital uder the direction of Dr. Otto Becker, a distinguished German
opthalmologist and attended lectures of Dr. Becker and Prof. Kuehne.
 Rizal spent a 3-month vacation in Wilhelmfelds, a mountainous village
near Heidelberg
 He stayed at the vicarage of a kind Protestant pastor Dr. Karl Ullmer
 His vacation ended on June 25, 1886 and he returned to Heidelberg.
 On August 9, 1886 he left Heidelberg and visited various cities of
Germany and arrived at Leipzg on August 14, 1886. he stayed in that city
for 2 months and attended lectures at the University of Leipzig on history
and psychology. He befriended Prof. Friedrich Ratzel, a famous German
historian and Dr. Hans Meyer, German anthropologist

 Rizal found out that the cost of living in Leipzig was the cheapest in
Europe so that he stayed two months and a half in this German city.
 While in Leipzig he translated Schiller’s William Tell from German to
Tagalog so that the Filipinos might know the story of the champion of
Swiss Independence. He also translated in Tagalog Hans Christian
Andersen’s Fairy Tale.
 He also corrected some chapters of his 2nd novel aside from working as
proofreader in a publisher’s firm.
 On Oct. 29 Rizal left Leipzig for Dresden where he met Dr. Adolph Meyer,
Director of Anthropological and Ethnological Museum
 On Nov. 1 Rizal left Dresden and arrived in Berlin in the evening.
 In Berlin Rizal met Dr. Feodor Jagor, German scientist and traveler and
author of Travels in the Philippines.
 Dr. Jagor in turn introduced Rizal to Dr. Rudolf Virchow, a famous
German anthropologist and to the latter’s son Dr. Hans Virchow, professor
of Descriptive Anatomy

Rizal lived in Berlin for five reasons:

1. To gain further knowledge of opthalmology
2. To further his studies of sciences and languages
3. To observe the economic and politcal conditions of ther German nation
4. To associate with famous German scientists and scholars
5. To publish his novel Noli Me Tangere

 Rizal led a methodical and frugal life in Berlin. By day he worked as an

assistant in the clinic of Dr. Scheigger, eminent German opthalmologists
 At night Rizal attended lectures in University of Berlin
 He took private lessons in French under Madame Lucie Cerdole
 Rizal suffered hunger in Berlin due to crop failure in the Philippines and
no money arrived for him.
 The arrival of Maximo Viola in Berlin shortly before Christmas Day of 1886
saved Rizal
 He also agreed to finance the printing of the Noli
 On February 21, 1887 the Noli was finished. The printing shop was
Berliner Bucharged 300 pesos for 2000 copies of the novel.
 hdruckrei-Action-Gesselschaft
 It charged 300 pesos for 2000 copies of the novel.

Rizal’s Grand Tour of Europe with Maximo Viola

 At dawn of May 11, 1887 left Berlin for a tour of Europe.
 They first visited Potsdam, a city near Berlin.
 They proceeded to Dresden and visited Dr. Adolph Meyer and meeting Dr.
Jagor.
 The stay coincided with regional floral exposition in Dresden
 After leaving Dresden Rizal and Viola proceeded to Teschen (now Decin
Czech Republic).
 They sent a wire (telegram) to Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt as per
suggestion of Dr. Jagor.
 On July 31 1886 Rizal wrote his first letter to Professor Ferdinand
Blumentriit, Director of the Ateneo of Lietmeritz, Austria. Rizal heard the
latter’s interest in Philippine languages.
 At 1:30 pm of May 13, 1887 Rizal and Viola arrived at Leitmeritz, Bohemia.
They were greeted by Prof. Blumentritt in the train station.
 The professor helped Rizal and Viola get a room at hotel Krebs, after
which he brought them to his home and introduced him to his family.
 Rizal and Viola came to meet the town mayor; they were also invited to a
meeting of Tourist’s club of Leitmeritz.
 While in Leitmeritz Rizal met another renowned scientist of Europe, Dr.
Carlos Czepelak, a Polish scholar.
 Blumentritt also introduced Rizal to Prof. Robert Klutschak, an eminent
naturalist.
 On May 16, at 9:45 am Rizal and Viola left Leitmeritz by train.
 After Leitmeritz, Rizal and Viola visited the historic city of Prague.
 They carried a letter of recommendation from Blumentritt to Dr.
Willkomm, professor of natural history in the University of Prague.
 The professor and his family welcomed them and showed them the city.
 The two visited the tomb of Copernicus; the museum of natural history,
the famous cave where San Juan Nepomuceno was imprisoned and the
bridge from which this saint was hurled.
 After saying goodbye to the professor and his family the two proceeded
to Brunn
 On May 20, 1887 Rizal and Viola arrived in the beatiful city of Vienna,
considered to be the Queen of Danube.
 They stayed at Hotel Metropole. They visited the city’s interesting places
such as churches, museums, public parks, art galleries and theaters.
 With the letter of recommendation from Blumentritt they met Norfenfals,
one of the greatest novelist of Europe during that time. They also met
two good friends of Blumentritt, Masner and Nordmann.
 On May 24, Rizal and Viola left Vienna on river boat to see the beautiful
sights of Danube. The river voyage ended in Lintz.
 From Lintz they traveled overland to Salzburg Austria.
 From Salzburg, Austria they went to Munich, Germany.
 From Munich they went to Nuremberg.
 After Munich they visited Ulm, with the largest and tallest cathedral in
Germany
 From Ulm they went to Stuttgart, Baden and Rhinefall
 From Rhinefall they crossed to Schaffhausen, Switzerland
 They continued their tour to Basel, Bern and Lausanne.
 After Lausanne, they crossed they foggy Leman Lake to Geneva on a little
boat.
 The people of Geneva speak French, German and Italian.
 Rizal celebrated his 26th birthday on June 19, 1887 in this one of the
most beautiful city in Europe.
 Rizal and Viola spent fifteen delightful days in Geneva. On June 23 they
parted ways – Viola returned to Barcelona while Rizal continued the tour
to Italy.
 From Geneva, Rizal went to Italy. He visited Turin, Milan, Venice and
Florence
 On June 27, 1887 Rizal reached Rome, the Eternal City, also called the
City of Caesars
 On June 29th, the Feast Day of Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rizal visited for
the first time the Vatican, the City of the Popes.
 After a week of sojourn in Rome he prepared to return to the Philippines.
 Rizal’s First Homecoming
 From Rome, Rizal traveled by train to the port of Marseilles. He boarded
the steamer Djemnah (the same steamer that took him to Europe five
years ago) on July 3, 1887, enroute to Suez Canal.
 At Saigon, Vietnam (July 30, 1887) he transferred to another steamer
Haiphong which was Manila-bound. The steamer left Saigon on August 2
and arrived in Manila on August 5, 1887.
 On February 3, 1888, after a stay of six months Rizal left Manila and
arrived in Hong Kong on February 8. He stayed at Victoria Hotel.
 On February 18, Rizal and Basa visited Macau. They returned to Hong
Kong on February 20.
 In Hong Kong Rizal studied Chinese life, language, drama and customs.
 On February 22, Rizal left Honh Kong for Japan.
 Rizal arrived in Yokohama on February 28, 1889.
 The next day Rizal proceeded to Tokyo. He stayed at Tokyo Hotel from
March 2 to 7.
 He was invited by Juan Perez Caballero, secretary of Spanish Legation in
Japan to stay at Spanish Legation
 Rizal studied Japanese language and was able to speak it within a few
days. He also studied the Japanese drama (kabuki), art, music, and judo.
He browsed in the museums, libraries, art galleries, and shrines. He
visited Meguro, Nikko, Hakone, Miyanoshita and the charming villages of
Japan.
 With O-Sei-san as company Rizal visited the Imperial Art Gallery, the
Imperial Library, the Shokubutsu-en (Botanical Garden), the Hibiya Park
and the picturesque shrines.
 On April 13, 1888, after 45 days of stay in Japan Rizal boarded the
steamer Belgic in Yokohama bound for United States.
 Rizal arrived in San Francisco on April 28, 1888.