i

Geotechnical Engineering
(Theory & Practicals)

Author
Dr. Neelima Satyam,
Professor,
Indian Institute of Technology, Indore

Reviewer
Dr. P Shivananda,
Professor,
REVA University, Bangalore

All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070

ii
BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS
Dr. Neelima Satyam, Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore
Email ID: [email protected]

BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

Dr. P Shivananda, Professor, REVA University, Bangalore
Email ID: [email protected]
BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version
1. Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581312
2. Mr. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581339

December, 2022
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-960386-5-6
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be
obtained from the Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by:
Printed at:
Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational,
educational & reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the
views of the speaker / content of the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be
settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only.

iii
iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T. G. Sitharam,
Chairman; Prof. M. P. Poonia, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member- Secretary
and Dr Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell for their planning to
publish the books on Geotechnical Engineering (Theory & Practicals). We sincerely
acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book, Dr. P Shivananda,
Professor, REVA University, Bangalore for his suggestions throughout the writing process.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors
who shared their opinion and thought to further develop the engineering education in our
country. Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field
whose published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and
other valuable information enriched us at the time of writing the book.

Dr. Neelima Satyam

v
 PREFACE
The book titled “Geotechnical Engineering (Theory & Practicals)” is an outcome of the
long experience of my teaching journey. The book aims to provide basic knowledge of
Geotechnical engineering to diploma students. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide
coverage as well as to provide essential supplementary information, we have included the
topics recommended by AICTE, in a very systematic and orderly manner throughout the
book. Efforts have been made to explain the fundamental concepts of the subject in the
simplest possible way.
During the process of preparation of this book, we have considered the various standard
textbooks and accordingly we have developed sections like critical questions, solved and
supplementary problems etc. While preparing the different sections emphasis has also been
laid on definitions and laws and on comprehensive synopsis of formulae for a quick
revision of the basic principles. The book covers simple and medium level problems, and
these have been presented in a very logical and systematic manner.
The book consists of illustrations, examples and exercises for each topic, along with simple
descriptions. The book has five units as per AICTE guidelines, explaining the engineering
behaviour of soil. It is important to note that in all the relevant units, we have included the
concerned laboratory practical. In addition, besides some interesting information for the
users under the heading “Know More” section after each unit. Dynamic QR codes are also
used for further learning videos for interested students.
“Geotechnical Engineering (Theory & Practicals)” is meant to provide a thorough
grounding in Geotechnical Engineering on the topics covered. This book will prepare
engineering students to apply the knowledge of soil mechanics to tackle the engineering
challenges and address the related aroused questions. The subject matters are presented in
a constructive manner so that a diploma prepares students to work in construction industry
or in national laboratories at the very forefront of technology.
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas
behind basic principles of geotechnical engineering and will surely contribute to the
development of a solid foundation of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial
comments and suggestions which will contribute to the improvement of the future editions
of the book. It gives us immense pleasure to place this book in the hands of the teachers
and students. It was indeed a big pleasure to work on different aspects covering in the book.

Dr. Neelima Satyam

vi
 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome based education the first requirement is to develop
an outcome based curriculum and incorporate an outcome based assessment in the
education system. By going through outcome based assessments, evaluators will be able to
evaluate whether the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable
outcomes. With the proper incorporation of outcome based education there will be a
definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without giving up at
any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of outcome based education,
a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
Programme Outcomes (POs) are statements that describe what students are expected
to know and be able to do upon graduating from the program. These relate to the skills,
knowledge, analytical ability attitude and behaviour that students acquire through the
program. The POs essentially indicate what the students can do from subject-wise
knowledge acquired by them during the program. As such, POs define the professional
profile of an engineering diploma graduate.
National Board of Accreditation (NBA) has defined the following seven POs for an
Engineering diploma graduate:
PO1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics,
science and engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the
engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyses well-defined engineering problems using
codified standard methods.
PO3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for well-defined technical
problems and assist with the design of systems components or processes to meet
specified needs.
PO4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering
tools and appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
PO5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply
appropriate technology in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical
practices.
PO6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a
team member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-
defined engineering activities.
PO7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in updating in
the context of technological changes.
vii
 COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of the course the students are expected to learn:
CO-1: Identify types of rocks and sub soil strata of earth.
CO-2: Interpret the physical properties of soil related to given construction activities.
CO-3: Use the results of permeability and shear strength test for foundation analysis.
CO-4: Interpret the soil bearing capacity results.
CO-5: Compute optimum moisture content values for maximum dry density of soil
through various tests.
Mapping of Course Outcomes with Programme Outcomes to be done according to
the matrix given below:
Course Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes
Outcomes
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)

PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7

CO-1 3 2 1 1 1 1 3
CO-2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
CO-3 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
CO-4 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
CO-5 3 3 2 3 1 1 3

viii
 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the
students should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper
implementation of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in
OBE system may be as follows:
 Within reasonable constraint, they should manipulate time to the best advantage of
all students.
 They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without
considering any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
 They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before
they leave the institute.
 They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality
knowledge as well as competence after they finish their education.
 They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
 They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate
newer approach.
 They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level
Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyse
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/
Apply
use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understand Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remember Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

ix
 GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
 Students should be well aware of each Unit Outcome (UO) before the start of a unit
in each and every course.
 Students should be well aware of each Course Outcome (CO) before the start of the
course.
 Students should be well aware of each Programme Outcome (PO) before the start
of the programme.
 Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
 Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real
life consequences.
 Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

x
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

List of Abbreviations
General Terms
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
CBR California Bearing Ratio OMC Optimum Moisture Content
CD Consolidated-Drained RCC Reinforced Cement
Concrete
CU Consolidated-Undrained SPT Standard Penetration Test
IS Indian Standard UU Unconsolidated-Undrained
MDD Maximum Dry Density

List of Symbols
Symbols Description Symbols Description
𝑉𝑎 Volume of air voids 𝑤𝑙 Liquid limit
𝑎𝑐 Air content 𝑤𝑝 Plastic limit
𝑛𝑎 Percent air voids 𝑤𝑠 Shrinkage limit
𝑆 Degree of saturation 𝐼𝑃 Plasticity index
𝑒 Void ratio 𝐼𝑠 Shrinkage index
𝑉𝑊 Volume of water 𝐼𝑙 Liquidity index
𝑛 Porosity 𝐼𝑐 Consistency index
𝑉𝑣 Volume of voids 𝐼𝑓 Flow index
𝑉𝑆 Volume of solids 𝐼𝑡 Toughness index
𝑉 Total volume of soils 𝑆𝑡 Sensitivity
𝑤 Water content 𝑘 Coefficient of permeability
𝑊𝑤 Weight of water 𝑣 Velocity
𝑊𝑠 Weight of solids 𝑖 Hydraulic gradient
𝑊 Total weight of soil 𝑡 Time
𝛾 Bulk unit weight 𝑁𝑓 Number of flow channels
𝛾𝑑 Dry unit weight 𝑁𝑑 Number of equipotential

xi
Symbols Description Symbols Description
drops
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 Saturated unit weight 𝑝𝑠 Seepage pressure
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 Submerged unit weight 𝜏𝑓 Shear strength of soil
𝛾𝑤 Unit weight of water 𝑐 Cohesion of soil
𝐺𝑚 Mass or bult specific 𝜎 Normal stress on soil
gravity
𝐺 True or absolute specific 𝑢 Pore water pressure
gravity
𝐶𝑢 Uniformity coefficient 𝜑 Angle of internal friction

xii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Unit 1 Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Fig. 1. 1 Examples of igneous rocks 5
Fig. 1. 3 Examples of sedimentary rocks 6
Fig. 1. 4 Examples of metamorphic rocks 7
Fig. 1. 5 Classification of transported soils 9
Fig. 1. 6 a) Shallow and b) deep foundations 10
Fig. 1. 7 Layers of pavement 11
Fig. 1. 8 Retaining wall 11
Fig. 1. 9 a) Homogenous earthen dam, b) Zoned earthen dam and c) Diaphragm-type earthen dam 12

Unit 2 Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Fig. 2. 1 Phase diagrams of soil in the dry state, partially saturated state, and fully saturated state 18
Fig. 2. 2 Three-phase diagram 19
Fig. 2. 3 Particle size distribution curves 25
Fig. 2. 4. Atterberg limits 27
Fig. 2. 5 Flow curve 29
Fig. 2. 6 Flow chart for classification of coarse-grained soils 32
Fig. 2. 7 Plasticity chart and IS soil classification. 33
Fig. 2. 8 Flow chart for classification of fine-grained soils 34

Unit 3 Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil

Fig. 3. 1 Constant permeability test 63
Fig. 3. 2 Falling head permeability test 64
Fig. 3. 3 Flow parallel to bedding planes 65
Fig. 3. 4 Flow perpendicular to bedding planes 66
Fig. 3. 5 Flow nets. a) below a sheet pile, and b) below a gravity dam 67
Fig. 3. 6 Phreatic line through an earthen dam 71
Fig. 3. 7 Phreatic line through an earthen dam with horizontal filter 72
Fig. 3. 8 Piping through dam body and foundation 72

xiii
Fig. 3. 9 Measures to control piping 73
Fig. 3. 10 Failure envelopes for different types of soil 74
Fig. 3. 11 Direct shear test. a) Failure envelope and b) laboratory test set up 76
Fig. 3. 12 Laboratory vane shear test setup 77

Unit 4 Bearing Capacity of Soil

Fig. 4. 1 Types of shear failure 97
Fig. 4. 2 Depth of water table below foundation. a) Case 1 and b) Case II 97
Fig. 4. 3 Typical setup for plate load test 101
Fig. 4. 4 load intensity vs settlement for plate load test 102
Fig. 4. 5 Relationship between lateral earth pressure and wall movement 106
Fig. 4. 6 Earth pressure at rest 106
Fig. 4. 7 Distribution of lateral earth pressure 108
Fig. 4. 8 Active earth pressure 110
Fig. 4. 9 Mohrs circle for active earth pressure condition 111
Fig. 4. 10 Passive earth pressure 112
Fig. 4. 11 Mohrs circle for passive earth pressure condition 113

Unit 5 Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

Fig. 5. 1 Set up for light compaction as per IS 2720 (Part VII) 122
Fig. 5. 2 Set up for heavy compaction as per IS 2720 (Part VIII) 123
Fig. 5. 4 Compaction curve 125
Fig. 5. 5 Compaction curves for light compaction and heavy compaction 126
Fig. 5. 6 Compaction curve for cohesionless soils 127
Fig. 5. 7 Different types of rollers 130
Fig. 5. 8 Load penetration curves for CBR 134

xiv
 CONTENTS

Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education vii
Course Outcomes viii
ix
Guidelines for Teachers
Guidelines for Students x
Abbreviations and Symbols xi
List of Figures xiii

Unit 1: Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering 1-15

Unit specifics 1
Rationale 1
Pre-requisites 2
Unit outcomes 2
1.1. Geology 2
1.1.1. Branches of Geology 2
1.1.2. Importance of geology in civil engineering 4
1.2. Rocks 4
1.2.1. Igneous rocks 4
1.2.2. Sedimentary rocks 6
1.2.3. Metamorphic rocks 7
1.3. Soil 8
1.3.1. Field applications 9
Unit summary 13
Exercises 13
Practicals 14
Know more 15
References and suggested readings 15

Unit 2: Physical and Index Properties of Soil 16-58

Unit specifics 16

xv
Rationale 16
Pre-requisites 16
Unit outcomes 17
2.1. Soil as a three-phase system 17
2.1.1. Three phase diagrams 17
2.1.2. Water content 20
2.1.3. Unit weight of soil 20
2.1.4. Specific gravity 22
2.1.5. Inter relationships 22
2.2. Particle size distribution 23
2.2.1. Laboratory analysis 23
2.2.2. Particle size distribution curve 24
2.2.3. Relative density 26
2.3. Consistency of soil 26
2.3.1. Atterberg limits 27
2.4. Classification of soils – IS classification system 30
Unit summary 35
Exercises 35
Practicals 38
Know more 58
References and suggested readings 58

Unit 3: Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil 59-91

Unit specifics 59
Rationale 59
Pre-requisites 59
Unit outcomes 60
3.1. Permeability of soil 60
3.1.1. Darcy’s law of permeability 60
3.1.2. Coefficient of permeability 61
3.1.3. Determination of coefficient of permeability 62
3.1.4. Permeability of stratified deposits 64
3.1.5. Seepage analysis 66
3.1.6. Seepage pressure 69
3.1.7. Concept of effective stress 70
3.1.8. Seepage velocity 70
3.1.9. Seepage through earthen structures 71

xvi
3.2. Shear strength of soil 73
3.2.1. Components of shearing resistance 73
3.2.2. Classification of soils 74
3.2.3. Mohr-Coulomb failure theory 74
3.2.4. Modified Mohr-Coulomb failure theory 75
3.2.5. Determination of shear strength 75
Unit summary 79
Exercises 79
Practicals 83
Know more 91
References and suggested readings 91

Unit 4: Bearing Capacity of Soil 92-119

Unit specifics 92
Rationale 92
Pre-requisites 92
Unit outcomes 92
4.1. Bearing capacity of soil 93
4.1.1. Basic definitions 93
4.1.2. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory 95
4.1.3. Effect of water table on bearing capacity 97
4.1.4. Settlement of foundation 99
4.1.5. Field methods for determination of bearing capacity 100
4.2. Earth pressure theories 105
4.2.1. Different types of lateral earth pressure 105
4.2.2. Rankine's earth pressure theory 109
Unit summary 114
Exercises 114
Know more 119
References and suggested readings 119

Unit 5: Compaction and Stabilization of Soil 120-146

Unit specifics 120
Rationale 120
Pre-requisites 120
Unit outcomes 121
5.1. Compaction 121

xvii
 5.1.1. Light compaction 122
5.1.2. Heavy compaction 123
5.1.3. Plotting compaction curve 124
5.1.4. Factors affecting compaction 128
5.1.5. Suitability of various compaction equipment 129
5.1.6. Difference between compaction and consolidation 130
5.2. Soil stabilization 131
5.3. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test 133
5.4. Site investigations 135
5.4.1. Preliminary steps 135
5.4.2. Soil exploration 135
5.4.3. Field identification of soils 138
Unit summary 139
Exercises 139
Practicals 142
Know more 146
References and suggested readings 146

Appendices 147-148
Appendix - A : Suggestive Template for Practicals 147
Appendix - B : Indicative Evaluation Guidelines for Practicals / Projects / Activities in Group 148

References for Further Learning 149

CO and PO Attainment Table 150
Index 151

xviii
d
Overview of Geology and
1 Geotechnical Engineering

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
• Introduction of Geology and its branches
• Importance of Geology for civil engineering structure and composition of the earth
• Definition of a rock: Classification based on their genesis, and formation.
• Classification and engineering use of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
• Importance of soil as construction material in civil engineering structures and as
foundation bed for structures.
• Field application of geotechnical engineering for foundation design, pavement design,
design of earth retaining structures, design of earthen dam

RATIONALE
This overview unit on Geology and Geotechnical Engineering helps the students to get the basic
information about both the subject areas. It explains the branches of geology and their
significance in civil engineering applications. Knowledge about the load-bearing earth is
fundamental for any construction activities. Different types of rocks, their formation, and their
uses are discussed in detail, with application-level examples. Both rock and soil and very crucial
construction materials and have wide applications in the field of civil engineering. The practical
significance of geotechnical engineering is also discussed. The understanding of soil mechanics
principles is required in multiple applications like foundation design, pavement design, retaining
structures, and earthen dams.
2 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is an important branch of civil engineering, which deals with both
soil and rock, which are fundamental construction materials. The subjects provided an idea of the
engineering behavior of both soil and rock, and their application as construction material, and
foundation material.

PRE-REQUISITES
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Understand the need for geology in civil engineering
U1-O2: Understand the process of origin of rocks and soils
U1-O3: Understand the types of rocks and their uses
U1-O4: Realize the role of soil and rock as construction materials
U1-O5: Understand the different practical applications of geotechnical engineering

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 3 - - - -
U1-O2 3 1 1 - -
U1-O3 3 - - - -
U1-O4 1 3 1 2 -
U1-O5 1 3 2 2 1

MA

1.1. Geology
The word ‘Geology’ has two parts; ‘geo’ which means earth and ‘logy’ which means ‘study of’,
which is derived from the ‘logos’ meaning word or knowledge. Thus, geology is simply the study of
the earth, and it deals with the composition, origin, and structure of the earth. Geology peeks deep into
the time, to explain the changes that the earth surface has undergone in millions of years.

1.1.1. Branches of Geology

1.1.1.1. Physical Geology
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 3

Physical geology is the branch of geology that deals with the activity of forces, both external and
internal, that shape and change the earth’s crust. This branch is also known as dynamic geology.

1.1.1.2. Petrology

Petrology is the study of rocks that deals with their composition, texture, and structure; their
occurrence and distribution; and their origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and
geologic processes.

1.1.1.3. Mineralogy

Mineralogy is the branch of geology that covers the crystallography, description, physical,
chemical and environmental features of all minerals.

1.1.1.4. Structural geology

Structural geology is the branch of geology that is concerned with the deformation of rocks and
rock formations. It aims at understanding the 3-dimensional geological architecture, from
observation of the landscape and the geology visible at its surface.

1.1.1.5. Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that studies the layers (strata) of rock and layering
(stratification).

1.1.1.6. Palaeontology

Palaeontology is the scientific study of life in the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant
and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks.

1.1.1.7. Economic geology

Economic geology is concerned with earth resources that can be utilized for commercial or
industrial growth. Finding new ore deposits for extraction and comprehending how ore deposits
are created and localized within the Earth's crust are often associated with economic geology.
4 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

1.1.1.8. Engineering geology

Engineering geology is the branch of geology dealing with the application of geological
knowledge to engineering problems. This involves applying the knowledge of geology to ensure
the safety, economy, and efficacy of engineering projects.

1.1.2. Importance of geology in civil engineering

Engineering geology can be generally defined as the study concerned with the properties of materials
such as soil and rocks used in engineering projects, including the quantitative assessment.
Understanding engineering geology is crucial for civil engineers as it enables them to properly plan a
project. Knowledge in geology aids in ensuring a safe and economical design for building projects.
Getting geological data for a project site is crucial for planning, designing, and building an
engineering project. Construction activities have large financial investments, and they are closely
related to the geological environment. Geological components like soil and rock are the ultimate load-
carrying members in any civil engineering project, and the success of the project depends upon the
understanding of the geological problems and their solutions.
The development activities of any country depend upon its major infrastructure projects, and
engineering geology has a major role to play in the construction of dams, tunnels, bridges, railways,
and many other major works. An engineer with a geological background is required for quality
monitoring of construction materials like sand, gravel, or crushed rocks. For major projects, it is
essential to understand the type of rocks present in a given location. Project planning can also be aided
by geological maps. Incorporating relevant solutions if geological characteristics like faults, joints,
beds, folds, or channels are discovered is an essential step of any civil engineering project. Geological
maps include details on the location of different rock types in a proposed area and should be evaluated
along with the topographical maps.
Before starting any project, detailed geological investigations should be carried out, to understand the
geological attributes that may create construction problems. Detected site issues should be further
recorded and communicated with the engineers, to adopt suitable corrective measures, and to design a
stable structure. The mutual cooperation of engineering geologists and civil engineers in contributing
their knowledge is highly desired for the successful completion of any civil engineering work.
1.2. Rocks
“Crust” describes the outermost shell of a terrestrial planet. Earth's crust is generally divided into
older, thicker continental crust and younger, denser oceanic crust. Earth’s crust is composed of
different types of rocks. The type of rock and its properties are very crucial for engineering
applications, as they are used as a construction material as well as the load carrying member in
foundations. The engineering properties of rocks depend upon the way of origin of rocks. Based on
their origin, rocks are classified into three major groups, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

1.2.1. Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of hot fluid mass called magma, that
exists in the interior part of the earth. During volcanic eruptions, the molten rock or magma from
the earth’s interior is forced out to the surface as lava. Thus, magma can get cooled and solidified
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 5

either inside the earth or at the surface of the earth. Based on this, igneous rocks are classified
into two, as intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. Extrusive rocks are formed on the surface of
the earth from lava, and Intrusive rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within
the crust of the planet.
The composition of igneous rocks can vary greatly depending on the magma they cool from.
Depending on their cooling circumstances, they may also have a varied appearance. For instance,
depending on how fast or slowly they cool, two identical rocks from the same magma can either
become rhyolite or granite. When magma cools slowly, the crystals will be larger. When magma
is located deep within the earth, the process of cooling is very slow, and the resulting rock has a
coarse-grained structure. When magma rises to the surface, the temperature and pressure
variations result in cooling, and the process is faster at locations closer to the surface. This results
in fine to medium-grained rock formations near the surface of the earth.
When extrusive rocks are formed very near to the surface of the earth, rapid cooling provides no
time for crystallization and will result in the formation of very fine textured rock, similar to glass.
As they originated from the rapid cooling of lava, they are called volcanic rocks.

Fig. 1. 1 Examples of igneous rocks

The engineering applications of igneous rocks range from aggregates to table tops and foundation
material. Some of the most widely used igneous rocks and their applications are discussed below:
Granite is one of the most common igneous rocks, widely used for engineering applications.
Granite is medium to coarse-grained, light-colored rock with a white or pink tint. The rock
possesses very high strength, is hard and durable, and is suitable as a construction material.
Granite outcrops act as excellent foundation materials, and the rock is reshaped for multiple
applications like countertops, paving stone, floor tiles, stair treads, curbing, building veneer, and
cemetery monuments. Peninsular India, eastern India, and the central Himalayas have a
significant presence of granites.
Charnockites are also igneous rocks, which were first found in India. They are named after Job
Charnock and are very similar to granite in terms of physical and mechanical properties. They
differ from granite in terms of mineralogical composition. Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, and
Nilgiris have charnockite deposits, which are highly suitable as constriction materials, and such
rocks were used for construction since ancient times. Many historical sites in India, including the
6 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Madura Meenakshi Temple in Tamil Nadu and Padmanabha Swami Temple in Kerala were built
using Charnockite. Owing to its high strength and durability, charnockite is a good material for
construction activities including basement stone.
Gabbro is a basic igneous rock that is coarse-grained, consisting of feldspar and ferromagnesian
minerals. Fresh gabbro chips can be used for the construction of roads and other purposes. In
stone industry, gabbro is named as “black granite”. It is widely used for applications such as
ashlars, curbing and paving stones. It is also crushed to be used as a base material in construction
projects such as pavements. Upon weathering, the mineral composition of gabbro changes, and
the rock becomes weak. Hence weathered or altered gabbro is not used for construction activities.
Dolerite has a very similar composition as gabbro and is very hard. Owing to its hardness and
capacity to hold bitumen coating, dolerite is used for multiple engineering applications,
particularly for the construction of flexible pavements. They are used as coarse aggregate in
concrete, granular material in road sub-base and in flush seals, and as facing stone in buildings.
Basalt is a dark-colored fine-grained rock. Basalt is used in the base course of roads, aggregate in
both concrete and asphaltic pavement surfaces, ballast for railways and filter material for
drainage. Basalt with higher silica content results in alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete, and
hence are not used for concrete. Laterite is the weathering product from Basalt, and it is widely
used in the construction of buildings and roads.

1.2.2. Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks, which can be sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic. All rocks are subjected to the actions of wind, water, and ice, and will undergo decay
and disintegration of the rocks and will get transformed into sediments. This process is called the
denudation of rocks. Such sediments are transported by different means and are deposited at different
locations. The loose sediments which are getting deposited eventually get compacted, and stratified,
forming sedimentary rocks. Such rocks may be composed of both clastic and non-clastic materials.
When sediments are of chemical origin, the materials are dissolved by circulating water and are
carried as a solution of water bodies, and they get precipitated into the floors. After solidification, they
are mixed with the remains of sea organisms, forming non-clastic sedimentary rocks. The depositional
characteristics of sedimentary rocks are thus entirely different from those of igneous and metamorphic
rocks, and hence they are easily distinguishable on textural grounds.

Fig. 1. 2 Examples of sedimentary rocks

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 7

Sedimentary rocks are crucial in getting historical information regarding deposition and the paleo-
environment. The fossils embedded within the sediments provide information on the origin of both
plant and animal life. The structure of sedimentary rocks is primarily defined by bedding or
stratification.
Sandstones are the most dominant type of sedimentary rock. They are available in grain sizes ranging
from gravel to fine-grained sandstone and are present in layered structures. They are primarily
composed of quartz, with the presence of other minerals, like feldspar, mica, and chloride. They are
available in different colours such as red and grey. In India, Vindhyan sandstones with high strength
and low porosity are used for construction activities and foundations.
Shale is a soft sedimentary rock with thin layers. They get easily broken along the layers, and some
shales get hardened on compaction, such as slate. The particles are fine-grained, from the size of clay
to silt. It is a source material in the ceramics industry to make brick, tile, and pottery. Crushing shale
and heating it with limestone makes cementitious material for construction purposes.
The consolidation of rounded boulders with cementing materials results in the formation of
conglomerates. If the matrix is siliceous, rock has high strength, and is hard, but clay matrix
results in easily breakable porous material. Conglomerate can be used as a fill material for roads and
construction. Hard rock may be cut and polished to make dimension stone.

1.2.3. Metamorphic rocks

As the name indicates, metamorphic rocks are formed by metamorphism of pre-existing rocks under
high temperature and pressure conditions, or by chemically active fluids, resulting in chemical and
physical changes in the rock. Some metamorphic rocks may show remnants of the rocks from which
they are formed. In this case, the rock is called xenolith.
The two most important types of metamorphism are contact or thermal metamorphism and regional
metamorphism. In contact metamorphism, country rocks react with intrusive igneous bodies, causing
changes in the surrounding rocks because of the heat generated from intrusion or injection of
magmatic fluids. This metamorphism happens in plutonic locations (deep-seated). Regional
metamorphism in large regions and cores of folded mountains are commonly observed. All major
metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, schist, phyllite, and slate are formed by regional metamorphism.
Several metamorphic rocks like gneiss, laterite, slate, and quartzite are extensively used for
engineering applications. Gneiss is a banded or foliated metamorphic rock, with medium to coarse-
grained particles. In general, gneiss is derived from igneous rocks such as granite, but may also be
from sedimentary rocks. Being very hard, gneiss is highly suitable as a foundation material.

Fig. 1. 3 Examples of metamorphic rocks

8 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Khondalite is a light-coloured para-gneiss or para-schist, composed of quartz, sillimanite, graphite,

and garnet. It can be split easily, and it is found abundantly in the Eastern Ghats. Khondalites contain
manganese ores and undergoes weathering easily. However, they were used for construction in the
ancient times and major temples like those in Konark and Puri in India were built using khondalite.
Granulite is an even-grained rock derived from high-grade metamorphism. The rocks with coherent
grains achieve high strength and are suitable for use in engineering work. They are used as decorative
stones and for interior uses such as countertops, entryways, decorative aggregates, flooring, and stair
treads, and for exterior uses such as building stone, paving stone and facing stone.
Schists are named according to the presence of platy or flaky minerals, for example, mica schist, talc
schist, and chlorite schist. Schists generally do not have high strength and get easily split into parts.
Schists are commonly used for building walls, decorative rock walls, decorative stones, and jewellery.
Slates are characterized by cleavage, called ‘slaty cleavage’, imposed by metamorphism. Such rocks
can be separated into big, smooth surfaced sheets along these cleavage planes. Slates are hard and are
suitable for foundation, but if slates are present on hill slopes, there are higher chances of sliding
along the cleavage. Slate pieces are also used for building construction of walls and fences.
Quartzites mainly consist of recrystallized quartz derived from the metamorphism of sandstone.
Quartzites are very hard and durable and are good foundation material.
Marble is the metamorphic equivalent of limestone. Calcite is the major composite in marble, and it
possesses good strength, and durability and is resistant to meteoric weathering. It is susceptible to
chemical erosion. Marble is well suited for building stone and decorative purposes.
Laterite is another metamorphic rock widely used for construction purposes. Laterites are porous, in
tallow, red or brown colour, and are used for the construction of walls and bricks, and as foundation
material. To be used as a building material, well-joined, small, globular cuirasses of laterite is
highly suitable. Laterite soil is used for fills for earthen dams and embankments and foundations for
pavements.
1.3. Soil
In geotechnical engineering, ‘soil’ is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid
particles (which may consist of organic matter as well), produced by the physical and chemical
disintegration of rocks. There are void spaces between soil particles, and they may be filled with
air, or water, or both. Geotechnical engineering is focused on the engineering behavior of earth
materials such as soil and rock and is a branch of civil engineering. Unlike geology, this branch
deals with the mechanics of soil and rock.
Based on the method of formation, the soil is classified into two, residual soils and transported
soils. If soil remains at the place of its formation close to the parent rock, it is called residual soil.
Transported soils are found away from their place of origin, and are transported by different
means, as described in Fig. 1.4 below:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 9

Fig. 1. 4 Classification of transported soils

The use of soil as a construction material depends upon its engineering behaviour. Permeability,
strength, compaction characteristics, drainage, shrink-swell potential, grain size, plasticity, and
reactivity are among the features of soils that are crucial in engineering. Applications like the
construction and maintenance of highways, airports, pipelines, foundations, irrigation systems,
ponds, tiny dams, and systems for the disposal of sewage and trash are all impacted by these
qualities to varying degrees and in different combinations. All the properties will be discussed in
different chapters of this book, and some important engineering applications of soil as discussed
in section 1.3.1.

1.3.1. Field applications

Geotechnical engineering is an important branch of civil engineering, as it deals with two critical
construction materials, soil, and rock. The primary function of both these materials is to act as the
ultimate load-bearing strata for any applied load on the earth’s crust.

1.3.1.1. Foundations

Every construction or civil engineering structure ultimately rests on the surface of the earth. Soil
or rock bears the load transferred from the structure, and the foundation transfers the load from
the structure to the soil. Foundations are designed after bearing capacity and settlement analysis
and are classified into two, based on their depth-to-width ratio (Fig. 1.5).
10 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Fig. 1. 5 a) Shallow and b) deep foundations

1.3.1.2. Pavements

Pavements are hard layers placed on top of soil so that vehicular movement happens smoothly.
The hard strata provide a strong surface for the vehicles to move. There are two types of
pavements, flexible and rigid. Pavement consists of different layers (Fig. 1.6), and in case of
flexible pavement, the top layer or the surfacing consists of bituminous mix. Below the surface
layer, there are binder course, base course, and sub-base course. The soil below all these layers is
called sub-grade. In case of rigid pavements, the loads are supported through the rigidity of the
material. In such pavements, a rigid slab, usually made by concrete rests on top of granular base
and sub-base courses and a compacted subgrade (Fig. 1.6).
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 11

Fig. 1. 6 Layers of pavement

1.3.1.3. Retaining structures

Earth retaining structures are needed to keep the soil at different elevations on either of its sides
(Fig. 1.7). Retaining structures can be made of different materials, such as concrete, masonry, or
sheet. Retaining structures made of sheets are known as sheet piles. Retaining structures are
designed based using earth pressure theories.

Fig. 1. 7 Retaining wall

1.3.1.4. Earthen dam

Earthen dams are large structures in which soil is used as a construction material. They are
constructed for creating water reservoirs. The design of earthen dams requires thorough
knowledge of geotechnical engineering, and it uses the concepts of seepage through the soil, and
12 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

slope stability. Based on the section, earthen dams are classified as homogeneous, zoned, and
diaphragm-type as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1. 8 a) Homogenous earthen dam, b) Zoned earthen dam and c) Diaphragm-type earthen dam
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 13

UNIT SUMMARY
The unit discusses the overview of geology and geotechnical engineering. The types of rocks and their
engineering applications are discussed along with the significance of geology in civil engineering.
Further, the types of soil and the field applications of geotechnical engineering are discussed.

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

1) Soil transported by gravity is called:
a) Colluvial
b) Alluvial
c) Aeolian
d) Lacustrine
2) Based on its origin, schist is classified as:
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks
3) The branch of geology that deals with the layers of soil is known as:
a) Engineering geology
b) Palaeontology
c) Stratigraphy
d) Structural geology
4) Which of the following rocks are least suitable as a foundation material
a) Granite
b) Shale
c) Gneiss
d) Quartzite

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1) a
2) c
3) c
4) b

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1) What are intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?
2) State whether the sentence is true or false and justify your answer.
“Slate formations along slopes are highly suitable.”
3) What is metamorphism?
14 | Overview of Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

4) What is meant by a retaining structure?

5) What are the different branches of geology?
6) Describe the engineering applications of different igneous rocks.
7) How will geological knowledge help in civil engineering projects?
8) Explain the classification of rocks based on their origin, with examples.
9) What are the major roles of soil in construction projects? Explain with examples.
10) Draw the figure of a zoned earthen dam and mark the parts.

PRACTICALS
Name of experiment: Identification of rocks from the given specimen
Aim: To identify the type of rock, using visual inspection
Theory: Based on their origin, rocks are classified into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
These rocks can be distinguished from each other using visual inspection, using their structure
and texture. Structure depends on the basic characteristics and spatial arrangement of the main
components of the rock, whereas texture depends on the dimensions, form, and connections of the
minerals (mineral aggregates). If they are volcanic, igneous rocks have a vesicular structure, an
amygdaloidal structure, or an aphanitic structure. If they are hypabyssal or plutonic, they are
compact, thick, and have a texture that interlocks. Sedimentary rocks are characterized by the
presence of regular or crossbedding, cementing material, fossils, ripple marks, mud cracks,
footprints and trails, and unusual shapes. Based on colour, grain size, texture, hardness, and other
physical characteristics, different beds can be distinguished. The presence of metamorphic
minerals and the alignment of minerals (lineation, foliation) indicate the presence of the
metamorphic group of rocks.
Observations:

Colour:
Grain:
Texture or structure:

Result:
Rock type:
Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 15

KNOW MORE
Malpasset Dam Failure, France, 1959
Malpasset Dam was a double-curvature concrete arch dam that spanned across the Reyran River
in Southern France. It was constructed in 1954, and failed on 2nd December, 1959.

Malpasset dam, left, at end of construction, summer 1954 (photo COB); right, soon after failure,
end 1959 (photo Mary) (Daffaut, 2013)
Explore the reasons behind the failure. The case study will provide you with insights on the
importance of geology and geotechnical engineering in civil engineering projects.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Chenna Kesavulu N., Textbook of Engineering Geology, Trinity Press, Benguluru
Duffaut, P. (2013, 5:5). The Traps Behind the Failure of Malpasset Arch Dam, France, in 1959.
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 335-341.
Gangopadhyay S., Engineering Geology, Oxford University Press, New Delhi

Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

d
Physical and Index
2 Properties of Soil

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we shall discuss the following aspects:
• Soil as a three-phase system
• Water content - definition and determination as per IS code
• Unit weight of soil- laboratory experiments
• Particle size distribution
• Consistency of soil
• Soil classification

RATIONALE
This unit on the physical and index properties of soil provides a brief introduction to the
constituents of soil. First, the three different phases in soil are explained, along with the weight
volume relationships. The engineering behaviour of soil is very complex, as it varies with time,
according to the water content and arrangement of particles. The volume relationships, unit
weight and specific gravity are critical in all earthwork applications. The engineering behaviour
of soils can also be understood from the index properties of soil. Index properties are those which
are not primarily engineering properties but are indicative of engineering properties. For larger-
sized particles, particle size distribution and relative density are the main index properties, while
for fine-grained particles, important index properties are obtained from the Atterberg limits.

PRE-REQUISITES
Nil
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 17

UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Understand the constituents of soil and three phase system
U1-O2: Understand the volumetric relationships and volume-weight relationships in the three-
phase system
U1-O3: Learn the laboratory experiments to determine the water content and unit weight of soil
U1-O4: Understand the particle size distribution and consistency limits of soils
U1-O5: Learn to classify the soil based on grain size distribution and consistency limits

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 2 3 - - -
U1-O2 2 3 - - -
U1-O3 2 3 - - -
U1-O4 1 3 - - -
U1-O5 1 3 - - -

MA

2.1. Soil as a three-phase system

Soil is a mixture of solids, air, and water, which constitutes the three phases of soil. The solid phase
exists as particulate material of varying sizes, and the void spaces in between are filled with either air
or water or both. When all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be in dry condition, and when
water occupies all the void spaces, the soil is said to be in a fully saturated condition.

2.1.1. Three phase diagrams

Three phase diagram is the graphical representation of different phases in soil. The dry state,
partially saturated state, and fully saturated state can be represented graphically as shown in Fig.
2. 1.
18 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Fig. 2. 1 Phase diagrams of soil in the dry state, partially saturated state, and fully saturated state
Both dry and fully saturated conditions have only two phases, and the three-phase system is
represented in Fig. 2. 2. On the left side, the volumes and on the right side, the weights are
written. While “V” represents volume, “W” represents weight. The subscripts ‘v’, ‘a,’, ‘w’ and
‘s’ represents voids, air, water and solids respectively.

Fig. 2. 2 Three-phase diagram

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 19

The total volume of the soil sample always remains constant, but the weight of the sample varies
according to the amount of water in void spaces. The different volumetric relationships in the
three-phase system are as follows:

2.1.1.1. Void ratio (e)

Void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil mass.
𝑉𝑣 (2.1)
𝑒=
𝑉𝑆

2.1.1.2. Porosity (n)

Porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil mass.
𝑉𝑣 (2.2)
𝑛=
𝑉

2.1.1.3. Degree of saturation (S)

Degree of saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids in the soil mass.
𝑉𝑊 (2.3)
𝑆=
𝑉𝑉

2.1.1.4. Percent air voids (na)

Percent air voids is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of soil mass.
𝑉𝑎 (2.4)
𝑛𝑎 =
𝑉

2.1.1.5. Air content (ac)

Air content is the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids in the soil mass.
𝑉𝑎 (2.5)
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑉𝑉
20 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

2.1.2. Water content

Water content or moisture content of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to
the weight of solids in the soil mass.
𝑊𝑤 (2.6)
𝑤=
𝑊𝑠
The water content of the soil is a critical parameter that controls the engineering behaviour of
soil. The following are some methods used to determine the water content:
• Oven drying method
• Pycnometer method
• Torsion balance method
• Sand bath method
• Calcium carbide method
• Alcohol method
• Rapid moisture meter
Oven drying is the most widely followed laboratory method for the determination of water
content. This is highly accurate but requires a duration of 24 hours to get the results. In the field,
water content is determined by rapid moisture meter, sand bath method, alcohol method, or
calcium carbide method.

2.1.3. Unit weight of soil

The unit weight, also known as the ‘weight density, of a soil refers to its weight per cubic metre
and is typically expressed as kilonewtons per cubic metre (kN/m3), or tons per cubic metre (t/m3).
Unit weight is a crucial parameter required for geotechnical design and volume estimation of
earthworks. The water content, particle composition, and degree of compaction all affect the unit
weight. Based on the water content and submergence, different unit weights of soil are defined as
follows:

2.1.3.1. Bulk unit weight (𝛾)

Bulk unit weight is the total weight of soil per unit volume, and is given by:
𝑊 (2.7)
𝛾=
𝑉

2.1.3.2. Dry unit weight (𝛾𝑑)

Dry unit weight is the weight of solids per unit weight of soil.
𝑊𝑠 (2.8)
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 21

2.1.3.3. Saturated unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡)

When the soil is fully saturated, the bulk unit weight is termed as saturated unit weight.
𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡 (2.9)
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑉

2.1.3.4. Submerged unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏)

If the soil exists below the groundwater table, it is said to be in submerged condition. The unit
weight in this condition will be the buoyant weight per unit volume of soil.
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 (2.10)
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 =
𝑉
This value is also equal to the difference between the saturated unit weight of soil and the unit
weight of water.
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 (2.11)
The unit weight of water at 4oC is 1 g /ml or 9.81 kN/m3.

2.1.3.5. Unit weight of soil solids

Unit weight of soil solids is the ratio of the weight of solids to the volume of solids in a soil mass.
𝑊𝑠 (2.12)
𝛾𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠
In laboratory and field conditions, the bulk unit weight is measured using the following
approaches:
• Water displacement method
• Submerged weight method
• Core cutter method
• Sand replacement method
• Water balloon method
Core cutter is a field method, suitable for soft and fine-grained soils, while the sand replacement
is the most widely followed approach, for all soil types. The water balloon method is also suitable
for all soil types. Once the bulk unit weight is determined, dry unit weight can be calculated using
the following equation:
𝛾 (2.13)
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
22 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

2.1.4. Specific gravity

In general, specific gravity is termed as the ratio of unit weight of any material to the unit weight
of water. In case of soil, two values of specific gravity are used, which are mass specific gravity
and true specific gravity.

2.1.4.1. Mass or bulk specific gravity (𝐺𝑚 )

Mass specific gravity is defined as the ratio of bulk unit weight of the soil to the unit weight of
water, given by:
𝛾 (2.14)
𝐺𝑚 =
𝛾𝑤

2.1.4.2. True or absolute specific gravity or specific gravity of soil solids (𝐺)

True specific gravity is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to the unit weight of water.
𝛾 (2.15)
𝐺= 𝑠
𝛾𝑤
Specific gravity is determined in the laboratory using the following approaches:
• Density bottle method
• Pycnometer method
• Measuring flask method
• Gas jar method
• Shrinkage limit method

2.1.5. Inter relationships

Among the discussed parameters, water content, unit weight and specific gravity are determined
directly in the laboratory, and the other parameters are derived using inter-relationships between
the parameters. These relationships are listed below in

Table 2. 1.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 23

Table 2. 1 Inter-relationships

Sl. No. Relationship

1 𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒
2 𝑛 𝐺 − 𝐺𝑚
𝑒= =
1 − 𝑛 𝐺𝑚 − 𝑆
3 (1+𝑤𝐺)𝛾𝑑
𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛. 𝑎𝑐 = 1 −
𝐺𝛾𝑤
4 𝑆 + 𝑎𝑐 = 1
5 𝑒𝑆 = 𝑤𝐺
6 (𝐺+𝑒𝑆)𝛾𝑤 (1+𝑤)𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝛾= =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒
7 𝛾 𝐺𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛𝑎 )𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 = = =
1+𝑤 1+𝑒 1 + 𝑤𝐺
8 (𝐺 + 𝑒)𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑒
9 (𝐺 − 1)𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 =
1+𝑒

2.2. Particle size distribution

Soil particles are mechanically separated based on their particle size. The particles of size greater
than 75 µm, are called coarse grained soil, and their separation is carried out using sieve analysis.
The particles with size less than 75 µm are called fine grained soils, and their particle size
distribution is carried out using sedimentation.
Based on the size, soils are classified into gravels (>4.75 mm), sand (4.75 mm > particle size > 75
µm), silt (75 µm > particle size > 2 µm) and clay (< 2 µm).
24 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

2.2.1. Laboratory analysis

Sieve analysis is carried out by arranging sieves of different sizes in decreasing order (largest one
on top), and by shaking (manually, or using a mechanical shaker). The particles retained on each
sieve is then measured to plot the grain size distribution curve. The sieve analysis is done
separately for particles greater than 4.75 mm and those in between 4.75 mm and 75 µm.
For fine grained soil, sedimentation analysis is carried out based on Stoke’s law, either using a
pipette, or using a hydrometer.
When the soil mass consists of both coarse- and fine-grained particles, first the particles are
washed to separate the fine particles attached to the larger ones. Sieve analysis is then carried out
for the larger particles, and sedimentation for fine particles, and the final particle size distribution
is obtained from the combined analysis. This process is called wet sieve analysis.

2.2.2. Particle size distribution curve

The particle size distribution curve is the graphical representation of particle sizes in a soil mass.
It is a plot between the percentage of soil mass finer than a given size on y-axis, and the particle
size on log scale in x-axis.
The distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called grading, and it can be
determined from the particle size distribution curve. The particle size distribution curves for
different soils are plotted below in Fig. 2. 3
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 25

Fig. 2. 3 Particle size distribution curves

The curve A is a flat S curve, which implies that the mass consists of particles of different size in
good proportion. Such soils are call well graded soil. In such soils, the space between larger
particles will be occupied by smaller particles, and the void space will be minimum. Curve with
intermediate flat portions as in B represents gap graded soil, where particles of intermediate size
are missing. Very steep S curves like C represents uniformly graded soil, in which particles are
of similar size. Curves like D on the left upper side of the graph represents fine particles, and as
the curve shifts right, it indicates that the particles are of larger size.
26 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Two important coefficients are calculated from the particle size distribution curve, which are
known as the uniformity coefficient (𝐶𝑢 ), and coefficient of curvature (𝐶𝑐 ). While 𝐶𝑢 expresses
the uniformity of the soil, the general shape is described by 𝐶𝑐 . These coefficients can be
calculated from the plot as:

𝐷60 (2.16)
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
(𝐷30 )2 (2.17)
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 × 𝐷10
where 𝐷60 is the particle size such that 60 % of the soil is finer than this size, and similarly 𝐷30
and 𝐷10 are the particle sizes such that 30 % and 10 % of the particles are finer than this size
respectively. 𝐷10 is also called the effective size. Higher values of 𝐶𝑢 indicate that the particle
sizes are largely varying. Gravels are considered well graded when they have a 𝐶𝑢 value
greater than 4, and a 𝐶𝑐 value between 1 and 3. In the case of sand, 𝐶𝑢 greater than 6 and
𝐶𝑐 between 1 and 3 are considered as the criteria for well graded soil. If any of these
criteria are not satisfied, the soil is considered to be poorly graded.

2.2.3. Relative density

Relative density is another important index property of coarse-grained soils. It is also known as
density index. This parameter indicates how the soil will behave under loads. Higher relative
density indicates that the soil mass is dense and can take heavy loads. The relative density can be
calculated using the following expression, either using void ration, or by using dry unit weight:
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 (𝛾𝑑 ) 𝛾𝑑 − (𝛾𝑑 ) (2.18)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐷𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐷 = =[ ][ ]
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 (𝛾𝑑 ) − (𝛾𝑑 )
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛

where 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 and (𝛾𝑑 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 corresponds to the void ratio and dry density at the loosest state of soil,
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 and (𝛾𝑑 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 corresponds to the void ratio and dry density at the densest state, and 𝑒 and 𝛾𝑑
are the void ratio and dry density at the natural state of soil.
2.3. Consistency of soil
In the case of coarse-grained soil, the particles are separate, and particle size distribution and
relative density can provide indications on the engineering behaviour. When it comes to fine-
grained soil, the particles often stick together due to cohesion, and the properties are highly
influenced by the moisture content. The ease at which soil can be deformed is known as
consistency. The same soil can exist in solid state or can behave like a liquid with variation in
water content. This range from liquid solid was divided into four distinct states by Swedish
Engineer Atterberg in 1911. The four stages are separated by three moisture contents, which are
known as the Atterberg limits or consistency limits (Fig. 2. 4).
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 27

Fig. 2. 4. Atterberg limits

2.3.1. Atterberg limits

2.3.1.1.Liquid limit (𝑤𝑙 )

Liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from plastic to liquid state. It is defined as
the water content at which a soil pat in the standard liquid limit apparatus cut by a groove of
standard dimensions will flow together for a distance of 12 mm under impact of 25 blows of
standard height.

2.3.1.2. Plastic limit (𝑤𝑝 )

Plastic limit is defined as the minimum water content at which soil just begin to crumble when
rolled into a thread of approximately 3 mm in diameter.

2.3.1.3. Shrinkage limit (𝑤𝑠 )

Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content will not
cause a decrease in the soil volume.

2.3.1.4. Plasticity index (𝐼𝑃 )

Plasticity index is the range of water content over which the soil remains in the plastic state. It
can be calculated as the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.
28 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

IP = w𝑙 − wp (2.19)

2.3.1.5. Shrinkage index (𝐼𝑠 )

The shrinkage index is the numerical difference between plastic limit and shrinkage limit.
I𝑠 = wp − w𝑠 (2.20)

2.3.1.6. Liquidity index (𝐼𝑙 )

Liquidity index is the ratio of the difference between natural water content and the plastic limit, to
the plasticity index.
𝑤− wp (2.21)
I𝑙 =
w𝑙 − wp

If the value of Il is greater than 1, the soil is in liquid state, and if the value is less than
zero, soil is in semi solid state. Any value between 0 and 1 indicates that the soil is in
plastic state.

2.3.1.7. Consistency index (𝐼𝑐 )

Consistency index is defined as the ratio of the difference between liquid limit and the natural
water content to the plasticity index of soil.
w𝑙 − 𝑤 (2.22)
I𝑐 =
w𝑙 − wp

If the value of consistency index is greater than 1, it means that the soil is in semi-solid state, and
if the value is less than 0, the soil is in liquid state.
The consistency of soil in the field can be stated based on the values of I𝑙 and I𝑐 as listed in
Table 2. 2
Table 2. 2 Consistency classification
I𝑐 I𝑙 Consistency

1.00 to 0.75 0.00 to 0.25 Stiff

0.75 to 0.50 0.25 to 0.50 Medium stiff
0.50 to 0.25 0.50 to 0.75 Soft
0.25 to 0.00 0.75 to 1.00 Very soft

2.3.1.8. Flow index (𝐼𝑓 )

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 29

The flow index is the slope of the flow curve drawn between the number of blows (log scale) on x
axis and the water content along y axis in Cassagrande’s method of liquid limit determination
(Fig. 2. 5).

Fig. 2. 5 Flow curve

Mathematically, I𝑓 can be calculated as:
w1 − w2
I𝑓 = H (2.23)
𝑁
log10 ( 2⁄𝑁 )
1

2.3.1.9. Toughness index (𝐼𝑡 )

Toughness index can be defined as the ratio of plasticity index and flow index.
30 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

I𝑝 (2.24)
I𝑡 =
I𝑓

2.3.1.10. Sensitivity

In the case of clayey soil, the strength properties are highly related to the structure of clay, which
is the orientation and arrangement of particles. When samples are remoulded, it affects the
strength of soil. Sensitivity (S𝑡 ) is defined as the ratio of unconfined compressive strength of soil
in undisturbed condition to that in remoulded condition, without any change in the water content.
Unconfined compressive strength (𝑞𝑢 ) is obtained by providing axial compressive load to a
cylindrical soil sample, which is laterally unsupported. The test procedure will be discussed in the
further sections.
(𝑞𝑢 )𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 (2.25)
S𝑡 =
(𝑞𝑢 )𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑
Clays are considered to be sensitive if the value of sensitivity is greater than 4.

2.3.1.11. Activity

Minerals present in clay also have a very significant role on the engineering properties of soil.
Activity is an indirect index of effect of clay minerals in a soil sample, using its plasticity index
and amount of clay present in the sample, as mentioned in the following equation:
𝐼𝑝 (2.26)
𝐴= 𝐹

where 𝐹 is the percentage of clay fraction in the soil sample. A clayey sample is considered to be
active when the value of activity is greater than 1.25.

2.3.1.12. Thixotropy

Thixotropy is the change due to touch. Soil loses its strength while remoulding due to
rearrangement of particles and disturbance caused to water molecules. Some of these changes can
be reversed with time. When a remoulded soil sample stays without loss of water, it regains some
part its strength, and this process of regaining strength with time after remoulding is known as
thixotropy.
2.4. Classification of soils – IS classification system

Soil classification categorises different types of soils into groups according to their engineering
behaviour. IS 1498:1971 (Reaffirmed in 2007) is the Indian Standard that deals with the
classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes. Based on this
classification system, soils are broadly classified into 3, coarse grained soil, fine grained soils and
highly organic soils and other miscellaneous materials. When more than 50 % of the material (by
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 31

weight) is retained on a 75 µm sieve, soil is called coarse grained soil, and if more than 50 % of
the material (by weight) is passing through 75 µm sieve, the soil is classified as fine grained.
Organic soil and other miscellaneous soil materials consist of large percentages of organic matter
such as decomposed vegetation, and peat. In addition, soils containing other materials like
cinders, shells and non-soil materials are also grouped under this category.
Coarse grained soils can be further classified into gravels and sand, and the classification is
shown in Fig. 2. 6.
The first letter indicates the particle size which is present in the maximum quantity. For coarse
grained soils, it is always G or S, representing gravel or sand respectively. The second letter
represent whether the soil is well graded or poorly graded, if the soil has no significant fine
fraction. When fine fraction is present, the second letter represents either clay (C) or Silt (M),
based on the plasticity chart (Fig. 2. 7), or dual symbols can be used. GW is termed as well
graded gravel, and GC is termed as clayey gravel.
32 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Fig. 2. 6 Flow chart for classification of coarse-grained soils

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 33

In the case of fine grained soils, plasticity chart plays a key role in the classification. The
plasticity chart as per IS classification is shown in Fig. 2. 7.

Fig. 2. 7 Plasticity chart and IS soil classification.

Similar to coarse grained soils, the first letter in the case of fine-grained soil also represent the
predominant soil type. Unlike the coarse-grained classification, here the first letter is decided
based on the liquid limit and plasticity index, which decided whether the soil lies above or below
the A line on plasticity chart. The second letter in naming is decided based on the liquid limit
value, and the symbols L, I and H represents low compressible, intermediate compressible, and
highly compressible soils respectively. The flow chart for classification of fine-grained soils as
per IS code is given in Fig. 2. 8.
34 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Fig. 2. 8 Flow chart for classification of fine-grained soils

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 35

UNIT SUMMARY
The unit discusses the physical and index properties of soils. Starting from the three-phase system, the
volumetric and weight volume relationships are discussed in detail. Further, the index properties and
soil classification are explained, to help the student understand how soil should be categorised for
engineering application, based on Indian Standards.

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil is-
a) Voids ratio
b) Degree of saturation
c) Porosity
d) Air content
2. The soil which plots above the 'A' line in the plasticity chart are-
a) Silts
b) Clays
c) Sands
d) Organic soils
3. At shrinkage limit, the soil is-
a) Saturated
b) Partially saturated
c) Dry
d) None of the above
4. A saturated soil sample has a bulk unit weight of 19 kN/m3 and a specific gravity of 2.68.
Determine the water content of soil?
a) 0.166
b) 0.3
c) 0.143
d) 0.277

Answers of multiple Choice Questions

1) c
2) b
3) a
36 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

4) c

Numerical

Examples:
1. A partially saturated soil sample collected from an earth fill has a natural moisture content of
23 % and a unit weight of 19.6 kN/m3. If the specific gravity of the soil is 2.65, calculate
a. Void ratio
b. Degree of saturation
c. Saturated unit weight
𝑤 = 23 %
𝛾 = 19.6 kN/m3
(1 + 𝑤)𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝛾=
1+𝑒
(1 + 𝑤)𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝑒= −1
𝛾
(1+0.23)×2.65 ×9.81
a) 𝑒 = − 1 = 0.63
19.6
𝑤𝐺 0.23 ×2.65
b) 𝑆 = 𝑒 = 0.63
= 0.97
(𝐺+𝑒)𝛾 (2.65+0.63) ×9.81
𝑐) 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 1+𝑒 𝑤 = 1+0.63
= 19.74 %

2. A soil sample in dry state weighs 400 g and has a volume of 250 cm3. Calculate the shrinkage
limit and void ratio of the sample if the specific gravity is 2.67.
𝑀𝑠
𝜌𝑑 =
𝑉
𝜌𝑑= 1.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑒
2.67×1
𝑒= 𝜌𝑑
-1 = 0.67
𝑀𝑠
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐺𝜌𝑤 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑀𝑠 400
𝑉𝑠 = = = 149.81 𝑐𝑚3
𝐺𝜌𝑤 2.67 × 1

𝑀𝑤 = 𝑉𝑤 𝜌𝑤 = 100.19 g
𝑀𝑤 100.19
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = = = 25.05 %
𝑀𝑠 400
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 37

Exercises:
1. The liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil sample are 55 % and 25 % respectively. If the natural
water content of the soil is 32%, calculate the consistency index and the liquidity index? (I𝑐 =0.6,
I𝑙 = 0.24)
2. A soil sample has a bulk unit weight of 19.88 kN/m3 at a moisture content of 16 %. Calculate
the moisture content of the soil if the unit weight becomes 18.42 kN/m3 after drying, while the
voids ratio remains unchanged. (w=7.48%)
3. A clayey soil sample has liquid limit 51% and plastic limit 33 %. (a) In what state of
consistency is this soil at a moisture content of 44 %? (b) What is the plasticity index of the soil?
(c) The void ratio of this soil at the minimum volume reached on shrinkage, is 0.78. What is the
shrinkage limit, if its grain specific gravity is 2.61? ((a) Plastic state (b) 𝑰𝒑= 18% (c) 𝒘𝒔 =
29.88 %)
4. A clay sample with a specific gravity of 2.68 has void ratio of 0.50 in the dry condition.
Determine the shrinkage limit of this clay? (𝒘𝒔 =18.65%)
5. The liquid limit and plastic limit of a clayey soil sample are 60% and 35%, respectively. From
a particle size distribution curve, it was observed that the sample consists of 60% of particles
smaller than 0.002 mm. What is the activity of soil? (A=0.41)

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1) Explain Atterberg limits for soil and their necessity?
2) Define the terms specific gravity and density index.
3) Differentiate between sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis.
4) What is the function of plasticity chart in soil classification?
5) What is the significance of effective size of particle in sieve analysis.
6) Explain in detail the procedure for determination of grain size distribution of a soil sample
containing both coarse and fine particles.
7) Write down the procedure for determining specific gravity of a given soil in the laboratory by
using a pycnometer.
8) What is meant by the term “index properties of soils”? What is their importance?
9) What do you understand by the consistency of soil? How is it determined?
10) What do you understand by the three-phase system of soil? Explain with a neat sketch.
38 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

PRACTICALS

Name of experiment: Determination of water content of by oven drying method (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the water content of the given soil sample by oven drying method
Apparatus required: Weighing balance (Accuracy 0.01 g), desiccators, containers, oven.
Theory: Water content is defined as the ratio of mass of water to mass of solids in a given
sample. Water content is one of the most important factors that determine the engineering
behaviour of soil, as the strength parameters of any soil sample depends upon its moisture
content.
Procedure:
1. Take an empty container and measure its mass (‘𝑊1’ g).
2. Collect the wet soil sample and put it in the container.
3. Measure the mass of container filled with wet soil sample (‘𝑊2’ g).
4. Keep the filled container in thermostatically controlled oven at a temperature 105oC-
110oC for 24 hours, so that water will get evaporated completely.
5. Take out the container from oven and cool it in desiccators for 5 minutes.
6. Measure the mass of container with dry soil (‘𝑊3’ g).
7. Calculate the water content as 𝑤 = (𝑊2– 𝑊3) / (𝑊3– 𝑊1) 𝑥 100.
8. Repeat all above steps two more times to calculate average water content of given soil
sample.

Observations:
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Container No.
Mass of empty
container with lid
(𝑊1) g
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 39

Mass of container
with lid and wet soil
(𝑊2) g
Mass of container
with lid and dry soil
(𝑊3) g
Mass of water
(𝑊𝑤 = 𝑊2 −
𝑊3) g
Mass of dry soil
(𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊3 − 𝑊1)
g
Water content in %
𝑤 = (𝑊𝑤 /
𝑊𝑠) 𝑥 100

Result:

Inference:
40 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Name of experiment: Determination of density of soil by core cutter method (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the bulk density and dry density of soil by core cutter method
Apparatus required: Core cutter with dolly, measuring scale, weighing balance, oven,
containers
Theory: Bulk Density of Soil (𝛾) is defined as the ratio of bulk mass of soil to the volume of soil.
𝛾 = (𝑊 / 𝑉) = [(𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑣) / 𝑉]; where 𝑊𝑠= mass of soil solids and 𝑊v= mass of voids
(Weight of water). Dry Density of Soil (𝛾𝑑 ) is defined as the ratio of dry mass of soil to the
volume of soil. 𝛾𝑑 = (𝑊𝑑 / 𝑉𝑑) = (𝑊𝑠 / 𝑉) . In core cutter method, the density is determined
by using a core cutter, which is inserted into the ground. The density of soil in the field is then
calculated by using the mass of soil contained in the core cutter.
Procedure:
1. Measure the height (ℎ) and internal diameter (𝑑) of the core cutter and calculate its
volume.
2. Weigh the empty core cutter without dolly as (𝑊1) g.
3. Clean and level the location where density is to be determined.
4. Drive the core cutter, with a steel dolly on its top, into the soil to its full depth with the
help of a steel rammer, so that half of dolly will remain above the ground.
5. Excavate the soil around the cutter with a and gently lift the cutter filled with soil.
6. Weigh the core cutter with filled with soil (𝑊2), after trimming the top and bottom
surfaces of the sample and cleaning the outside surface of the cutter
7. Calculate bulk density of field soil as 𝛾 = (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) / 𝑉
8. Remove the soil from the core cutter, using a sample extractor and take representative
soil sample from it to determine the moisture content using any one method as 𝑤 %.
9. Calculate dry density of field soil as 𝛾𝑑 = (𝛾) / (1 + 𝑤)
10. Repeat all above steps two more locations in the field to determine average dry density of
soil.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 41

Observations:
Internal diameter of core cutter 𝑑 = ………………cm.
Height of core cutter ℎ = …………………………cm.
Volume of core cutter 𝑉 = ………………………..cm3.

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Determining density of sand
Mass of empty core
cutter (𝑊1) g
Mass of core cutter
filled with field soil
(𝑊2) g
Bulk Density of soil
𝛾 = (𝑊2 −
𝑊1) / 𝑉 , g /cc.
Water content
Container No.
Mass of empty
container with lid
(𝑤1) g
Mass of container
with lid and wet soil
(𝑤2) g
Mass of container
with lid and dry soil
(𝑤3) g
Mass of water
(𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤2 − 𝑤3)
g
Mass of dry soil
(𝑤𝑠 = 𝑤3 − 𝑤1)
g
Water content in %
𝑤 = (𝑤𝑤 /
𝑤𝑠) 𝑥 100
42 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Dry density
Dry Density of soil
𝛾𝑑 = (𝛾) / (1 +
𝑤), g /cc.

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 43

Name of experiment: Determination of density of soil by sand replacement method (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the bulk density and dry density of soil by sand replacement method
Apparatus required: Sand pouring cylinder, calibrating container, metal tray with central hole,
weighing balance, sand
Theory: Bulk Density of Soil (𝛾) is defined as the ratio of bulk mass of soil to the volume of soil.
𝛾 = (𝑊 / 𝑉) = [(𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑣) / 𝑉]; where 𝑊𝑠= mass of soil solids and 𝑊v= mass of voids
(Weight of water). Dry Density of Soil (𝛾𝑑 ) is defined as the ratio of dry mass of soil to the
volume of soil. 𝛾𝑑 = (𝑊𝑑 / 𝑉𝑑) = (𝑊𝑠 / 𝑉). In sand replacement method, a small cylindrical
pit is excavated in the ground and the mass of excavated soil is measured. The excavated pit is
then filled with sand of known density. The volume of the pit can be calculated using weight and
density of the sand, and then density of insitu soil can be calculated using weight of excavated
soil and volume of the pit.
Procedure:
1. Remove the cap of sand pouring cylinder, close the shutter, fill the test sand passing
through 1mm and retained on 600 µm from the top.
2. Find the mass of sand pouring cylinder with sand (𝑊1). Place the sand pouring cylinder
over the calibration container, open the shutter and allow the sand to flow out for filling
the calibration container. Close the shutter.
3. Place this sand pouring cylinder now on a clean and plane surface. Open the shutter and
allow the sand to flow out for filling cone fully. Close the shutter, remove the sand
pouring cylinder, collect the sand which occupied in the cone and find out its mass (𝑊2).
4. Refill the sand pouring cylinder with sand such that it weighs equal to initial mass 𝑊1.
Place the sand pouring cylinder centrally on the calibration container with volume 𝑉1.
5. Open the shutter and allow the sand to fill in the calibration container and cone
completely. Close the shutter and find the mass of cylinder with remaining sand as (𝑊3).
6. Refill the sand pouring cylinder with sand such that it weighs equal to initial mass 𝑊1
and take it to the field, along with metal tray and trowel.
7. Place metal tray having central hole on the prepared ground, and excavate the soil using
trowel up to 150 mm (approximately) depth, remove loose soil carefully and collect it in
the metal container
8. Remove the metal tray having central hole, place the sand pouring cylinder full of sand
centrally over excavated pit.
9. Open the shutter and allow sand to fill in excavated pit and cone completely. Close the
shutter and take it to laboratory to find the mass of cylinder with remaining sand (𝑊4).
10. Find the mass of soil collected from the pit (𝑊).
11. Determine water content of collected soil by oven drying method as 𝑤.
12. Repeat the steps two times more to get average value of dry density of field soil.
44 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Observations:
Internal diameter of calibrating container (𝑑) = ………………. cm.
Internal height of calibrating container (ℎ) = …………………. cm.
Volume of calibrating container (𝑉1) = ………………………..cm3.

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Density of sand
Mass of sand
pouring cylinder full
of sand (𝑊1) g
Mass of sand in cone
(𝑊2) g
Mass of cylinder
after pouring sand in
calibrating container
and cone (𝑊3) g
Mass of sand filled
in calibrating
container (𝑊𝑠 =
𝑊1 − 𝑊3 – 𝑊2) g
Density of sand
(𝛾𝑠 = 𝑊𝑠/ 𝑉1) g /
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 45

cc
Density of soil
Mass of sand
pouring cylinder full
of sand (𝑊1) g
Mass of collected
soil (𝑊) g
Mass of cylinder
after pouring sand in
excavated pit and
cone (𝑊4) g
Mass of sand filled
in excavated pit
(𝑊5 =
𝑊1 – 𝑊4 – 𝑊2) g
Volume of collected
soil = Volume of pit
= Volume of sand
filled in excavated
pit (𝑉 = 𝑊5 / 𝛾𝑠 )
cc
Bulk density (𝛾 =
𝑊/𝑉) g /cc
Water content
Container No.
Mass of empty
container with lid
(𝑤1) g
Mass of container
with lid and wet soil
(𝑤2) g
Mass of container
with lid and dry soil
(𝑤3) g
Mass of water
(𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤2 − 𝑤3)
g
46 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Mass of dry soil

(𝑤𝑠 = 𝑤3 − 𝑤1)
g
Water content in %
𝑤 = (𝑤𝑤 /
𝑤𝑠) 𝑥 100
Dry density
Dry Density of soil
𝛾𝑑 = (𝛾) / (1 +
𝑤), g /cc.

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 47

Name of experiment: Determination of specific gravity by pycnometer method (IS 2720)

Aim: To determine the specific gravity of the given soil sample using pycnometer
Apparatus required: Pycnometer, stirrer, pipette, oven, weighing balance, wash bottle, distilled
water

Pycnometer
Theory: Specific gravity is the ratio of density of soil to density of water. Specific gravity is a
critical parameter in the determination of void ratio and other soil properties.
Procedure:
1) Per batch Clean the pycnometer bottle and dry it. Take the weight of empty pycnometer with
conical cap as ‘𝑊1’ g .
2) Oven dry the given soil sample passing through 4.75 mm and retained on 75 micron IS sieve,
in oven at temperature 105-110oC for 24 hours to get dry soil.
3) Place this soil sample about 150-200 g in the pycnometer and take its weight as ‘𝑊2’ g .
4) Now add the distilled water to half of height of pycnometer and stir it well, so that entrapped
air is completely removed.
5) Fill the distilled water up to top of conical cap using pipette.
6) Take the weight of pycnometer filled with distilled water as ‘𝑊3’ g.
7) Clean the pycnometer.
8) Fill the pycnometer bottle with distilled water only up to top of conical cap.
9) Take the weight of pycnometer completely filled with water as 𝑊4 g.
10) Calculate the specific gravity 𝐺, as (𝑊2 – 𝑊1) / [(𝑊4 – 𝑊1) – (𝑊3 – 𝑊2)]
11) Repeat all above steps two more times to calculate average specific gravity of given soil
sample.
48 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Observations:
Room temperature at the time of test: ……………. oC.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Mass of empty pycnometer
(𝑊1) g
Mass of pycnometer with
dry soil (𝑊2) g
Mass of pycnometer with
soil and water (𝑊3) g
Mass of pycnometer with
water (𝑊4) g
Specific Gravity 𝐺 =
(𝑊2– 𝑊1) /
((𝑊4– 𝑊1) – (𝑊3– 𝑊2))

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 49

Name of experiment: Determination of liquid limit using Casagrande's liquid limit apparatus (IS
2720)
Aim: To determine the liquid limit of the given soil sample using Casagrande's liquid limit
apparatus
Apparatus required: Casagrande's liquid limit apparatus, grooving tool, IS sieve of 425 µm,
mixing dishes, weighing balance, spatulas, oven

Casagrande's liquid limit apparatus and grooves

Theory: Liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from plastic to liquid state. It is
defined as the water content at which a soil pat in the standard liquid limit apparatus cut by a
groove of standard dimensions will flow together for a distance of 12 mm under impact of 25
blows of standard height. Liquid limit is significant to know the state of soil used for
construction. Soils with the the insitu moisture content closer to liquid limit, can be considered as
soft. If the moisture is too lesser when compared to the liquid limit, the soil is stiff. Above the
liquid limit, soil loses its shear strength completely and behaves lie a fluid.
Procedure:
1. Take about 120 gm of air-dried soil passing 425 µm I.S sieve.

2. The sample is then mixed with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
50 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

3. A part of this paste is then spread into the cup liquid limit device using spatula. At the point
of maximum thickness, the depth of soil can be 1 cm. Excess soil has to be trimmed.

4. Divide the paste in the cup along centreline, using the grooving tool such that firm
dimensions are made.

5. Turn the crank at two rpm, till the two parts of the paste join together for atleast 1 cm length,
by flow, and record the number of blows.

6. If the number of blows are between 10 and 40, keep a representative sample from the cup for
water content determination.

7. Repeat the test such that four readings of number of blows are obtained between 10 and 40.

Observations:

Room temperature at the time of test: ……………. oC.

Experiment No. Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
Container No.
Mass of empty container
with lid (𝑤1) g
Mass of container with lid
and wet soil (𝑤2) g
Mass of container with lid
and dry soil (𝑤3) g
Mass of water (𝑤𝑤 =
𝑤2 − 𝑤3) g
Water content in % 𝑤 =
(𝑤𝑤 / 𝑤𝑠) 𝑥 100

Result:
Liquid limit (from graph):
Flow index:
w1 − w2
I𝑓 = 𝑁 =
log10 ( 2⁄𝑁 )
1
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 51

Inference:
52 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Name of experiment: Determination of plastic limit (IS 2720)

Aim: To determine the plastic limit of the given soil sample
Apparatus required: Porcelain dish, glass plate, weighing balance and oven
Theory: Plastic limit is defined as the minimum water content at which soil just begin to crumble
when rolled into a thread of approximately 3 mm in diameter.
Procedure:
1) Sieve the given soil sample through 425 µm sieve and take about 20 gm of sample.
2) Mix the sample with distilled water thoroughly till the soil mass becomes plastic enough to
be moulded with fingers.
3) Take a part of this soil and place it over the glass plate. Roll the soil between fingers and
glass plate, to a thread of uniform diameter at 6 to 90 strokes per minute.
4) Continue rolling till you get a the diameter of the thread becomes 3 mm diameter.
5) If the thread does not crumble at 3 mm diameter, kneed the soil again ad roll it again on the
glass plate.
6) Continue the process until the thread crumbles with 3 mm diameter.
7) Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread and determine the moisture content.
8) Repeat the test atleast three more times and express the results in the nearest whole number.

Observations:
Room temperature at the time of test: ……………. oC.
Experiment No. Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
Container No.
Mass of empty container
with lid (𝑤1) g
Mass of container with lid
and wet soil (𝑤2) g
Mass of container with lid
and dry soil (𝑤3) g
Mass of water (𝑤𝑤 =
𝑤2 − 𝑤3) g
Water content in % 𝑤 =
(𝑤𝑤 / 𝑤𝑠) 𝑥 100

Result:
Plastic limit:
Plasticity Index, IP = w𝑙 − wp
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 53

Toughness index
I𝑝
I𝑡 = =
I𝑓

Inference:
54 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Name of experiment: Determination of shrinkage limit of the soil (IS 2720)

Aim: To determine the shrinkage limit of the given soil sample.
Apparatus required: Evaporating dish, spatula, shrinkage dish, straight edge, glass cup, two
glass plates, IS 2 mm and 425- µm sieves, mercury, weighing balance and oven
Theory: Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content will
not cause a decrease in the soil volume. The value is highly useful in areas where soils undergo
significant changes in volume.
Procedure:
1) Take about 100 gm of the soil sample from passing through 425 µm IS sieve.
2) Take a part of the soil sample in an evaporating dish and mix with distilled water till the
voids are filled in.
3) Weigh the empty shrinkage dish (𝑊1). Fill the paste in the shrinkage dish in three equal
layers, after coating inside of the dish with a thin layer of grease or oil.
4) Weigh the shrinkage dish with wet soil as 𝑊2.
5) Dry the sample in air for 6 to 8h, till the colour of the sample becomes light and then in the
oven at temperature 105° C to 110° C for 12 to 16 h.
6) Weigh the shrinkage dish with oven-dried soil and note as 𝑊3.
7) Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil as
follows. Take out the soil cake from the dish; keep the empty shrinkage dish in a stainless-
steel cup and fill with mercury. Find the weight of shrinkage dish with full of mercury (𝑊4).
Use the weight of mercury to determine the volume of wet soil pat.
8) Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury. Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the
glass cup to overflowing with mercury. Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with
glass plate with prongs and pressing it. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup. Then, place it in
another larger dish, which is, clean and empty carefully. Place the dry soil pat on the
mercury. It floats submerge it with the pronged glass plate which is again made flush with top
of the cup. The mercury spills over into the larger plate. Measure the weight of the plate with
mercury, and use the weight of mercury 𝑊𝑠 to determine the volume of dry pat.

Observations:
Room temperature at the time of test: ……………. oC.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Weight of an empty
shrinkage dish, 𝑊1
Weight of the shrinkage
dish with wet soil, 𝑊2.
Weight of shrinkage dish
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 55

with oven dried soil, 𝑊3

Weight of dry soil, 𝑊𝑑 =
𝑊3 − 𝑊1
Volume of wet soil pat
(𝑉1), in cm3
Volume of dry soil pat
(𝑉2) in cm3
Shrinkage limit 𝑤𝑠 =
{(W2 − W3) – (V1 −
V2)γ𝑤 } / (Wd) x100

Result:

Inference:
56 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

Name of experiment: Determination of particle size distribution of the given soil (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of the given soil sample using sieve analysis.
Apparatus required: IS sieves with size varying from 4.75 mm to 75 µm, weighing balance,
sieve shaker.
Theory: Grain size distribution is important in classifying the soil for engineering uses. The grain
size distribution determines the suitability of a soil for different applications.
Procedure:
1. I.S sieves should be arranged in the order as shown in the table.
2. The soil sample is separated into various fractions by sieving using mechanical sieve shaker
for 10 minutes.
3. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded (No soil particle shall be pushed
through the sieves)

Observations:
Weight of soil sample:

I.S sieve Weight retained in each Percentage Cumulative Percentage

number or retained on percentage finer
size in mm sieve (gm) each sieve retained
4.75
4.00
3.36
2.40
1.46
1.20
0.60
0.30
0.15
0.075

Result:

𝐷10:
𝐷30:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 57

𝐷60:
𝐶𝑢:
𝐶𝑐:
Soil classification:

Inference:
58 | Physical and Index Properties of Soil

KNOW MORE
Apart from Indian Standard classification system, other classifications also exist for engineering
classification of soil. The major classification systems include Unified Soil Classification System,
Textural Classification of Soil, US Bureau of Soils Classification, AASHTO System of Soil
Classification, International Classification System, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology
System. The primary objective of these classification systems is to provide information about the
expected engineering properties of soil. Some of these classifications like Massachusetts Institute
of Technology System, International Classification System, and Massachusetts Institute of
Technology System use only grain size for classification, while the others use texture or plasticity
characteristics also for the purpose of classification.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora,K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,” Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi, 2008.
Gulhati, S. K.; Datta, M.” Geotechnical engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005.
IS 2720 (Part II) – 1973 (Reaffirmed 2010): Methods of test for soils, Part II
Determination of water content.
IS 2720 (Part III) – 1980 (Reaffirmed 2002): Methods of test for soils, Part III
Determination of specific gravity
IS:2720 (Part XXVIII)-1974 (Reaffirmed 2010): Methods of test for soils, Part XXVIII
Determination of dry density of soils in-place, by the sand replacement method
IS:2720 (Part XXIX)-1975 (Reaffirmed 2005): Methods of test for soils, Part XXIX
Determination of dry density of soils in-place, by the core-cutter method

Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

d

3 Permeability and Shear

Strength of Soil

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we shall discuss the following aspects:
• Permeability of soil
• Darcy’s law
• Factors affecting permeability
• Seepage through earthen structures
• Shear strength of soil
• Mohr-Coulomb failure theory
• Strength envelope
• Direct shear and vane shear tests

RATIONALE
This unit on the permeability and shear strength of soil provides a brief introduction to two
critical properties of soil. Both permeability and shear strength are crucial when soil is
considered as an engineering material. Seepage is a critical problem in all earthen structures
and knowledge of permeability is critical while designing them. Shear strength is another critical
engineering property of soil and is defined as the magnitude of shear stress that can be sustained
by soil. Knowledge of both permeability and shear strength are required in computing the
stability of soil slopes and calculating the bearing capacity of foundations.

PRE-REQUISITES
Nil
60 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Learn Darcy’s law of permeability and factors affecting permeability
U1-O2: Understand the process of determination of coefficient of permeability in laboratory.
U1-O3: Know different earthen structures and seepage through them.
U1-O4: Understand shear failure of soil, and components of shearing resistance.
U1-O5: Learn the laboratory tests to determine shear strength of soil.

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 - 2 3 - -
U1-O2 - 2 3 - -
U1-O3 - 2 3 - -
U1-O4 - 2 3 - -
U1-O5 - 2 3 - -

MA

3.1. Permeability of soil

Permeability is an important engineering property of soils. It is defined as the property of a soil
which allows the flow of water (or any other fluid) through its interconnecting pores.
Determination of permeability is critical in solving number of engineering problems, settlements
in foundations, yield of wells, and seepage through and below the earthen structures. The
hydraulic stability of a soil mass is controlled by its permeability.

3.1.1. Darcy’s law of permeability

Among different soil types, large sized particles such as gravels are highly permeable while fine
particles like clays are least permeable. When the flow of water through soils laminar, it is
governed by Darcy's Law (1956). According to Darcy’s law, velocity of laminar and continuous
flow in a homogeneous saturated soil, the is proportional to the hydraulic gradient, and is given
by:

𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 (3.1)
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 61

where, 𝑣 - Velocity of flow,

𝑘 - Coefficient of permeability
ℎ
𝑖 - hydraulic gradient, given by 𝑖 = 𝐿
𝐿 - length of the sample and
ℎ - head causing flow.
The law is formulated based on the following assumptions:
• The soil is fully saturated
• The flow is laminar
• The flow is steady and continuous
• The total cross-sectional area of soil is considered
The volume of flow per unit time or discharge (𝑞) is obtained by multiplying 𝑣 by the total cross-
sectional area of both solids and voids (𝐴).

𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 (3.2)

3.1.2. Coefficient of permeability

Coefficient of permeability is defined as the average velocity of flow through the total cross-
sectional area of soil under unit hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of permeability (𝑘) has the
dimensions of velocity, and is given by the equation:

𝛾𝑤 𝑒3
𝑘 = 𝐶 ( )( )𝐷 2 (3.3)
𝜇 1+𝑒

where 𝐶 is a constant depending upon the shape of conduit, 𝛾𝑤 is the unit weight of water, 𝜇 is
the coefficient of viscosity, 𝑒 is the void ratio, and 𝐷 is the diameter of the hypothetical spherical
grains assumed. The coefficient of permeability depends upon the following factors:
• Particle size: As evident from Eq. (3.3), coefficient of permeability is proportional to the
square of the diameter of particle. Coarse particles are highly permeable, while fine
particles are less permeable.
• Shape of particles: The particle shape decides the specific surface. If the void ratio
remains the same, angular particles are less permeable than rounded particles.
• Structure of soil mass: The coefficient 𝐶 considers the shape of flow conduit, which
depends on the structure of soil mass. Flocculated soil structure is more permeable than
dispersed structure, at the same void ratio.
62 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

• Properties of the pore fluid (water): As mentioned in Eq. (3.3), coefficient of

permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of water and is inversely
proportional to its viscosity coefficient. When temperature increases, the permeability
increases due to decrease in viscosity.
• Adsorbed water: Adsorbed water is usually observed in fine grained soils, and they are
immobile under the influence of gravity. This water causes obstruction to the movement
of fluid through pores, and thus decreases permeability.
• Void ratio: From Eq. (3.3), it can be understood that the coefficient of permeability of a
𝑒3
soil sample is proportional to 1+𝑒
. However, the permeability of a soil at a given void
ratio does not have any relationship with that of other soils with the same ratio. Even
though clays have the maximum void ratio, they are the least permeable, due to the small
size of void passage.
• Degree of saturation: When the soil is not fully saturated, the voids are partially occupied
by air. The entrapped air blocks the passage of water and reduces permeability.
• Impurities in water: Any impure particle in water has the tendency to block the conduit of
flow, and thus reducing the permeability.

3.1.3. Determination of coefficient of permeability

Coefficient of permeability can be determined using both laboratory and field tests. In the
laboratory, different methods are used for the determination of coefficient of permeability of fine
grained and coarse-grained soils.

3.1.3.1. Constant head permeability test

The coefficient of permeability of a relatively more permeable soil (coarse grained) can be
determined in laboratory by the constant head permeability test where a reasonable discharge can
be collected in time interval (Fig. 3. 1). The coefficient of permeability (𝑘) is computed using the
equation.
𝑄 𝐿 1
𝑘= . . (3.4)
𝑡 ℎ 𝐴

where, 𝑄 - the quantity of flow in a time interval 𝑡

𝐿 - length of the sample,
ℎ - head causing flow,
𝐴 - Total cross-sectional area of the sample
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 63

Fig. 3. 1 Constant permeability test

3.1.3.2. Falling head permeability test or variable head permeability test

For relatively less permeable soils (fine grained), the quantity of water collected in the graduated
jar of the constant-head permeability test is very small and cannot be measured accurately (Fig. 3.
2). In case of such soils, the variable head permeability test is used. The value of 𝑘 is computed
using the equation,
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘 = 2.30 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) (3.5)
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
where, 𝑎 - Cross-sectional area of the standpipe,
𝐿 − Length of the sample,
𝐴 -Total cross-sectional area of the sample,
ℎ1 - Head at time t1,
ℎ2 - Head at time t2,
t = t2-t1, the time interval during which the head reduces from ℎ1 to ℎ2 .
64 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Fig. 3. 2 Falling head permeability test

Preparing soil samples in laboratory with the same particle arrangement and density is very
difficult and hence the results of field permeability tests are more suitable for practical
applications. Field tests given in-situ values of permeability with minimum disturbance.

3.1.3.3. Field Tests

The field tests may be in the form of pumping out-tests or pumping- in tests wherein the water is
pumped out or pumped into the drilled wells. The pumping-in tests give the value of the
coefficient of permeability of stratum close to the hole and is economical whereas the pumping-
out tests give the value for a large area around the hole and gives more reliable values.

3.1.4. Permeability of stratified deposits

Soil deposits in field are generally stratified. Their bedding planes may be horizontal, inclined or
vertical. In such cases, each layer may be assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic and with a
separate value of coefficient of permeability. The average permeability of the whole deposit can
be calculated based on the direction of the bedding planes, but also depends upon the direction of
flow of water through the soil mass.

3.1.4.1. Average permeability parallel to bedding planes

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 65

Fig. 3. 3 Flow parallel to bedding planes

𝑘1 𝑍1 + 𝑘2 𝑍2 + 𝑘3 𝑍3 +. . . +𝑘𝑛 𝑍𝑛
𝑘𝑋 = (3.6)
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 … + 𝑍𝑛

where, 𝑘𝑋 = Average permeability of the soil deposit parallel to the Bedding planes.
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛 - Thickness of individual layers
k1, k2, k3, …, kn - Coefficient of permeability of the individual layers,
q1, q2, q3, …, qn - Discharge through the individual layers.

3.1.4.2. Average permeability perpendicular to bedding planes

66 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Fig. 3. 4 Flow perpendicular to bedding planes

𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛
𝑘𝑦 = 𝑍1 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 (3.7)
( ) + ( 2) + ( 3) + ⋯ + ( 𝑛)
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛

where, 𝑘𝑦 - Average permeability of the soil deposit perpendicular to the bedding planes,
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛 - Thickness of individual layers,
i1, i2, i3, …, in - Hydraulic gradient for each stratum,
k1, k2, k3, …, kn - Coefficient of permeabilities of the individual layers.

3.1.5. Seepage analysis

Seepage is the flow of water under gravitational forces through a permeable medium. The flow is
generally laminar and takes place from a point of high head to a point of low head. During this
process of seepage, the path that is followed by a water particle is marked as a flow line. The
lines connect points of equal head on various flow lines are known as equipotential lines. Both
these lines intersect each other at right angles, and a small area covered by a pair of flow lines
and equipotential lines is called a field.
The flow lines and equipotential lines together form a flow net (Fig. 3. 5) that provides a pictorial
representation of the path taken by water particles and the pressure variation along the flow path.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 67

Fig. 3. 5 Flow nets. a) below a sheet pile, and b) below a gravity dam
Flow nets are constructed with the following assumptions, using Laplace equation:
• The flow is two dimensional
• Water and soil are incompressible
• Soil is isotropic and homogeneous
• The soil is fully saturated
• The flow is steady
• Darcy's law is valid.

3.1.5.1. Properties of flow net

68 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

The properties of flow net can be summarized as under:

• Every intersection between a flow line and an equipotential line should be at right angles.
• The discharge (𝛥𝑞) between any two adjacent flow lines is constant.
• The drop of head (𝛥ℎ) between the two adjacent equipotential lines is constant.
• The ratio of the length and width of each field (𝛥𝑠/𝛥𝑛) is constant.
• Smaller the dimension of the field, greater will be the hydraulic gradient and velocity of
flow through it.
• In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the curves is smooth, being either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.

3.1.5.2. Applications or uses of flow net

A flow net can be used for the following purposes:

• Determination of seepage flow (Discharge)
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘. ℎ.
𝑁𝑑 (3.8)

where, 𝑞 - Discharge through a flow net,

𝑘 - Coefficient of permeability,
ℎ - Total hydraulic head causing flow,
𝑁𝑓 - Number of flow channels, and
𝑁𝑑 - Number of equipotential drops.
The above expression is valid for isotropic soils per unit length of structure perpendicular to the
plane of section and should be multiplied by the length of structure to get the total discharge.
• Determination of hydraulic gradient
The average value of hydraulic gradient for any flow field is given by
𝛥ℎ
𝑖= (3.9)
𝛥𝑠

where, 𝛥𝑠 - the length of flow field.

At the exit, the length 𝛥𝑠 is minimum and the hydraulic gradient is generally maximum, and
velocity is also maximum.
• Determination of total head
The total head (h) at any point (P) is given by
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 69

ℎ
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ − 𝑛𝑥 (3.10)
𝑁𝑑

where, n - the number of equipotential drops upto point P.

Hence, the seepage pressure at any point (P) is obtained by simply multiplying total head at P
(ℎ𝑝 ) with the unit weight of water (γw) and this pressure acts in the direction of flow.
• Determination of pressure head
The pressure head at any point is equal to the total head minus the elevation head. The
downstream water level is generally (usually) taken as datum.

3.1.6. Seepage pressure

As the water flows through a soil, it exerts a force on the soil. The force acts in the direction of
Bow in the case of isotropic soils. The force is known as the drag force or seepage force. The
pressure induced in the soil is termed seepage pressure.
The seepage force (J) is given by
𝐽 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝐴 (3.11)

The seepage force per unit volume (𝑗) is expressed as

𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝐴 ℎ
𝑗= = 𝛾𝑤 (3.12)
𝐴𝐿 𝐿

The seepage pressure (𝑝𝑠 ) is the seepage force per unit area.
𝐽 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝐴
𝑝𝑠 = = (3.13)
𝐴 𝐴

The seepage pressure (𝑝𝑠 ) can be expressed in terms of the hydraulic gradient.
ℎ
𝑝𝑠 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ = 𝛾𝑤 𝐿 (3.14)
𝐿

𝑝𝑠 = 𝑖𝛾𝑤 𝐿 (3.15)

𝐿 - Length of the sample,

𝐴 - Cross-sectional area of the sample,
ℎ - Hydraulic head,
70 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

𝛾𝑤 − Unit weight of water.

3.1.7. Concept of effective stress

In a loaded soil mass which is below water, there are two types of stresses that act within soil
mass: effective stress, and neutral stress or pore water pressure.

3.1.7.1. Effective Stress

It is also known as inter-granular pressure. It is transferred to soil grains through their point of
contact of the interconnected particles of a soil and is represented by 𝜎̅ or σ’.

3.1.7.2. Pore water pressure

It is transmitted to the soil base through the pore water and is represented by 𝑢.
The effective stress cannot be measured directly in the laboratory. It is deduced from total stress
and pore water pressure.
𝜎̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 (3.16)

where, 𝜎̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 ′ - effective stress,

𝜎 - total stress,
𝑢 - pore water pressure.
In fully saturated condition, the vertical downward effective stress acting on soil of 𝑍 depth is
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑍. When the upward seepage pressure becomes equal to this value, cohesionless soil losses
its shear strength. This condition in saturated cohesionless soil is called quicksand condition or
boiling condition. The critical gradient at quicksand condition is given by:
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐺−1
𝑖𝑐 = = (3.17)
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
where 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 is the submerged unit weight of soil, 𝛾𝑤 is the unit weight of water, 𝐺 is the specific
gravity of soil, and 𝑒 is the void ratio of soil.

3.1.8. Seepage velocity

The velocity of water through the pore spaces in fluid is called seepage velocity (𝑉𝑠 ). This
velocity is always greater than or equal to the discharge velocity, due to the reduction in cross
sectional area. It can be calculated as follows:
𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = (3.18)
𝑛
where 𝑉 is the discharge velocity and 𝑛 is the porosity of soil.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 71

3.1.9. Seepage through earthen structures

When an earthen dam is constructed, water seeps through the dam body. For a homogenous
earthen dam with an impervious foundation, the impermeable boundary is a flow line which
forms the lower boundary of the flow net. The topmost flow line is known as phreatic line (Fig. 3.
6) or seepage line, and the pressure acting on this line is equivalent to atmospheric pressure. The
soil is unsaturated above the phreatic line and saturated below the phreatic line. As the pressure
head is zero on the phreatic line, the total head is equal to the elevation head.

Fig. 3. 6 Phreatic line through an earthen dam

Once the phreatic line has been located, the flow net can be drawn, and the discharge can be
computed using the equation
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘. ℎ. (3.19)
𝑁𝑑

It is also computed using the equation, q = ks

where, 𝑠 is the focal distance given by:
𝑠 = √𝑑 2 + ℎ2 − 𝑑
where 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 0.7 𝑏
where b=nh
Upstream slope is given by 1: n (V:H) and ℎ is the water depth.
If a provision for drainage is provided at the downstream side, the seepage path and thus the
phreatic line of the dam will get modified as shown in Fig. 3.7.
72 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Fig. 3. 7 Phreatic line through an earthen dam with horizontal filter

3.1.9.1. Piping

Hydraulic structures, such as weirs and dams, built on pervious foundations sometimes fail
formation of a pipe-shaped channel in its foundation or body (Fig. 3. 8). This type of failure is
called piping failure. It occurs when water flowing through the foundation has a very high exit
gradient and it carries with it soil particles. The factor of safety against piping is defined as the
ratio of critical hydraulic gradient to the actual exit gradient, and the value should be greater than
4 to avoid piping.

Fig. 3. 8 Piping through dam body and foundation

The following measures are usually adopted to prevent piping failures.
• Increasing the path of percolation
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 73

The length of the path of percolation can be increased by increasing the base width of the
hydraulic structure, by providing vertical cut off walls below the hydraulic structure or by
providing an upstream impervious blanket, as shown in Fig. 3. 9

Fig. 3. 9 Measures to control piping

• Impervious core
The quantity of seepage is reduced by providing an impervious core (Fig. 3. 9).
• Providing Drainage Filter or loaded filter
The drainage filter may be horizontal or in the form of a rock toe. It may also be in the form of a
chimney drain, as shown in Fig. 3. 9. A loaded filter consists of coarse-grained particles such as
sands and gravels. It is provided in order to increase the downward seepage force without a rise in
the upward seepage force.

3.2. Shear strength of soil

Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the failure. Most
engineering applications of soil, such as, stability of slopes, lateral pressure exerted by soil on
retaining walls, and bearing capacity of soil requires knowledge of shear strength of soil.

3.2.1. Components of shearing resistance

Shearing resistance is composed of
(i) Cohesion, and
(ii) Friction,
Strength of cohesionless soils comes mostly from intergranular friction alone and cohesive soils
from cohesion alone, while in other soils it comes from both cohesion and internal friction.
74 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Cohesion is the force of attraction between the particles binding them together. Cohesion is
present in clays and silts but is normally absent in sands and gravels. Internal friction is due to the
inter-locking of particles. All soils except plastic undrained clay exhibit friction.

3.2.2. Classification of soils

Based on cohesion and friction, soils can be classified into 𝜑 − soils, 𝑐- soils and 𝑐 − 𝜑 soils.
𝜑 − soils are cohesion less or frictional or coarse-grained soils. e.g., sands and gravels. 𝑐- soils
are called frictionless cohesive or fine-grained soils. e.g., clays. 𝑐 − 𝜑 soils are called cohesive
and frictional soils like silts.

3.2.3. Mohr-Coulomb failure theory

Mohr stated that shear failure of any soil happens with a combination of both shear and normal
stresses. He also stated that the shear stress on failure plane is a function f normal stress acting
along that plane. Later, Coulomb separated the shear strength of soil into two components:
(i) Cohesion between the particles
(ii) Friction between the particles.
He proposed a straight-line law connecting shear strength and normal stress, as
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 (3.20)

where. 𝜏𝑓 - Shear strength of soil,

𝜎 - Normal stress on soil,
𝑐 - Cohesion
𝜑- Angle of internal friction.
The inclination of the failure envelope to the horizontal gives the angle of shearing resistance and
its intercept on the vertical axis is equal to the cohesion. The equation of shear strength can be
further simplified based on the type of soil as shown in Fig. 3. 10.

Fig. 3. 10 Failure envelopes for different types of soil

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 75

3.2.4. Modified Mohr-Coulomb failure theory

Terzaghi established that the strength of soil is controlled by effective stresses and not by total
stresses.
In terms of effective stresses, Eq. (3.19) is written as
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎̅ tan 𝜑′ (3.21)

where,
𝜎̅ - Effective normal stress = 𝜎 − 𝜇
𝜎 - total normal stress.
𝑢 - Pore water pressure,
𝑐′ - cohesion in terms of effective stresses and
and 𝜑′ - angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stresses.

3.2.5. Determination of shear strength

The shear test must be conducted under appropriate drainage conditions that simulate the actual
field case.
In shear tests, there are two stages. In the first stage normal stress (or confining pressure) is
applied to the specimen. Later, in the second stage shear stress (or deviator stress) is applied to
the specimen to shear it.
Depending upon the drainage conditions, there are three types of tests: Unconsolidated-
Undrained (UU) tests, Consolidated-Undrained (CU) tests and Consolidated-Drained (CD) tests.
The shear force is applied either by increasing the shear displacement at a given rate or by
increasing the shear force at a given rate. Accordingly, the shear tests, are called either strain
controlled, or stress controlled.
The following tests are used to measure the shear strength of soil.
I. Direct shear test
II. Triaxial test
III. Unconfined compression test
IV. Vane shear test

3.2.5.1. Direct shear test

Direct shear test can be conducted for any one of the three drainage conditions. A number of
identical specimens are tested under different normal stresses. The shear stress required to cause
failure is determined for each normal stress. The failure envelope is obtained by plotting and
joining the points corresponding to shear strength at different normal stresses by a straight line
(Fig. 3. 11).
76 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Fig. 3. 11 Direct shear test. a) Failure envelope and b) laboratory test set up

3.2.5.2. Vane shear test

This is a quick test, used either in the field or in the laboratory, to determine the undrained shear
strength of cohesive soils. A vane shear test apparatus has four steel plates fixed at right angles to
each other to a steel rod (Fig. 3. 12), and the vanes are pushed into soil and rotated at a constant
speed (1 rpm). A calibrated torsion spring measures the resistance of soil to rotation, and the
shear strength is determined by the following formula if both top and bottom end shear the soil.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 77

Fig. 3. 12 Laboratory vane shear test setup

𝑇
𝜏𝑓 = (3.22)
𝛱𝐷 2 [(𝐻⁄2) + (𝐷⁄6)]

If only bottom end take part in shearing, then

𝑇
𝜏𝑓 = (3.23)
𝛱𝐷 2 [(𝐻⁄2) + (𝐷⁄12)]

where 𝑇 - Maximum torque at failure.

𝐻 - Height of vanes,
𝐷 - Diameter of rotating blades.
The vane shear test can also be used to determine the sensitivity of the soil. After the initial test,
the vane is rotated rapidly through several revolutions. The test is then caried out on the
remoulded soil and the shear strength in remoulded state is determined. Thus,
(𝜏𝑓 )(𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑆𝑡 ) = (3.24)
(𝜏𝑓 )(𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 79

UNIT SUMMARY
The unit discusses two critical engineering properties of soil, permeability and shear strength.
Both are highly relevant in practical applications and should be determined specifically for each
site, before starting construction activities. The factors affecting permeability, its laboratory
determination and some practical applications are discussed, and for shear strength, the concept
of shear strength and direct shear test and vane shear tests for determining shear strength ae
discussed.

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Constant head permeability test is suitable for:
a) Granular soils
b) Fine-grained soils
c) Cohesive soils
d) All the above
2. Which among the following is not an assumption while constructing flow nets?
a) The flow is two dimensional
b) Water and soil are incompressible
c) Soil is isotropic and homogeneous
d) The soil is partially saturated
3. Effective stress in soil is defined as the difference between total stress and ……………..
a) Normal stress
b) Shear stress
c) Pore water pressure
d) None of the above
4. Which among the following is not a widely followed shear test condition, based on drainage?
a) Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) tests,
b) Consolidated-Undrained (CU) tests
c) Unconsolidated-Drained (UD) tests
d) Consolidated-Drained (CD) tests.

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1) a
2) d
80 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

3) c
4) c

Numerical

Examples:
1. A 20 cm long, 8 cm diameter coarse sand sample was tested in a constant head permeability
test. After 15 mins of constant water flow under 1 m head, the volume of discharged water
was found to be 1200 cc. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of soil.
𝑡 = 15 min = 900 𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ = 1 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴 = 𝑑 = 82 = 50.26 𝑐𝑚2
4 4
𝐿 = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑄 = 1200 𝑐𝑚3
𝑄𝐿 1200×20
𝑘 = = = 5.306 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝐴 900×100×50.26
2. The water level in a standpipe of 6 mm diameter reduced from 80 cm to 25 cm in a duration of
15 mins in a variable head permeability test. The soil sample had a height of 12 cm and a cross
sectional area of 44.41 cm2. Find the coefficient of permeability.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑎 = 𝑑2 = 0.62 = 0.28 𝑐𝑚2
4 4
𝐿 = 12 cm
𝐴 = 44.41 𝑐𝑚2
ℎ1 = 80 𝑐𝑚
ℎ2 = 25 𝑐𝑚
𝑡 = 15 min = 900 𝑠
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘 = 2.30 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
0.28 × 12 80
= 2.30 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
44.41 × 900 25
= 9.86 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
3. A silty sand soil has a cohesion of 25 kPa and an angle of internal friction of 25o. Calculate the
shear strength of the soil at 5 m below the ground surface, is the unit weight of soil in 18
kN/m3 and water table is well below the layer of soil.
𝑐 = 25 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜑 = 25𝑜
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑍 = 18 × 5 = 90 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
= 25 + 90 × tan(25)
= 66.97 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 81

4. A soil sample with cohesion 20kPa was tested using a direct shear test with an applied normal
stress of 200kPa. The sample failed at a shear stress of 150 kPa. Calculate the angle of internal
friction of soil.

𝑐 = 20 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜎 = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑓 = 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑

𝜏𝑓 − 𝑐
𝛷 = tan−1 ( )
𝜎
150 − 20
= tan−1 ( ) = 33.02𝑜
200

Exercises
1. A stratified soil deposit has 3 layers of soil. The top layer consists of 2 m deep soil with
coefficient of permeability 5 × 10-4 cm/s and the second layer is 5 m thick and more
permeable, with coefficient of permeability 2 × 10-2 cm/s. These layers are overlaid on top of
a 2 m thick layer of coefficient of permeability 3 × 10-3 cm/s. Calculate the average
coefficient of permeability in directions parallel to the bedding and perpendicular to the
bedding. (𝒌𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒄𝒎/𝒔 , 𝒌𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎/𝒔)
2. The following are the observations from a direct shear test, during failure. Calculate the
cohesion and angle of internal friction of the soil sample from the observations. (𝒄 =
𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂 and 𝝋 = 𝟑𝟎𝒐 )

Sample No. Normal stress (kPa) Shear stress (kPa)

1 20 21.55
2 40 33.09
3 60 44.64
3. A soil sample has been taken from a uniform deposit of dry sand and the unit weight was
found to be 19 kN/m3 and angle of internal friction was found to be 35o. Calculate the shear
strength of the soil on a horizontal plane, at 4m depth from the surface. (𝝉𝒇 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂)
4. A structure is proposed on the site mentioned in question 3, which will induce 60 kN/m2
stress in the vertical direction and 70 kN/m2 stress in the horizontal direction at 4 m depth.
Will the increase in shear stress exceed the shear strength of soil on horizontal plane? (𝝉𝒇 =
𝟗𝟓. 𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂, 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆)
5. At a depth of 6 m below the ground surface at a site, a vane shear test gave a torque value of
6500 N-cm. The vane was 10 cm high and 6 cm across the blades. What will be the shear
strength of the soil (in kN/m2)? (𝝉𝒇 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 )
82 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1) Define permeability.
2) What is Darcy’s law? What is its significance in soil mechanics?
3) Enlist any two field tests carried out to determine the coefficient of permeability of soil.
4) What is effective stress in soil?
5) Explain Mohr-Coulomb failure theory.
6) Define effective size of particle in sieve analysis.
7) Explain in detail the procedure of constant head permeability test.
8) What are flow nets? What are the characteristics of flow nets?
9) What are the different measures adopted to control seepage through earthen dams?
10) Enlist and explain any two laboratory tests used to determine the shear strength of soil.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 83

PRACTICALS

Name of experiment: Determination of coefficient of permeability by constant head method (IS

2720)
Aim: To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample by constant head
method
Apparatus required: Permeameter mould with detachable base, drainage bade and drainage cap
compacting equipment, constant head tank, graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge, stop
watch to note the time and a meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.
Theory: Permeability is the property of a soil which allows the flow of water (or any other fluid)
through its interconnecting pores. Determination of permeability is critical in solving number of
engineering problems, settlements in foundations, yield of wells, and seepage through and below
the earthen structures. When the soil is highly permeable, constant head permeability test is used
to determine the coefficient f permeability.
Procedure:
1. Prepare the soil sample with the required degree of compaction.
2. Measure precisely the dimensions of soil sample.
3. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet to the
constant head reservoir.
4. Open the bottom outlet of the reservoir.
5. Wait till the flow of water becomes steady and note the head of water.
6. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.
7. Repeat step 6 two more times for the same interval.

Observations:

Experiment No. 1 2 3

Length of soil sample 𝐿(cm)

Area of soil sample 𝐴(cm2)

Time 𝑡 (s)

Quantity of water collected 𝑄 (cm3)

Head of water ℎ(cm)

Coefficient of permeability 𝑘
84 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

𝑄𝐿
(cm/s) 𝑘 = 𝑡ℎ𝐴

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 85

Name of experiment: Determination of coefficient of permeability by falling head method (IS

2720)
Aim: To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample by falling head
method
Apparatus required: Permeameter with its accessories, weighing balance of 1 gm sensitivity,
stopwatch, measuring jar, meter scale, water container.
Theory: Permeability is the property of a soil which allows the flow of water (or any other fluid)
through its interconnecting pores. Determination of permeability is critical in solving number of
engineering problems, settlements in foundations, yield of wells, and seepage through and below
the earthen structures. The falling head test is suited for soil with low discharge, like clays and
silts.
Procedure:
1) Prepare the soil specimen as specified and saturate the specimen.

2) Assemble the permeameter in the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.

3) Connect the nozzle to the standpipe. Wait until steady flow is obtained.

4) Note down the time interval 𝑡 for a fall of head in the standpipe ℎ.

5) Repeat step 4 two more times to determine 𝑡 for the same head.

Observations:
Experiment No. 1 2 3

Area of standpipe 𝑎, cm2

Cross sectional area of soil

2
specimen 𝐴, cm

Length of soil specimen, 𝐿, cm

Initial reading of standpipe, ℎ1 , cm

Final reading of standpipe, ℎ2 , cm

Time, 𝑡, s

Coefficient of permeability, 𝑘 , cm/s

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘 = 2.30 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
86 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 87

Name of experiment: Determination of shear strength of soil using direct shear test (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the shear strength of the given soil sample using direct shear test
Apparatus required: Direct shear box apparatus, dial gauge, proving ring, weighing balance.
Theory: Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the
failure. Most engineering applications of soil, such as, stability of slopes, lateral pressure exerted
by soil on retaining walls, and bearing capacity of soil requires knowledge of the value of the
angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil, which are the shear strength parameters.
Procedure:
1) Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2) Place the soil in smooth layers and tamp the soil to achieve the required density.
3) Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
4) Apply the desired normal load.
5) Remove the shear pin.
6) Attach the proving ring
7) Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between
two parts except sand/soil.
8) Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear load at failure
9) Add an equal increment of normal stress and continue the experiment till failure
10) Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment
Observations:

Experiment No. 1 2 3
Cross sectional area of
specimen (cm2)
Normal load (kg)
Normal stress (kPa)
(Normal load/ cross
sectional area)
Shear load at failure
(kg)
Shear stress at failure
(kPa) (Shear load /
cross sectional area)

Result:
88 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 89

Name of experiment: Determination of shear strength of soil using vane shear test (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the shear strength of the given soil sample using vane shear test
Apparatus required: Vane shear apparatus, container for soil specimen, callipers.
Theory: Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the
failure. Vane shear test is a quick method for determining shear strength. The laboratory vane
shear test for the measurement of undrained strength of cohesive soils, and soils of low shear
strength.
Procedure:
1. Prepare three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 37.5 mm diameter, with
L/D ratio 2 or 3.
2. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus.
3. Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the soil
specimen.
4. Note the readings of the angle of twist.
5. Rotate the vanes at an uniform rate until the specimen fails.
6. Note the final reading of the angle of twist.
7. Find the value of blade height in cm.
8. Find the value of blade width in cm.

Observations:
Height of blade, H, cm =
Width of blade, D, cm =

Exp. No.

Initial Reading (Deg)

Final Reading (Deg.)

Difference (Deg.)

Spring Constant, kg-cm

Torque, T =Spring
Constant/180 x Difference,
kg-cm
90 | Permeability and Shear Strength of Soil:

Shear strength,
𝑇
𝜏𝑓 = 𝛱𝐷2 [(𝐻⁄2)+(𝐷⁄6)],

kg/cm2

Average shear strength,

kg/cm2

Result:

Inference:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 91

KNOW MORE
Teton Dam was an earth fill dam across the Teton River in Madison County located in south-
eastern Idaho. The dam and its reservoir were the principal elements of the Teton Basin Project.
The 93 m (305 ft.) high dam with a crest length of 975 m (3200 ft), failed completely during first
filling on 5th June 1976. On June 3, 1976, two small seeps were observed at the downstream toe
of the dam. The rest of the dam was inspected, and no further evidence of seepage was noted.
Only two days later, the seepage became muddy, and a sinkhole developed on the downstream
slope of the embankment dam. The structure was breached because of internal seepage, causing
the loss of 11 lives and extensive flooding in the farmland and towns below the dam.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora,K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,” Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi, 2008.

Gulhati, S. K.; Datta, M.” Geotechnical engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005.
IS 2720 (Part XVII) – 1986 (Reaffirmed 2002): Methods of test for soils, Part XVII
Laboratory determination of permeability.
IS 2720 (Part XIII) – 1986 (Reaffirmed 2002): Methods of test for soils, Part XIII Direct
shear test
IS:2720 (Part XXX)-1980 (Reaffirmed 2007): Methods of test for soils, Part XXX
Laboratory vane shear test

Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

d

4 Bearing Capacity of Soil

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we shall discuss the following aspects:
• Concept of bearing capacity
• Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory
• Field methods for determination of bearing capacity
• Definition of earth pressure
• Rankine’s theory for non-cohesive soils

RATIONALE
This unit on the bearing capacity of soil deals with two important concepts in soil mechanics, the
bearing capacity and lateral earth pressure. It speaks about both the vertical stress that a
foundation can withstand without failure, and the lateral stress exerted by earth on a retaining
wall. The unit deals with the application of concepts learnt in the previous units. Both
foundations and retaining walls are important geotechnical structures, and this chapter deals
with the theories related to the functioning of both.

PRE-REQUISITES
Basic concepts of soil mechanics.

UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 93

U1-O1: Understand the concept of bearing capacity and the related terms.
U1-O2: Learn Terzaghi’s theory of bearing capacity and the effect of water table in bearing
capacity calculation.
U1-O3: Understand the field methods for testing bearing capacity.
U1-O4: Understand the concept of lateral earth pressure.
U1-O5: Learn Rankine’s earth pressure theory for cohesionless soils.

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 - - 2 3 -
U1-O2 - - 2 3 -
U1-O3 - - 2 3 -
U1-O4 - - 2 3 -
U1-O5 - - 2 3 -

MA

4.1. Bearing capacity of soil

The ultimate load of any structure is transferred to the soil through the foundations. Based the
depth and width of foundations, they are primarily classified into shallow and deep foundations.
The term bearing capacity is widely used in associated with shallow foundations, which are laid
at a depth less than on equal to their widths. Shallow foundations are of different types; like
isolated, strip and combined foundations. In this unit, we are discussing the bearing capacity
theories related to strip foundations, that are used to provide a continuous, level strip of support to
a linear structure such as a wall. The foundation transmits the load from superstructure to a larger
area, and it should be designed in such a way that the settlements are always within the
permissible limit, and the soil does not fail in shear. Bearing capacity is a term used to define the
pressure that can be taken by the soil safely, without failure. There are different terminologies
associated with the definition of bearing capacity.

4.1.1. Basic definitions

4.1.1.1. Ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞𝑢 )

Ultimate bearing capacity denotes the total pressure at the base of foundation at which
shear failure occurs in soil.

4.1.1.2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞𝑛𝑢 )

94 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

It is the net increase in pressure due to the superstructure, at the base of foundation that
leads to the shear failure of soil. It is the difference of ultimate bearing capacity and the
overburden stress due to the soil above the base of foundation.

qnu = qu − 𝛾𝐷𝑓 (4.1)

where 𝛾 is the unit weight of soil and 𝐷𝑓 is the depth of foundation. The product 𝛾𝐷𝑓 is the
overburden pressure, which exists at the level of base of foundation, even before construction.

4.1.1.3. Net safe bearing capacity (𝑞𝑛𝑠 )

It is the net pressure on soil that can be safely applied to the soil, without causing shear
failure. This is calculated by considering a suitable factor of safety (𝐹𝑆), which is usually
taken as 3.

qnu (4.2)
qns =
𝐹𝑆

4.1.1.4. Gross safe bearing capacity (𝑞𝑠 )

It is the gross pressure that the soil can withstand, without shear failure. The value is
obtained by adding the overburden stress to the net safe bearing capacity.

qs = qns + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 (4.3)

4.1.1.5. Net safe settlement pressure (𝑞𝑛𝑝 )

It is the net pressure that can be taken by the soil without exceeding the permissible
settlement limits. The maximum allowable settlement depends upon the type of
foundation.

4.1.1.6. Net allowable bearing pressure (𝑞𝑛𝑎 )

It is the net bearing pressure used for design of foundations. As the soil should satisfy
both shear failure and settlement criteria, the net allowable bearing pressure is the smaller
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 95

of net safe bearing capacity and the net safe settlement pressure. This value is also known
as the allowable soil pressure or allowable bearing capacity.

4.1.2. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory

The bearing capacity theory proposed by Terzaghi in 1943 deals with strip footings, with
the following assumptions:
• The base of footing is rough.
• The footing is laid at a shallow depth (less than or equal to the width).
• Shear strength of the soil above the base of footing is neglected.
• The loading of the footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
• Footing is long (𝐿/𝐵 ratio is infinite, where 𝐿 is the length and 𝐵 is the breadth of
the footing).
• The shear strength of soil is governed by Mohr-Coulomb criteria
The ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing of width 𝐵 placed at a depth 𝐷𝑓 is given by
the Terzaghi’s equation as follows:

qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 (4.4)

where 𝑐′ is the cohesion of the soil, 𝛾 is the unit weight and 𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 and 𝑁𝛾 are
dimensionless numbers, known as Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors. These numbers
depend upon the angle of internal friction of the soil, and the values are tabulated in Table
4. 1.
Table 4. 1 Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors
𝜑′ General shear failure Local shear failure
𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑞 𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝑐 ′ 𝑁𝑞 ′ 𝑁𝛾 ′
0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2
96 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7

35 57.8 41.4 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8
45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7
50 347.5 415.1 1153.2 81.3 65.6 87.1
The value of bearing capacity factors also depends upon the type of shear failure. The
shear failures are classified into three by Vesic (1973) as general shear failure, local shear
failure and punching shear failure.

4.1.2.1. General shear failure

During general shear failure, the settlement below the footing increases suddenly at a
stress of qu , and the failure extend to the ground surface (Fig. 4. 1a). The failure always occurs
with heave on both sides and occurs commonly in stiff clays and dense sands.

4.1.2.2. Local shear failure

As can be observed in the load per unit area (𝑞) vs settlement (𝑠) curve in Fig. 4. 1b, the
movement starts at a load of qu1 , with sudden jerks in soil, and it gradually extends away from
the foundation. For the failure surfaces to extend till the ground level, considerable movement is
required. The load at this point is denoted as qu , and when the load is exceeded beyond this, there
is a substantial increase in settlement. Heaves are observed during local shear failure during large
settlements. Local shear failure is commonly observed in medium dense sands and clays with
medium consistency.

4.1.2.3. Punching shear failure

In the case of loose ands and soft clays, failure does not extend upto the ground surface. The jerk
in foundation starts at a load of qu1 and the failure occurs at qu . Beyond qu , the load settlement
curve is linear, and such failures are called punching shear failures. No heave is observed in this
case.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 97

Fig. 4. 1 Types of shear failure

4.1.3. Effect of water table on bearing capacity

Equation 4.4 for ultimate bearing capacity assumes that the water table is at great depth, and it
has no effect on the bearing capacity of the foundation. The effect of water table is considered
when it occurs at a depth between the ground level and a depth of 𝐷𝑓 + 𝐵. In between these
depths, two different conditions are considered as shown in Fig. 4. 2. Any variation water table
between ground level and base of footing will have effects on both second and third terms in the
right-hand side of Eq. 4.4, and if water table is located below the base of footing but above a
depth of 𝐷𝑓 + 𝐵, only the last term will be affected.

Fig. 4. 2 Depth of water table below foundation. a) Case 1 and b) Case II

98 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

4.1.3.1. Condition 1: Water table located above the base of footing

The soil below the water table is in submerged condition, and the second term in Eq. 4.4 should
be expressed in two parts. The first part considers the bulk unit weight of soil from ground
surface to the depth of water table (𝐷𝑤 ), and the second part considering submerged unit weight
(𝛾′) from the level of water table to the base of footing as shown in Eq. 4.5. The unit weight to be
considered in the terms in the right-hand side of Eq. 4.4. is also the submerged unit weight.

𝛾𝐷𝑓 = 𝛾𝐷𝑤 + 𝛾′(𝐷𝑓 − 𝐷𝑤 ) (4.5)

Thus Eq. 4.4 gets modified as:

qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + [𝛾𝐷𝑤 + 𝛾′(𝐷𝑓 − 𝐷𝑤 )]𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾′𝑁𝛾 (4.6)

4.1.3.2. Condition 2: Water table located below the base of footing

In this case, the second term is not affected. The third term in the right-hand side of Eq. 4.4 gets
modified into two parts, considering the submerged unit weight of soil below the water table.

𝐵𝛾 = 𝛾(𝐷𝑤 − 𝐷𝑓 ) + 𝛾′(𝐷𝑓 + 𝐵 − 𝐷𝑤 ) (4.7)

Eq. 4.4 is modified in this case as:

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5[𝛾(𝐷𝑤 − 𝐷𝑓 ) + 𝛾′(𝐷𝑓 + 𝐵 − 𝐷𝑤 )]𝑁𝛾 (4.8)

4.1.3.3. General expression

If 𝐷𝑤 = 𝐷𝑓 , i.e., if the water table is at the base of footing, Eq. 4.6 is same as Eq. 4.4, and if
𝐷𝑤 = 𝐷𝑓 + 𝐵, Eq. 4.8 is same as Eq. 4.4. Considering the variation along the depth is linear, two
correction factors can be added to the second and third terms in the right-hand side of Eq. 4.4, to
formulate a general expression given by:

(4.9)
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑊𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 𝑊𝛾
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 99

where 𝑊𝑞 is the water table correction for the second term to be used in Case 1 (𝐷𝑓 ≥ 𝐷𝑤 ), given
by:

𝐷 𝑓 − 𝐷𝑤
𝑊𝑞 = 1 − 0.5 ( )
𝐷𝑓 (4.10)
𝑊𝛾 = 0.5

and 𝑊𝛾 is the water table correction for the third term to be used during Case 2 (𝐷𝑤 ≥ 𝐷𝑓 ), given
by:

𝐷 𝑤 − 𝐷𝑓
𝑊𝛾 = 0.5 + 0.5 ( ) (4.11)
𝐷𝑓

Both 𝑊𝑞 and 𝑊𝛾 varies between 0.5 and 1. Eq. 4.9 can also be used for isolated square and
circular footings with minor modifications. In both the cases, the first term on right hand side of
Eq. 4.9 gets multiplied by 1.2. In case of square footing, the third term gets multiplied by 0.4,
while the coefficient for third term is 0.3 in the case of circular footings. The term 𝐵 represents
width of square footing and diameter in the case of circular footings.

4.1.4. Settlement of foundation

The allowable bearing pressure is decided based on both safe bearing capacity and settlement.
The settlement in soil due to the external load should also be considered before deciding the
dimensions for design. There are other causes also that may result in settlement, like underground
erosion, landslides, frost and heave and vibrations, and if detected, suitable measures should be
adopted to minimise these settlements as well.
The foundation settlement due to external loads has three different phases:
• Immediate or elastic settlement (𝑆𝑖): This occurs during or immediately after the
construction of the structure. It is also known as the distortion settlement as it is due to
distortions caused by the external load.
• Consolidation settlement (𝑆𝑐): This settlement occurs due to gradual expulsion of water
from the voids of the soil and is determined using Terzaghi's theory of consolidation (see
Unit 5).
100 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

• Secondary Consolidation Settlement (𝑆𝑠): This settlement occurs after completion of the
primary consolidation. The amount of settlement in this case is very minor and is usually
ignored.
The total settlement (𝑆) is given by:

𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠 (4.12)

IS 1904 -1986 gives the safe values for maximum and differential settlements for different types
of foundation, as listed in Table 4. 2.
Table 4. 2 Maximum and differential settlements (IS 1904 -1986)
Sand and hard clay Plastic clay
Max - Diff - Angular Max - Diff - Angular
Settlement settlement Distortion settlement settlement Distortion
(a)Isolated
foundation
(i) Steel
50 mm 0.0033 L 1/300 50 mm 0.0033 L 1/300
structures
(ii) RCC
50 mm 0.0015 L 1/666 75 mm 0.0015 L 1/666
structures
(b) Raft
foundations
(i) Steel
75 mm 0.0033 L 1/300 100 mm 0.0033 L 1/300
structures
(ii) RCC
75 mm 0.002 L 1/500 100 mm 0.002 L 1/500
structures

4.1.5. Field methods for determination of bearing capacity

IS 1904-1986 suggests that the safe bearing capacity of foundation should be calculated on the
basis of field soil investigation results. For determining bearing capacity, plate load test is
conducted in field as per IS 1888-1982.

4.1.5.1. Plate load test

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 101

To conduct a plate load test, the location should be selected based on the results of boring.
Otherwise, it can also be conducted at an elevation of the proposed foundation in the worst
estimated condition. If the depth of water table is within a depth equal to the width of the plate
(𝐵𝑃 ), the test shall be conducted at the level of water table. If water table is above the test level, it
should be lowered to the test level by means of pumping out. The test pits are usually excavated
with a width five times 𝐵𝑃 , the size of the plate, to a depth equal to the depth of foundation (𝐷𝑓 ).
The test plate is usually a square of width varying from 300 mm to 750 mm, made of steel and is
25 mm thick. Occasionally, circular plates are also used. The dead load of all equipments
including ball and socket, loading column, jack and steel plates should be noted before starting
the test.
A central hole of the size 𝐵𝑃 × 𝐵𝑃 , is excavated in the pit. The depth of the central hole (𝐷𝑃 ) is
obtained from the following relation:

𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑓
= (4.13)
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑓

where 𝐵𝑓 is the width of foundation, and therefore,

𝐷𝑃 = (𝐵𝑃 /𝐵𝑓 ) × 𝐷𝑓 (4.14)

Fig. 4. 3 Typical setup for plate load test

102 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

For conducting the plate load test, the plate is placed in the central hole and the load is applied by
means of a hydraulic jack (Fig. 4. 3). Sometimes, trusses and reaction beam s are used instead of
a loaded platform to take up the reaction. Wo dial gauges are required so that the settlement can
be measured without any resetting in between. A seating load is first applied and released after
some time. The load is then applied in increments of 1 kg/cm2 or about 20% of the estimated
ultimate bearing capacity, whichever is less. The settlement is recorded after 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9,
16 and 25 minutes, and further at an interval of one hour to the nearest 0.02 mm. These hourly
observations are continued for clayey soils until the rate of settlement is less than 0.2 mm/h. The
test is conducted till twice the estimated design pressure or until failure or at least until the
settlement of about 25 mm has occurred.
The ultimate load for the plate 𝑞𝑢 (𝑝) is indicated by a break on the log-log plot between the load
per unit area 𝑞 and the settlement 𝑠. If the break is not well-defined, the ultimate load is taken as
that corresponding to a settlement of one-fifth of the plate width (𝐵𝑃 ). On the natural plot (Fig. 4.
4), 𝑞𝑢 (𝑝) is obtained from the intersection of the tangents drawn on load-settlement curve.

Fig. 4. 4 Load intensity vs settlement for plate load test

The following relations can be used for the calculation of ultimate bearing capacity of the
proposed foundation 𝑞𝑢 (𝑓) :
For clayey soils,

𝑞𝑢 (𝑓) = 𝑞𝑢 (𝑝) (4.15)

For sandy soils,

(4.16)
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 103

𝐵𝑓
𝑞𝑢 (𝑓) = 𝑞𝑢 (𝑝) ×
𝐵𝑃

The plate load test can also be used to calculate the settlement for a given intensity of loading 𝑞𝑂 .
The following relations can be used between the settlement of the plate (𝑆𝑝 ) and that of the
foundation (𝑆𝑓 ) for the same load intensity:
For clayey soils,

𝐵𝑓
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑃 × (4.17)
𝐵𝑃

where 𝑆𝑝 is the settlement of plate, obtained from the load intensity-settlement curve,
corresponding to 𝑞𝑂 .
For sandy soils,

2
𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑃 + 0.3)
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑃 [ ] (4.18)
𝐵𝑃 (𝐵𝑓 + 0.3)

In above equations, 𝐵𝑓 is the width of foundation in metres and 𝐵𝑝 is the width of the plate also in
metres.
Even though the test is widely followed for determining the bearing capacity, plate load test has
the following limitations:
• Size effect: The results of the plate load test reflect the strength and the settlement
characteristics of the soil corresponding to the size of plate. The area where stress is
induced in soil is much deeper for the actual foundation when compared to that of the
plate and the test does not satisfactorily represent the actual conditions in non-
homogeneous and anisotropic soils.
• Scale effect: The ultimate bearing capacity of clayey soils is does not depend on the size
of the plate but for sandy soils, it increases with the size of the plate (Eq. 4.16). Hence it
is advised to repeat the test with plates of different sizes in case of sandy soils.
• Time effect: A plate load test is conducted for a short duration when compared with the
actual service period of a foundation. In case of clayey soils where consolidation
settlement is important, the settlement obtained from the test is not satisfactory.
• Interpretation of failure load: The failure load is not well-defined, except in the case of a
general shear failure. Hence the load interpreted from the graph highly depends upon the
skill of the interpreter.
104 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

• Reaction load: It is not practicable to provide a reaction of more than 250 kN. Hence, the
test on a plate of size larger than 0.6 m width is difficult.
• Water table: The level of the water table affects the bearing capacity of the sandy soils. If
the depth of water table is within a depth equal to the width of the plate (𝐵𝑃 ), the test
shall be conducted at the level of water table. If water table is above the test level, it
should be lowered to the test level by means of pumping out.

4.1.5.2. Bearing capacity from standard penetration test

The bearing capacity of foundation can also be calculated using the results of standard
penetration test (SPT). The test is conducted before starting the project, at the stage of site
investigations, by drilling boreholes. The procedure can be followed as per IS 2131– 1981. Tests
shall be made at every change in stratum or at intervals of not more than l.5 m whichever is less.
The intervals be increased to 3 m if in between vane shear test is performed. The test set up
consists of a drilling equipment, split spoon sampler and a drive weight assembly. The drive
weight assembly shall consist of a driving head and a 63.5 kg weight with 75 cm free fall. The
split spoon sampler resting on the bottom of borehole should be allowed to sink under its own
weight; then the split spoon sampler shall be first seated 15 cm with the blows of the hammer
falling through 75 cm. This first 15 cm is the seating drive. Thereafter, the split spoon sampler
shall be further driven by 30 cm more. The number of blows required to affect each 15 cm of
penetration shall be recorded. The total blows required for the second and third 15 cm of
penetration shall be termed the penetration-resistance 𝑁.
The penetration resistance or the SPT N value indicates the resistance of soil to the penetrations
induced by the hammer fall, and hence the value can be used for determining the bearing capacity
of soils.
Method 1: The ultimate bearing, capacity of sandy soils may be determined using correlations
between 𝑁 and the value of angle of internal friction, 𝜑 as mentioned in
Table 4. 3. The average value of 𝑁 between the base of the footing and the depth equal to 1.5 to
2.0 times the width of the foundation can be used, and the bearing capacity factors can be found.
Table 4. 3 Correlation between 𝑁 and 𝜑
𝑁 Denseness 𝜑
0-4 Very loose 25 – 32o
o

4 - 10 Loose 27 o – 35 o
10 - 30 Medium 30 o – 40 o
30 - 50 Dense 35 o – 45 o
> 50 Very dense > 45 o
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 105

Method II: In this method, instead of using correlations between 𝑁 and

𝜑 , the value of 𝑁 is directly used for determining the bearing capacity. Teng (1962) gave the
following equation for the net ultimate capacity of a strip footing:

1
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = [3𝑁 2 𝐵𝑓 𝑊𝛾 + 5(100 + 𝑁 2 )𝐷𝑓 𝑊𝑞 ] (4.19)
6.0

(4.20)
Or 𝑞𝑛𝑢 = [0.5𝑁 2 𝐵𝑓 𝑊𝛾 + 0.83(100 + 𝑁 2 )𝐷𝑓 𝑊𝑞 ]

4.2. Earth pressure theories

While foundations transfer the vertical load to the underlying soil, earth retaining structures are
required to resist the horizontal stress exerted by soil. Such structures are required when soil has
to be retained at different elevations on both sides of a wall. In some cases, soil has to be
supported at unsafe slopes, close to vertical, due to space constraints. Retaining structures can be
used in such cases as well. Generally, the soil behind retaining structures is vertical, hindering the
soil on higher elevation from sliding down. The soil retained is also known as the backfill.
The force acting on retaining structures are in the lateral direction, and the magnitude of this force
increases along the depth. The force also depends upon the interaction between the wall and soil,
including the friction between them. For simplicity, the retaining wall is assumed to be smooth,
vertical and rigid in analysis. The lateral earth pressure is usually computed using the classical
theories proposed by Coulomb (1773) and Rankine (1857).

4.2.1. Different types of lateral earth pressure

Depending upon the movement of the retaining wall with respect to the soil retained, lateral earth
pressure is classified into three categories (Fig. 4. 5).
106 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

Fig. 4. 5 Relationship between lateral earth pressure and wall movement

4.2.1.1. At-rest pressure

The lateral earth pressure is called at-rest pressure when the retained soil is not subjected to any
movement or lateral yielding. This occurs when the retaining wall is firmly fixed at its top
without any provisions for rotation and lateral movement. Basement retaining walls and bridge
abutments are examples for at rest pressure. This condition is also called the state of elastic
equilibrium.

Fig. 4. 6 Earth pressure at rest

Fig. 4. 6 shows a retaining wall in which no movement takes place. The vertical effective stress at
point 𝐴 at a depth 𝑍 is given by

(4.21)
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑍 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤
̅̅̅
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 107

The coefficient of earth pressure at-rest (𝐾𝑜 ), is equal to the ratio of the horizontal stress to the
vertical stress given by:

̅̅̅
𝜎 ℎ (4.22)
𝐾𝑜 =
𝜎𝑣
̅̅̅
̅̅̅)
The horizontal effective stress (𝜎 ℎ can be obtained by multiplying 𝐾𝑜 with ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 as:

𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑂 ̅̅̅
̅̅̅ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝐾𝑂 (𝛾𝑍 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤 ) (4.23)

The coefficient of lateral pressure at rest (𝐾𝑂 ) relates the effective stresses. This is because the
stress induced by soil in different directions vary, while the hydrostatic stress exerted by pore
pressure is same in all directions. Hence pore water pressure should not be multiplied with the
coefficient. The total lateral pressure (𝑝ℎ ) is equal to the sum of the effective stress (𝑝𝑜 = ̅̅̅)
𝜎ℎ and
the pore water pressure (𝑢).
Thus,

(4.24)
𝑝ℎ = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑢

Therefore, the total lateral pressure at depth 𝑍 is,

𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝑂 (𝛾𝑍 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤 ) + 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤 (4.25)

When 𝑍 = 0, the value of 𝑝ℎ is 0 and it increases linearly till the bottom of the wall. Thus, the
distribution of earth pressure is triangular along the depth of the wall (Fig. 4. 7).
If the water table is at a depth 𝑑, Eq. 4.25 can be modified for any depth 𝑍, which is greater than
𝑑 as:

𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝑂 [𝛾𝑍 − 𝛾𝑤 (𝑍 − 𝑑) + 𝛾𝑤 (𝑍 − 𝑑)]
(4.25)
= 𝐾𝑂 𝛾𝑑 + 𝐾𝑂 𝛾 ′ (𝑍 − 𝑑) + 𝛾𝑤 (𝑍 − 𝑑)

The pressure at the bottom of a wall of hight 𝐻 can be calculated as:

(4.26)
108 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝑂 𝛾𝑑 + 𝐾𝑂 𝛾 ′ (𝐻 − 𝑑) + 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻 − 𝑑)

If the water table is at the ground surface the pressure at the bottom of the wall is given by, taking
𝑑 = 0 in Eq. 4.26,

(4.27)
𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝑂 𝛾 ′ 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻

The total pressure acting per unit length of wall, or the resultant force (𝑃) can be calculated by
finding the area of triangles formed by both effective stress and pore water pressure.

1
𝑃= (𝐾 𝛾𝐻 2 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 2 ) (4.26)
2 𝑂

The point of application of the resultant pressure 𝑃 is determined from the pressure distribution
diagram. For triangular pressure distribution, it acts at height 𝐻/3 from the base.

Fig. 4. 7 Distribution of lateral earth pressure. a) dry condition, b) water table above the bottom of
the wall and c) water table at the top of backfill
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 109

4.2.1.2. Active pressure

A state of active pressure occurs when the wall moves away from the backfill. It is a state of
plastic equilibrium where the backfill soil is on the verge of failure. The soil retained on higher
elevation usually exerts pressure on the retaining wall and reaches the state of active earth
pressure.

4.2.1.3. Passive pressure

A state of active pressure occurs when the wall moves towards the back fill. It is another extreme
of the limiting equilibrium condition. The state of passive earth pressure exists in soil retained at
lower elevation on one side of the backfill. Another example of the passive earth pressure is the
pressure acting on an anchor block.

4.2.2. Rankine's earth pressure theory

Rankine (1857) considered the equilibrium of a soil element within a soil mass bounded by a
plane surface, based on the following assumptions:
• The soil mass is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
• The soil is dry and cohesionless.
• The ground surface is plane, which may be horizontal or inclined.
• The back of the retaining wall is smooth and vertical.
• The soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium, ie., at the verge of failure.
The coefficients of active and passive earth pressures can be derived using the concept of Mohrs
circle as explained in the following sections.
110 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

4.2.2.1. Active Earth Pressure.

Fig. 4. 8 Active earth pressure

Consider an element of dry soil 𝐶, at a depth 𝑍 below a level soil surface (Fig. 4. 8a). Initially, the
element is at-rest conditions (circle 1 in Fig. 4. 8b), and the horizontal pressure is given by
𝜎ℎ = 𝐾0 𝜎𝑣
where 𝜎𝑣 (𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑍 )is the vertical stress at 𝐶, and 𝐾0 is the coefficient of earth pressure
at rest.

The stresses 𝜎𝑣 and 𝜎ℎ are, respectively, the minor and major principal stresses, and are
indicated by points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the Mohr circle (Fig. 4. 8b).
When soil stretches horizontally, the vertical stress remains constant, but the horizontal
stress is reduced. The point 𝐴 shifts to position 𝐴′ and the diameter of the Mohr circle
increases. With further decrease in horizontal stress, the point 𝐴 shifts to position 𝐴"
when the Mohr circle touches the failure envelope, and the soil is at the verge of failure.
This state is known as the Rankine active state of plastic equilibrium, and the horizontal
stress at that state is the active pressure (𝑃𝑎 ). the Mohr circle when active conditions are
developed is plotted in Fig. 4. 9.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 111

Fig. 4. 9 Mohrs circle for active earth pressure condition

From the figure,
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐸
𝐶𝐸 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ,
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′
𝑝𝑎 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
=
𝜎𝑣 (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
𝑝𝑎 = 𝜎
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 𝑣
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑍

where 𝐾𝑎 , is a coefficient, known as the coefficient of active earth pressure. It is a

function of the angle of shearing resistance (𝜑 ′ ), and is given by

(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2 0
𝜑′
𝐾𝑎 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [45 − ] (4.27)
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2

The pressure distribution is similar to one shown in Fig. 4. 7 in which 𝐾𝑎 , is substituted

for 𝐾𝑜 .
112 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

4.2.2.2. Passive Earth pressure

The passive Rankine state of plastic equilibrium can be explained by considering the
element of soil at a point at a depth of 𝑍 below the soil surface (Fig. 4. 10a).

Fig. 4. 10 Passive earth pressure

As the soil is compressed laterally, the horizontal stress is increased, whereas the vertical
stress remains constant. The Mohr circles in Fig. 4. 10b plots the variation from at rest to
failure. At the verge of failure, the horizontal stress increases until it reaches a limiting
value greater than the vertical stress, indicated by point 𝐴" and the Mohr circle touches
the failure envelope. Fig. 4. 11, shows the Mohr circle at failure.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 113

Fig. 4. 11 Mohrs circle for passive earth pressure condition

From Fig. 4. 11,
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′
𝑝𝑝 (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
=
𝜎𝑣 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ )
𝑝𝑝 = 𝜎
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 𝑣
𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝑍

where 𝐾𝑝 is the coefficient of passive earth pressure, given by

(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2 0
𝜑′
𝐾𝑝 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [45 + ] (4.28)
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2

The coefficient of passive pressure (𝐾𝑝 ) depends upon 𝛷′ . The pressure distribution is
similar to that shown in Fig. 4. 7, in which 𝐾𝑝 is substituted for 𝐾𝑂
114 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

UNIT SUMMARY
The unit discusses two critical engineering applications of soil mechanics, the bearing capacity
and the lateral earth pressure. In the first part, the calculation of bearing capacity and Terzaghi’s
theory are discussed and in the second part, different lateral earth pressure conditions are
explained with Rankine’s theory. Both the theories are important in designing geotechnical
structures/

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which among the following is not an assumption in Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory?
a) Footing is long
b) Footing is laid at shallow depth
c) Footing is in square shape
d) The load distribution on footing is uniform
2. The increase in pressure due to the superstructure, at the base of foundation that leads to the
shear failure of soil is known as:
a) Ultimate bearing capacity
b) Net ultimate bearing capacity
c) Net safe bearing capacity
d) Gross safe bearing capacity
3. SPT 𝑁 value is the number of blows required by the falling hammer to penetrate
a) First 15 cm
b) First 30 cm
c) Last 30 cm
d) First 30 cm
4. Which among the following arrangements is correct in terms of magnitude of lateral earth
pressure, when the vertical stress and other conditions remains constant?
a) Active earth pressure > Passive earth pressure > Earth pressure at rest
b) Active earth pressure > Earth pressure at rest > Passive earth pressure
c) Passive earth pressure > Active earth pressure > Earth pressure at rest
d) Passive earth pressure > Earth pressure at rest > Active earth pressure

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1) c
2) b
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 115

3) c
4) d

Numerical

Examples:
1. The strip footing below a wall is placed at ground level, with a width of 2 m. The soil is dry
sand with a unit weight of 19 kN/m3 and angle of internal friction 40o. Calculate the ultimate
bearing capacity of the footing.
𝐵 =2𝑚
𝐷𝑓 = 0 𝑚
𝛾 = 19 kN/m3
𝜑′ = 40𝑜
𝑐′ = 0 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑁𝑞 = 81.3
𝑁𝛾 = 100.4
qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾
= 0 + 0 + 0.5 × 2 × 19 × 100.4
= 197.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

2. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 1.5 m wide, placed at a depth of 1
m. The soil has a cohesion of 15 kPa, angle of internal friction 35o, unit weight 18 kN/m3.
Consider depth of water table at:
a. Ground surface
b. 1 m below the ground surface
c. 10 m below the ground surface
𝐵 = 1.5 𝑚
𝐷𝑓 = 1 𝑚
𝛾 = 18 kN/m3
𝜑′ = 35𝑜
𝑐′ = 15 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑁𝑐 = 57.8
𝑁𝑞 = 41.8
𝑁𝛾 = 42.4
qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑊𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 𝑊𝛾
116 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

a. Water Table at ground surface

𝑊𝑞 = 𝑊𝛾 = 0.5
qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑊𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 𝑊𝛾
= 15 × 57.8 + 18 × 1 × 41.8 × 0.5 + 0.5 × 1.5 × 18 × 42.4 × 0.5
= 1529.4 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
b. Water Table 1 m below ground surface
𝑊𝛾 = 0.5
𝐷𝑓 − 𝐷𝑤
𝑊𝑞 = 1 − 0.5 ( )=1
𝐷𝑓
qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑊𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 𝑊𝛾
= 15 × 57.8 + 18 × 1 × 41.8 × 1 + 0.5 × 1.5 × 18 × 42.4 × 0.5
= 1905.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
c. Water Table 10 m below ground surface
𝑊𝑞 = 𝑊𝛾 = 1
qu = 𝑐′𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑊𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 𝑊𝛾
= 15 × 57.8 + 18 × 1 × 41.8 × 1 + 0.5 × 1.5 × 18 × 42.4 × 1
= 2191.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

3. A 6.3 m high vertical wall with smooth surface retains loose sand with bulk unit weight of 18
kN/m3 and angle of internal friction 18o. The backfill has the same height of wall and the
surface of backfill is horizontal. Determine the total active thrust on the wall and its point of
application, if the water table is well below the base of the wall.
𝛾 = 18 kN/m3
𝜑′ = 18𝑜
𝐻 = 6.3 𝑚
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2 0
𝜑′
𝐾𝑎 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [45 − ]
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ′ ) 2
= 0.53
At the surface of backfill,
𝑝𝑎 = 0
At the bottom of the wall,
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑍= 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻
= 0.53 × 18 × 6.3
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 117

= 59.86 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

1
𝑃𝑎 = (𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2 )
2
1
= (0.53 × 18 × 6.32 )
2
= 189.32 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
Point of action of 𝑃𝑎 from the bottom of the wall,
𝑦 = 𝐻/3
= 2.1 𝑚

Exercises
1. Two footings, one circular and the other square, are resting on the surface of a purely
cohesionless soil. If both the foundations are having same base area, the ratio of their
(circular to square) ultimate bearing capacities as per Terzaghi’s theory is:
2. Determine the net safe bearing capacity for a square footing (2m x 2m) resting at a depth of
2m, when the water table is
a. at ground surface.
b. 1m below the ground surface.
c. At the base of the footing
d. 5m below the ground surface.
Use Terzaghi’s equation.
The density of the soil is 18 kN/m3, saturated density is 20 kN/m3, c = 5 kN/m2, 𝜑 = 40o
3. For the retaining walls shown in figure, determine the active earth thrust per unit length of
the wall. Also determine the location of the resultant force.
a.
118 | Bearing Capacity of Soil

b.

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1) What are the assumptions made in Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory?
2) Define the following terms:
a) Ultimate bearing capacity
b) Net safe bearing capacity
c) Net allowable bearing pressure
3) What is meant by consolidation settlement? Is it observed in sandy soils? Justify our answer.
4) What is a standard penetration test?
5) What are the different categories of lateral earth pressure? Explain with a neat sketch.
6) Derive the equation for coefficient of active earth pressure using Rankine’s theory, for
cohesionless soils.
7) How is ultimate bearing capacity calculated using plate load test? Explain in detail.
8) What are the different types of shear failures that may occur in a foundation? Explain with
neat sketches.
9) Write down the assumptions and limitations of Rankine’s Earth Pressure theory.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 119

KNOW MORE
Foundation and retaining wall failures are increasing in India. Earth work should be considered as
an engineering work and when quality control is not assured, the designed properties are not
achieved in the field, and as a result, designed strength is not achieved. Extreme climatic events
are also another major reason for the recent geotechnical failures, where seepage has resulted in
foundation failures, further leading to the failure of the structure. It is suggested to do a detailed
case study on the retaining wall failures happened in India after 2020 and find out the reasons for
failure.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora,K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,” Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi, 2008.

Gulhati, S. K.; Datta, M.” Geotechnical engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005.
IS 1904 – 1986 (Reaffirmed 2006): Code of practice for design and construction of
foundations in soils: General requirements.
IS 1888 – 1982 (Reaffirmed 2002): Method of load test on soils
IS 2131– 1981 (Reaffirmed 2002): Method for standard penetration test for soils

Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

d

5 Compaction and
Stabilization of Soil

UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we shall discuss the following aspects:
• Concept of compaction
• Compaction tests
• Factors affecting compaction
• Field compaction
• Soil stabilization
• Site investigations

RATIONALE
This unit on the compaction and stabilization of soil deals with the process of compaction in soil,
and the factors affecting compaction. Compaction is a useful process in densifying the soil, by

removing air voids. By knowing the compaction curves of a soil sample, it is possible to
understand the optimum moisture content, and to achieve the maximum dry density. Compaction
is usually carried out before the commencement of construction, using rollers and vibrators.
There are different ground improvement techniques which uses the concept of compaction, for
improving the soil strength at surface and deep levels. This chapter also discusses the need for
such soil stabilisation techniques, and the methods of site investigation that should be carried out
before starting any construction activities.

PRE-REQUISITES
Soil classification, index properties.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 121

UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Learn the concept of compaction and the tests for determining optimum moisture
content and maximum dry density
U1-O2: Understand the factors affecting compaction and the field methos of compaction.
U1-O3: Learn the process of soil stabilization and its necessity.
U1-O4: Understand the significance of California Bearing Ratio in pavement construction.
U1-O5: Learn the types of soil exploration and field identification of soil.

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 - - - - 3
U1-O2 - - - - 3
U1-O3 - - - - 3
U1-O4 - - - - 3
U1-O5 2 - - - 3

MA

5.1. Compaction
Compaction is the process in which soil partials are artificially rearranged and packed together
into closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to reduce void ratio, permeability and
compressibility and in order to increase the degree of denseness, stability, shear strength and
bearing capacity.
In 1933, Proctor showed that there existed a definite relationship between the soil water content
and degree of dry density to which a soil might be compacted. The compaction characteristics are
first determined in a laboratory by various compaction tests. These tests are based on any one of
the following methods or type of compaction: dynamic or impact, kneading, static and vibration.
Some of the usual compaction test used in laboratory to determine water density relationship of
soils are: Standard and modified proctor tests, Harvard miniature compaction test, Abbot
Compaction test and Jodhpur-mini compactor test. During a compaction test, the density of soil is
measured at different water contents, after doing compaction. Standard proctor test and modified
proctor tests are followed in India with minor modifications, as light compaction and heavy
compaction respectively, as per IS 2720, for different field applications.
122 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

5.1.1. Light compaction

The procedure for light compaction, with minor modifications from the standard proctor test is
described in IS 2720 (Part VII). The test equipment consists of a cylindrical metal mould,
detachable base plate and collar in effective height and a rammer of 2.6 kg in mass falling
through a height of 310 mm. The test consists of compacting soil at various water contents in the
mould, in three equal layers, each layer being given 25 blows of the rammer. Before putting the
second layer of soil, the top of the first compacted layer is scratched with the help of any sharp
edge. The second and third layers are similarly compacted, each layer being given 25 blows. The
last compacted layer should project not more than 6 mm into the collar. The collar is removed,
and the excess soil is trimmed off to make it level with the top of mould. A soil sample from the
centre of the compacted specimen is then kept for water content determination. Fig. 5. 1 shows
the dimensions of the test mould and the rammer as per IS code.

Fig. 5. 1 Set up for light compaction as per IS 2720 (Part VII)

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 123

The dry density obtained in each test is determined by knowing the mass of the compacted soil
and its water content. The bulk density ρ and the corresponding dry density 𝜌𝑑 for the compacted
soil are calculated from the following relations:
𝑀 𝜌
𝜌= ; 𝜌𝑑 = (𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 )
𝑉 1+𝑤 (5.1)

where 𝑀 is the mass of compacted soil, 𝑉 is the volume of mould and 𝑤 is the water
content.

5.1.2. Heavy compaction

Higher compaction is needed for heavier transport and military aircraft. The modified proctor test
was developed to give a higher standard of compaction. This test was standardized by the
American Association of State Highway Officials and is known as the modified AASHO test. In
heavy compaction, the soil is compacted in the same mould used for light compaction, but in five
layers, each layer being given 25 blows of a 4.9 kg rammer dropped through a height of 450 mm
as per IS: 2720 (Part VIII) – 1983. Similar to the case of light compaction, the sample is weight
after removing the excess portion after removing the collar, and a sample from the centre of the
specimen is kept for water content determination.
The dry density is calculated using Eq. 5.1. The process of plotting the compaction curve is
mentioned in the next section.

Fig. 5. 2 Set up for heavy compaction as per IS 2720 (Part VIII)

124 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

The differences in volume of samples, weight of hammer and number of layers used in different
compaction tests are listed below in Table 5. 1.
Table 5. 1 Comparison between different compaction tests
Standard proctor IS 2720 Light Modified IS 2720 Heavy
test Compaction test Proctor test Compaction Test
Volume of 945 1000 945 1000
3
Mould (cm )
Number of 3 3 5 5
Layers
number of 25 25 25 25
blows
Weight of 2.495 2.6 4.54 4.9
Hammer (kg)
Height of 304.5 310 457.4 450
freefall (mm)

5.1.3. Plotting compaction curve

During a compaction test, the whole procedure of compaction, till the determination of dry
density is repeated multiple times, with varying water content. The first trial starts with lowest
water content, and it should be increased gradually. Initially, the weight of compacted soil goes
on increasing with increase in moisture content, but after a certain limit, it starts decreasing. The
test should be continued till this drop is noted. The dry density of soil is calculated for each trial.
The plot between water content (abscissa) and dry density (ordinate) is then plotted, which is
known as the compaction curve, as shown in Fig. 5. 3. The dry density increases as the water
content is increased, till maximum dry density (𝑀𝐷𝐷) is reached. The water content
corresponding to the maximum density is called the optimum moisture content (𝑂𝑀𝐶).
When the water content is lower than 𝑂𝑀𝐶,the soil is stiff and has more void spaces. This results
in lower dry density. With the increase in water content, soil particles get rearranged into densely
packed positions, and this results in an increase in dry density. When water content is increased
beyond 𝑂𝑀𝐶, the dry density is reduced as the excess water occupies the space that might have
been occupied by solid particles earlier.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 125

Fig. 5. 3 Compaction curve

5.1.3.1. Zero air void line

A line which shows the water content dry density relationship for the compacted soil containing a
constant percentage air voids is known as an air voids lines and can be established from the
following relations:
(1 − 𝑛𝑎 )𝐺𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 =
1 + 𝑤𝐺 (5.2)

where 𝑛𝑎 is the percentage air voids, 𝐺 is the specific gravity of soil and 𝜌𝑤 is the density of
water.
The theoretical maximum compaction for any given water content corresponds to the zero air
voids conditions. The line showing the dry density as a function of water content for soil
containing no air voids is called the zero air voids line or the saturated soil when 𝑛𝑎 = 0 in Eq.
5.2, as:
𝐺𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑(𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) =
1 + 𝑤𝐺 (5.3)

In heavy compaction, the water content dry density curve lies above that of light compaction, and
has its peak relatively placed towards the left. Thus, for a same soil, heavier compaction results in
increased 𝑀𝐷𝐷 value at a lower water content (Fig. 5. 4).
126 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

Fig. 5. 4 Compaction curves for light compaction and heavy compaction

The soil with water content less than 𝑂𝑀𝐶 is said to be in the dry side of optimum, and the soil
with water content more that 𝑂𝑀𝐶 is said to be in the wet side of optimum. The important
properties of soil (relative) in both these conditions are listed below in Table 5. 2.
Table 5. 2 Some important properties and its side of optimum
Properties Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Structure of soil Flocculent Dispersed
Permeability More Less
Pore water pressure Less More
Swelling More Less
Shrinkage Less More
Strength More Less
Compressibility
Low stress compressibility Less More
High stress compressibility More Less

The degree of compaction and moisture content of the soil for different field applications are
decided based on the properties listed in Table 5. 2. The soil in the core of earthen dam and
pavement subgrade is usually compacted in the wet side of optimum. While less permeable soil is
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 127

required in the case of earthen dam, less compressibility and swelling properties are required in
the case of pavement subgrade. A homogenous earthen dam is compacted in the dry side of
optimum, as it requires soil with more strength.
Compaction test is more significant in the case of cohesive soils. In the case of sandy soil, the
variation of dry density with water content is not as significant as that in the case of clay.

5.1.3.2. Compaction curve for cohesion less sands

In the case of sandy soils which are devoid of fines, the water content has very little influence on
the compacted density. For such soils, the dry density decreases with an increase in the water
content, in the initial in the water content, in the initial stage of the curve, particularly under a low
compaction effect. This is due to the bulking of sands wherein the capillary tension resists the
tendency of soil particles to take a dense state. In other words, the capillary tension developed in
the sandy soil is not fully counteracted by the comp active effort and this capillary tension holds
the particles in a loose state resisting compaction. Is interesting to note that the same soil, in air-
dried or oven dried condition, achieves greater density under the same compactive effort. The
maximum bulking occurs at a water content between 4 to 5%. On further addition of water, the
meniscus is destroyed, and the soil particles are able to shift to take a closer packing, resulting in
increase in dry density. The density reaches the maximum value when the soil is fully saturated
on further addition of water the dry density again decreases. Also, the maximum density attained
under full saturation condition, is not very much higher than that corresponding to air dried or
oven dried condition. Secondly, the attainment of maximum density at full saturation is not due to
lubrication action of water but rather it is due to the reduction of effective pressure between soil
particles by hydrostatic pressure. Such soils do not display distinct optimum water content (Fig.
5. 5).

Fig. 5. 5 Compaction curve for cohesionless soils

128 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

5.1.4. Factors affecting compaction

The various factors which affect the compacted density are as follows:

5.1.4.1. Water content

It has been seen by laboratory experiments that as the water is increased, the compacted
density goes on increasing; till a maximum dry density is achieved after which further
addition of water decreases the density. When only a relatively small amount of water is
present in soil, it is firmly held by the electrical forces at the surface of soil particles with
a high concentration of electrolyte which prevents the diffuse double layer surrounding
the particles from developing fully. The double layer depression leads to a low inter-
particle repulsion and the particles do not move over on mother easily when compactive
energy is applied and high percentage air voids and low density is achieved. The increase
in water content results in an expansion of double layer and a reduction in the net
attractive forces between particles or in a increased inter-particle repulsion which permits
the particles to slide more easily past one other into a more oriented and denser state of
packing together, and hence higher density. After the optimum water content is reached,
the air voids approach approximately a constant value as further increase in water content
does not cause any appreciable decrease in them, even though a more orderly
arrangement of particles may exist at higher water contents. The total voids due to water
and air combination go on increasing with increase of water content beyond the optimum
and hence the dry density of the soils falls.

5.1.4.2. Amount of compaction

The amount of compaction greatly affects the maximum dry density and optimum water
content of a given soil. The effect of increasing the compactive energy results in an
increase in the maximum dry density and decrease in the optimum water content.
However, the increase in maximum dry density does not have linear relationship with
increase of compacted effort.

5.1.4.3. Method of compaction

The density obtained during compaction, for a given soil, greatly depends upon the type
of compaction or the way compactive effort is applied. The various variables in the
aspect are (i) weight of the compacting equipment, (ii) the manner of operation such as
dynamic or impact, static kneading or rolling and (iii) time and area of contact between
the compacting element and the soil.

5.1.4.4. Type of soil

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 129

The maximum dry density achieved corresponding to a given compactive energy largely
depends upon the type of soil. Well graded coarse-grained soils attain a much higher
density and lower optimum water contents then fine-grained soils which require more
water for lubrication because of the greater specific surface.

5.1.4.5. Addition of admixtures

The compaction properties/characteristics of soil can be modified by a number of admixtures

other than soil material. These admixtures have special application in stabilised soil construction.

5.1.5. Suitability of various compaction equipment

Compaction can be done at both shallow and deep depth. The compaction at shallow depths or
surface compaction is widely carried out as a part of ground improvement and for pavements.
Surface compaction can be carried out by three methods, rolling, ramming and vibration.

5.1.5.1. Roller

The compaction achieved by rollers depend upon their contact pressure, number of passes, layer
thickness and speed of roller. While the compaction increases with contact pressure and number
of passes, it decreases with an increase in layer thickness. The speed of roller should be optimized
for the application required. Different types of rollers (Fig. 5. 6) are used for compaction as listed
below:
• Smooth wheel roller
o Compaction is achieved by application of pressure over the soil.
o Suitable for coarse grained soil like gravel, crushed stone and sand etc.
o Generally used in construction of road.
• Sheep foot roller:
o Compaction is carried out by kneading action which provide
comparatively strong bond between compacted layers of soil.
o Suitable for cohesive soil.
o Used in construction of earthen dam.
• Pneumatic tyred roller
o Compaction is carried out by the combined action of pressure and
needing.
o Suitable for all types of soil but generally preferred for cohesive soil.
o Used in construction of roadway, airfield and homogeneous dams.
130 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

Fig. 5. 6 Different types of rollers

5.1.5.2. Rammer

Rammers or tampers are used to compact the soil under the effect of impact. Rammers are
generally preferred for cohesive soil. They are used for compacting soil in confined areas
such as near to retaining walls, basement walls etc.

5.1.5.3. Vibrator

In this approach, vibrations are induced in soil during compaction. This method is best
suited for compaction of sand. This method is widely used for compacting soil in
confined areas and in construction of embankment of oil storage tanks.

5.1.6. Difference between compaction and consolidation

Both compaction and consolidation are processes in which soil particles get rearranged into a
denser arrangement. Even though the ultimate result is reduction in volume, both processes are
entirely different. He differences between compaction and consolidation are listed in Table 5. 3
below:
Table 5. 3 Difference between compaction and consolidation
Compaction Consolidation
It is almost instantaneous process. It is time dependent process.

Soil is in unsaturated condition. Soil is completely saturated.

Volume reduction due to expulsion of air from Volume reduction is due to expulsion of pore
void spaces. water.

Specified mechanical techniques are used in Consolidation occurs on account of a load

the process (like roller, rammer and vibrator) placed on soil.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 131

5.2. Soil stabilization

Stabilization in a broad sense, incorporates the various methods employed for modification the
properties of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Stabilization is being used for a
variety of engineering works, the most common application being in the construction of road and
airfield pavements, where the main objective is to increase the strength or stability of soil and to
reduced construction cost by making best use of locally available material.
Methods of stabilization may be grouped under two main types:
• Modification or improvement of a soil property of the existing soil without any
admixture.
• Modifications of the properties of soil by using admixtures.

5.2.1.1. Mechanical stabilisation

Two processes are involved in mechanical stabilization: (i) composition by adding or removing
specific components, and (ii) densification or compaction. The key elements influencing a soil's
engineering behaviour are its composition and particle size distribution. A suitable soil fraction
can be added or removed to significantly alter the characteristics. The soil components can be
split into two fractions for mechanical stabilization, where the main goal is to have a soil that is
resistant to deformation and displacement under loads: the granular fraction kept on a 75 micron
IS sieve and the fine soil fraction passing through a 75-micron sieve. Strength and hardness are
imparted by the granular fraction. The fine fraction provides cohesion or binding property,
water-retention capacity and also acts as a filler for the voids of the coarse fraction. Mechanical
stabilisation has been largely used in the construction of economical roads.

5.2.1.2. Cement stabilisation

The soil stabilised with cement (Portland) is known as soil cement. The cementing action is
believed to be the result of chemical reaction of cement with the silicious soil during hydration.
The binding action of individual particles through cement may be possible only in coarse-grained
soils. In fine grained, cohesive soils, only some of the particles can be expected to have cement
bonds, and the rest will be bonded through natural cohesion. The important factors affecting soil
cement are nature of soil, cement content, conditions of mixing, compaction and curing, and
admixtures.

5.2.1.3. Lime stabilisation

Heavy, deformable clayey soils can be effectively treated with hydrated (or slaked) lime. Lime
can be used on its own or in conjunction with fly ash, bitumen, or cement. These combinations
can also stabilize sandy soils. The main use of lime has been to stabilize the sub-grades and road
bases. Two types of chemical reactions happen when lime is added to soil: (1) base exchange
phenomenon changes the composition of the absorbed layer, and (2) cementing or pozzolanic
132 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

activity. High plasticity soils become less plastic to handle and pulverize when lime is added to
the mixture. In case of soils with low plasticity, their plasticity index increases.

5.2.1.4. Bitumen stabilisation

Bituminous materials like asphalts and tars are typically used to build pavements and stabilize
soil. Normally, these substances are too viscous to be mixed in with soil. Asphalts can be made
more fluid by heating, emulsifying, or using a cut-back procedure. Tars are either heated or
reduced. When added to soil, bituminous materials have a cohesion or binding effect and inhibit
water absorption. Therefore, for stabilization, either the binding action, the water proofing action,
or both of these actions may be used. Bitumen stabilization is divided into four categories based
on these actions and the makeup of the soils: (i) sand-bitumen; (ii) soil-bitumen; (iii) water-
proofed mechanical stabilization; and (iv) oiled earth.

5.2.1.5. Chemical stabilisation

Chemical stabilizers, commonly referred to as soil binders or soil palliatives, help to stabilize soil
temporarily. They are easily applied to the soil's surface, can stabilize regions where vegetation
cannot grow, and offer strong resistance against wind and runoff erosion.
Chemical stabilizers can be divided into the following categories: concentrated liquid stabilizer,
water with surfactant, water-absorbing, synthetic polymer emulsion, organic non-petroleum,
organic petroleum, and clay additive.

5.2.1.6. Stabilisation by heating

Heating a fine-grained soil to temperatures of the order of 400 to 600° C makes it non-plastic,
less water sensitive irreversible changes in clay minerals. Also, the clay clods get converted into
aggregates. Soil can be baked in kilns, or in-situ downwards draft slow-moving furnaces. The
artificial aggregates so produced can be used for mechanical stabilisation.

5.2.1.7. Electrical stabilisation

The stability or shear strength of fine-grained soils can be increased by draining them with the
passage of direct current through them. The process is also known as electro-osmosis. Electrical
drainage is accompanied by electro-chemical composition of the electrodes and the deposition of
the metal salts in the soil pores. There may also be some changes in the structure of soil. The
resulting cementing of soil due to all these reactions, is also known as electro-chemical hardening
and for this purpose the use of aluminium anodes is recommended.

5.2.1.8. Reinforced earth and geosynthetics

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 133

The term ‘‘Geosynthetics’’ has been proposed in 1983 by J.E. Fleut, Jr. collectively all synthetic
materials, including geomembranes. They have multiple applications in geotechnical engineering.
A geosynthetic can increase the tensile strength of a soil through interface shear strength. It can
also act as a tensioned membrane when it is placed between two materials, which, in effect, is the
reinforcement function of the geosynthetic, with tensile strength as its key property. They can
also be used for accelerated drainage in fine grained soils.

5.3. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test

The CBR test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade strength of roads and
pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to determine the
thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for the
design of flexible pavement. The procedure is explained in IS 2720 (Part XVI)- 1987
CBR is defined as the ratio expressed in percentage of force per unit area needed to penetrate a
soil mass with a standard plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that required
for corresponding penetration in a standard material. The standard material is crushed stone and
the load which has been obtained from a test on it is the standard load, this material is considered
to have a CBR of 100%. The ratio is usually determined for penetration of 2.5 and 5 mm. When
the ratio at 5 mm is consistently higher than that at 2.5 mm, the ratio at 5 mm is used.
Table 5. 4 gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard material
with a C.B.R. value of 100%.
Table 5. 4 Penetration vs standard load for CBR
Penetration depth (mm) Standard load (kg)
2.5 1370
5 2055

The test apparatus consists of loading machine with minimum 5000 kg capacity with a movable
head or base which enables the standard plunger of 50 mm diameter to penetrate the specimen at
a rate of 1.25 mm/min. The mould used is cylindrical, with a detachable metal extension collar
and a detachable perforated base plate. A circular metal spacer disc is also provided. A While
using a remoulded specimen, the sample should be compacted at either the value of 𝑀𝐷𝐷 and
𝑂𝑀𝐶 estimated by the heavy compaction test or the field density and natural moisture content.
Compact the mix soil in the mould using heavy compaction, in five layers, but with 56 blows for
each layer. The collar of the mould can be then removed to level the surface. The penetration can
then be conducted on soaked or unsoaked samples. For soaking, the specimen within the mould is
covered with filter papers and perforated plate and a surcharge weight equivalent to the pavement
is added. The mould assembly and loads are then immersed in water for 96 hours.
For the penetration test, the sample is placed in the loading machine and the load is applied at a
rate of 1.25 mm/min. The load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10
and 12.5 mm should be recorded. A graph is then plotted between load (ordinate) and penetration
134 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

(abscissa), and if the curve has a concave shape close to the abscissa, it has to be corrected as per
Fig. 5. 7. The CBR value (corresponding to 2.5 mm or 5 mm) is then calculated as:
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝐵𝑅 = × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (5.4)

Fig. 5. 7 Load penetration curves for CBR

The CBR value can be used as an index of soil strength and its bearing capacity. The test is
highly helpful to determine the strength of the subgrade soil and select a suitable pavement
thickness for the expected traffic. The results obtained from the CBR test are used with the design
curves developed by different authorities to determine the thickness of pavement and various
component layers of pavement.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 135

5.4. Site investigations

Before starting any construction project, it is important that the engineering properties and
characteristics of the soils is investigated. Both field and laboratory investigations required to
obtain the necessary data for the soils for this purpose are collectively called soil exploration. The
engineering properties of the foundation soil is extremely critical, as choice of the foundation, the
bearing capacity, settlement analysis and many important aspects in the design process depends
upon the properties of soil.
The term ‘Site investigation’ refers to the procedure of determining surface and subsurface
conditions in the area of proposed construction. It is broader than the scope of ‘soil exploration’
and includes the latter. Before soil exploration, reconnaissance, study of maps and aerial
photography are usually conducted in site investigation. Thus, the process involves complete data
collection about a site, and soil exploration is a major part of the investigation.

5.4.1. Preliminary steps

Preliminary steps are conducted before soil exploration, but they are not mandatory. The
objective is to collect the topographical, surface and subsurface conditions before doing the
exploration. They help in planning the exploration in an efficient way.
Reconnaissance involves an inspection of the site and an overall study of the topographical
features. This will provide information about the soil and ground-water conditions and also help
the engineer plan the programme of exploration. Information on surface and subsurface
conditions of an area is frequently available in the form of maps. Many authorities in India like
the Survey of India and Geological Survey of India, provide topographical maps. Freely available
remote sensing data, including satellite sources can also be used. The portal of Geological Survey
of India (Bhukosh), National Remote Sensing Centre (Bhuvan), and the US Geological Society
are some options where data is available online. Aerial photography is now gaining wide
popularity and is helpful for site investigation for any major project. They can be used for
multiple applications including the development of topographical maps for the study area.

5.4.2. Soil exploration

Soil exploration may be needed during new construction, but also when remedial measures are
required for any structure due to geotechnical problems. The exploration is generally carried out
to achieve the following objectives:
(i) To determine of the nature of the soil deposits
(ii) To determine the location and fluctuations of groundwater
(iii) To determine of the depth and thickness and extent of the soil strata
(iv) To determine the in-situ subsurface properties by performing field tests
(v) To collect soil and rock samples from the various strata for laboratory experiments
(vi) To determine the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata
In general, the methods available for soil exploration may be classified as follows:

5.4.2.1. Direct methods

136 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

• Test pits, trial pits or trenches

Test pits or trenches are accessible or open type exploratory methods. In this method, soil can be
inspected in their natural condition. The necessary soils samples may be obtained by sampling
techniques and can be used for laboratory testing. Test pits will also be useful for conducting field
tests such as the plate-load test. Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths. For
greater depths, they need to be supported with lateral supports or bracing.

5.4.2.2. Semi-direct methods

• Borings
Making or drilling bore holes into the ground to collect soil or rock samples from specified
depths is called ‘boring’. The common methods of advancing bore holes are:
1. Wash boring
2. Rotary drilling
3. Auger boring
4. Auger and shell boring
5. Percussion drilling

5.4.2.3. Indirect methods

• Soundings, penetration tests and geophysical methods

These are done with the supply or electricity or with seismic waves. The soil layers are
distinguished by observing changes in the electrical resistivity, velocity of waves or in its
magnetic and electrical field. Some of the geophysical methods commonly used are electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT), crosshole testing, ground penetrating radar (GPR), seismic
refraction and reflection, downhole testing, spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW),
electromagnetic wave measurement and induced polarization. Soil samples from field cannot be
collected with indirect methods and hence they do not give information about the engineering
properties of the soil. They are often used in along with direct methods.

5.4.2.4. Planning an exploration programme

Planning of locations and depths of boring and sampling is the first step of any exploration
programme. The two important aspects of a boring programme are ‘spacing of borings’ and
‘depth of borings’.
The number of borings or the spacing of borings for a project depends upon the type, size, and
weight of the proposed structure, subsurface conditions, budget, and the local building code
guidelines. Before the investigation, a preliminary estimate of the spacing is made. It is modified
after reconnaissance and study of other maps, depending upon the local site requirements. The
spacings mentioned in Table 5. 5 are recommended in planning an exploration programme. When
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 137

the subsurface strata have uniform conditions the spacing can be increased to double of these
values, and when the conditions are irregular, these should be reduced to the half values.
Table 5. 5 Spacing of Borings (Sowers and Sowers, 1970)
Nature of the project Spacing of borings (m)
Highway (subgrade survey) 300 to 600
Borrow pits 30 to 120
Earth dam 30 to 60
Single story factories 30 to 90
Multistorey buildings 15 to 30

To get adequate information for bearing capacity and settlement calculations, the borings should
penetrate all strata that get affected by the load of the structure. That is, for important and heavy
structures the borings should extend to the bed rock. For smaller structures, shallow borings or
the results of investigations from nearby sites can also be used. Table 5. 6 lists the depth of
explorations recommended by IS 1892 – 1979 for different construction projects.
Table 5. 6 Depth of exploration (IS: 1892-1979)
Nature of the project Depth of exploration (m)
Isolated spread footings or raft or adjacent One and half times the width
footings with clear spacing equal or greater
than four times the width
Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than One and half times the length
twice the width
Adjacent rows of footings
(i) With clear spacing between rows less than (i) Four and half times the width
twice the width
(ii) With clear spacing between the rows (ii) Three times the width
greater than twice the width
(iii) With clear spacing between rows greater (iii) One and half times the width
than or equal to four times the width
Pile and Well foundations One and half times the width of structure from
bearing level (toe of pile or bottom of well)
Road cuts Equal to the bottom width of the cut
Fill Two metres below the ground level or equal to
the height of the fill whichever is greater
138 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

5.4.3. Field identification of soils

Basically, coarse-grained and fine-grained soils are distinguished based on whether the individual
soil grains can be seen with naked eye or not. Thus, grain-size itself may be adequate to
distinguish between gravel and sand: but silt and clay cannot be distinguished by this technique.
Field identification of soils becomes easier if one understands how to distinguish gravel from
sand, sand from silt, and silt from clay.
While gravel from sand can be distinguished by visual inspection, other classifications require
some field tests, which are easy to perform at the field.

5.4.3.1. Dispersion test

This test can be used to distinguish sand from silt and silt from clay. The test consists of pouring
a spoonful of sample in a jar of water. Sand settles down in a one or two minutes, but, and silt,
may take 15 mins to one hour to settle. Both sand and silt will not be left in the suspension
ultimately. If the sample is clay, it will form a suspension which will remain as such for hours,
and even for days, provided flocculation does not take place.

5.4.3.2. Dilatancy test

This test is used to distinguish between silt and clay. In this test, a part of the material is placed in
one’s palm and is shaken. If it is silt, water comes to the surface with a shining appearance. If it is
kneaded, the moisture will re-enter the soil and the shine disappear. If it is clay, the water cannot
infiltrate easily and hence sample will look dark. If it is a mixture of silt and clay, the relative
speed with which the shine appears may give an indication of the amount of silt present. This test
is also known as ‘shaking test’.

5.4.3.3. Dry strength test

This test is used to distinguish between silt and clay. A small briquette of material should be dried
and tried to be broken. If the briquette can be broken easily, the material is silt. Clay requires
more effort to be broken. If the dried briquette has dust particles which can be easily removed, the
material is silt. With water, clay gives a soapy touch; it also dries slowly, sticks, and cannot be
dusted off easily.

5.4.3.4. Toughness test

This test is also used to distinguish between silt and clay and is similar to the plastic limit test. A
thread is attempted to be made with a moist soil sample to a diameter of about 3 mm. It is not
possible to make such a thread with silt without crumbling. If it is clay, such a thread can be made
even to a length of about 30 cm and supported by its own weight when held at the ends. This is
also called the ‘rolling test’.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 139

UNIT SUMMARY
This unit discussed one of the important methods of ground improvements in the field,
compaction. Compaction is a process in which the soil is densified, and the engineering
properties are improved. This process is applied before starting the construction process, to
improve the bearing capacity and reduce the settlement of soil, upon the application of load. The
chapter also discusses the purpose of soil exploration and different methods used for soil
exploration in brief.

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Compaction of soil is aimed at:
a) Decreasing the density
b) Increase porosity
c) Decreasing void ratio
d) Decreasing shear strength
2. Compaction of soil is measured in terms of:
a) Dry Density
b) Specific Gravity
c) Compressibility
d) Permeability
3. Optimum moisture content is the moisture content at which:
a) Settlement is minimum
b) Permeability is more
c) Dry density is maximum
d) Shear strength is less
4. In which of the following soil type does vibration as a compaction principle work best?
a) Clay
b) Sand
c) Marshy soil
d) Silt

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

1) c
2) a
3) c
4) b
140 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

Numerical

Examples:
1. What is the theoretical maximum dry density of a soil sample having specific gravity 2.65 and
water content 18 %?
𝐺 = 2.65
𝑤 = 18 %
𝐺𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑(𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) =
1 + 𝑤𝐺
2.65 × 1
=
1 + 0.18 × 2.65
= 1.79 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

2. A cohesive soil gives maximum dry density of 1.8 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 at a water content of 17 %, during a
proctor test. If the specific gravity of the soil is 2.7, what is the degree of saturation?
𝐺 = 2.7
𝑤 = 17 %
𝜌𝑑 = 17 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝐺𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑤𝐺
1+ 𝑠
2.7 × 1
1.8 = 0.17×2.65
1+
𝑠
0.17 × 2.65 2.7 × 1
1+ =
𝑠 1.8
0.4505
= 1.5 − 1 = 0.5
𝑠
0.4505
𝑠=
0.5
= 0.901 = 90.1 %

Exercises
1) A laboratory compaction test on soil having specific gravity equal to 2.68 gave a maximum
dry density of 1.82 g/cc and a water content of 17% per cm. determine degree of saturation,
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 141

air content and percentage air voids at maximum dry density. What would be theoretical
maximum dry density corresponding to zero air voids at OMC.
2) The following are the results of a compaction test:
Volume of mould = 1000ml.
Mass of mould = 1000g
Sp. Gravity of mold = 2.70
Determine degree of saturation at maximum dry density?
Mass of 2935 3096 3152 3124 3056
mould + wet
soil
Water 10 12.2 14.3 16.2 18.5
content

3) Work out theoretical maximum dry density for a soil sample having specific gravity of 2.72
and 𝑂𝑀𝐶 = 16%. Also explain the difference in 𝑂𝑀C value in case of proctor test and
modified proctor test for cohesive soil and granular soil.
4) A cohesive soil yields a maximum dry density of 1.85 gm/cc at an 𝑂𝑀𝐶 of 16% during a
standard proctor test. If the value of 𝐺 is 2.63, what is the degree of saturation?

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1) Enlist the differences between compaction and consolidation.
2) Is compaction test significant in the case of sandy soils? Justify your answer.
3) What are the different methods used for surface compaction?
4) An earthen dam is proposed near your place. While compacting the core of the dam, what
moisture content will you suggest? We of optimum or dry of optimum? Why?
5) What do you mean by optimum moisture content?
6) Define zero air void line.
7) Explain the objectives of soil exploration.
8) What is stabilization of soil? What are the different methods?
9) What do you mean by dry of optimum or wet of optimum?
10) What are the different stages involved in site investigation? Explain in detail.
142 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

PRACTICALS

Name of experiment: Determination of 𝑀𝐷𝐷 and 𝑂𝑀𝐶 of the given soil sample by light
compaction (IS 2720)
Aim: To determine the 𝑀𝐷𝐷 and 𝑂𝑀𝐶 of the given soil sample by light compaction
Apparatus required: Proctor mould having a capacity of 944 cm3, mechanical operated metal
rammer of weight of 2.6 kg, drop of 310mm, arrangement to control the height of drop to a free
fall, sample extruder, a weighing balance of 15 kg capacity, and a sensitive balance for moisture
content determination, mixing and cutting tools, and containers

Theory: Compaction is the process in which soil partials are artificially rearranged and packed
together into closer state of contact by mechanical means in order to reduce void ratio,
permeability and compressibility and in order to increase the degree of denseness, stability, shear
strength and bearing capacity. The compaction characteristics are first determined in a laboratory
by various compaction tests. The relationship between water content and dry density obtained
from compaction test is used to determine the 𝑀𝐷𝐷 and 𝑂𝑀𝐶 of a sample.
Procedure:
1. Take approximately 3 kg from a representative oven-dried sample, in a pan. Thoroughly mix
the sample with sufficient water to dampen it.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 143

2. Weigh the mould without base plate and collar, and also measure the internal dimensions.
Fix the collar and base plate. Fill the soil in the mould and in 3 layers giving 25 blows per
layer with the 2.6 kg rammer falling through a height of 310 mm.
3. Remove the collar, trim off the excess soil to make a level surface.
4. Weigh the wet sample with the mould.
5. Remove the sample from the mould and take a small sample from the centre, for moisture
content determination.
6. Continue the process by increasing the moisture content, till a drop or no change in wet
weight of sample is observed.
Observations:
Diameter of the mould ________cm
Height of the mould _______cm
Volume of the mould (𝑉𝑠) _______cc
Weight of empty mould (𝑊𝑚)______ gm
144 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

Experiment No. 1 2 3 4 5

Weight of cylinder +
compacted soil (𝑊𝑚𝑠) g
Weight of compacted
soil (𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑚𝑠 −
𝑊𝑚) g

Bulk density of
𝑊𝑠
compacted soil (𝜌 = 𝑉𝑠 )
g/cm3

Container No.

Mass of empty container

with lid (𝑤1) g

Mass of container with

lid and wet soil (𝑤2) g

Mass of container with

lid and dry soil (𝑤3) g

Mass of water (𝑤𝑤 =

𝑤2 − 𝑤3) g

Water content in % 𝑤 =
(𝑤𝑤 / 𝑤𝑠) 𝑥 100

Dry density of the soil

𝜌
(𝜌𝑑 = 1+𝑤) g/cm3
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)| 145

Result:

Inference:
146 | Compaction and Stabilization of Soil

KNOW MORE
Changi East Reclamation projects in Singapore is a good case study for massive ground
improvement used for mega projects. Limited land space often demands large reclamations
projects for diverse uses. The ground investigation included a significant amount of in-situ testing
using a variety of techniques as well as the collection and testing of undisturbed soil samples.
Field and laboratory tests were used to obtain the necessary geotechnical parameters for design
purposes and decision making for acceptance of ground improvement works. Geotechnical and
geotextile laboratories were built up on site for characterization and quality control due to the
project's nature and speed. In addition to strengthening the underlying soils, it was necessary to
densify hydraulically filled granular soils using deep compaction techniques in order to reduce
future immediate settlement and boost liquefaction resistance.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora,K.R., “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,” Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi, 2008.

Gulhati, S. K.; Datta, M.” Geotechnical engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005.
Sowers G.B. and Sowers G.F.”Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Collier Macmillan
Company, Toronto, Canada, 1970.
IS 1892-1979 (Reaffirmed 2002): Code of practice for subsurface investigations for
foundations
IS 2720 (Part VII) – 1980 (Reaffirmed 2011): Methods of test for soils, Part VII
Determination of water content-dry density relation using light compaction.
IS 2720 (Part VIII) – 1983 (Reaffirmed 2006): Methods of test for soils, Part VIII
Determination of water content-dry density relation using heavy compaction.
IS 2720 (Part XVI) – 1987 (Reaffirmed 2016): Methods of test for soils, Part XVI
Laboratory determination of CBR

Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)|147

APPENDICES

APPENDIX-A
Suggestive template for practicals
Name of experiment:
Aim:
Apparatus required:
Procedure:
Observations:
Result:
Inference:
148|

APPENDIX-B
Indicative Evaluation Guidelines for Practicals / Projects / Activities in Group

Viva Performance Interaction Report Total

(15) (15) (10) (10) (50)
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)|149

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER LEARNING

Craig, R.F., "Soil Mechanics", Van Nostrand Reihnold Co. Ltd., London, 1978.
Das, B.M., "Principles of Geotechnical Engineering", PWS-KENT Publishing Co., Boston, 1985.
Das, B.M., "Principles of Foundation Engineering", Brooks/Cole Engineering Division, Monterey,
1984. 31.
Das, B.M., 'Advanced Soil Mechanics", Mc Graw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1985.
Das, B.M., "Introduction to Soil Mechanics", Galgotia Publication, New Delhi, 1983.
Deere, D.U., "Geological consideration", Chapter in Rock mechanics in Engineering Practice,
edited by Stagg, M.G. and Zienkiewics, O.C., Wiley, 1968.
Deere, D.U., and R.P. Miller, "Engineering Classification and Index Properties for Intact Rock",
Tech. Rep. No. AFWL-TR 65-116, Air Force Weapons Lab., Kirtland Air Base, New Mexico,
1966.
Hough, B.K., "Basic Soils Engineering", Ronald Press Co., New York, 1969.
Housel, W.S., "A Practical method for the Selection of Foundation Based on Fundamental Research
in Soil Mechanics", Research Bulletin, No. 13, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1929.
Huntigton, W.C., "Earth Pressure and Retaining Walls", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957.
Hvorslev, M.J., "Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes".
US. Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss, 1949.
Jumikis, A.R. “Soil Mechanics”, D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, NJ, USA, 1962.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. “Soil Mechanics”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY, 1969.
McCarthy. D.F. “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Reston Publishing Company,
Reston, Va, USA, 1977.
Murthy, V.N.S. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, Delhi-6,
2nd ed., 1977
Singh A. & Punmia, B.C. “Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Standard Book House, Delhi-6,
1970.
150|

CO AND PO ATTAINMENT TABLE

Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the programme outcomes (POs) after
the completion of the course and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze the
gap. After proper analysis of the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be taken to
overcome the gaps.

Table for CO and PO attainment

Attainment of Programme Outcomes
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong
Course Outcomes
Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5

The data filled in the above table can be used for gap analysis.
 Geotechnical Engineering: (Theory & Practicals)|151

INDEX
Active earth pressure 109 Plate load test 100
Activity of clays 30 Pore water pressure 70
Air content 19 Porosity 19
Bearing capacity 93 Poorly graded soil 25
Boring 136 Punching shear failure 96
California bearing ratio (CBR) 133 Rammers 130
Coefficient of permeability 61 Rankine’s theory 109
Cohesion 74 Retaining walls 105
Consolidation 130 Rocks 4
Compaction 121 igneous 4
Compaction curve 124 sedimentary 6
Consistency index 28 metamorphic 7
Consistency limits 26 Rollers 129
Constant head permeameter 62 Sand-replacement method 43
Core-cutter method 40 Seepage pressure 69
Darcy’s law 60 Sensitivity of clays 30
Degree of saturation 19 Settlement 99
Dilatancy test 136 Shallow foundation 95
Direct shear test 75 Shrinkage
Dispersion test 136 index 28
Dry strength test 136 limit 27
Earth pressure at rest 108 Site investigation 136
Effective stress 70 Soil exploration 136
Falling head permeameter 63 Soil stabilisation 131
Flow index 28 Specific gravity 22
Flownet 66 Standard Penetration test 104
General shear failure 96 Standard Proctor test 122
Grain size (particle-size) distribution 24 Thixotropy 30
Internal friction 73 Toughness index 29
Liquid limit 26 Toughness test 138
Liquidity index 27 Unconfined compression strength 75
Local shear failure 96 Unit weight 20
Maximum dry density 124 bulk (mass) 20
Modified Proctor test 123 dry 20
Mohr-coulomb theory 74 saturated 21
Optimum moisture content 124 submerged (buoyant) 21
Passive earth pressure 108 soil solids 21
Percent air voids 19 Vane shear test 76
Permeability 60 Vibrators 130
Phase diagram 17 Void ratio 19
Piping 72 Water (moisture) content 20
Plastic limit 27 Well-graded soil 25
Plasticity index 27 Zero-air void line 125
xix