Motion In A Plane DESIGNED By ustu ointScalars And Vectors Scalar: A Scalar is a quantity with magnitude only. + It has no direction * Specified by a number(magnitude) and a unit. + Represented by quantity's symbol Example- mass, temperature etc. Vector: A vector is a quantity with magnitude and direction. + It has direction * Specified by a number(magnitude), direction and a unit. * Represented by an arrow sign above . Example- velocity, acceleration etc. Position Vector: Position vector at time t is the position of the object relative to the origin. + Itis represented by a straight line between the origin and the position at time t. the straight line be © The path le two points irrespective of the path followed. vs equal or greater than the displacement. Displacement ween ement vector of an object between two points is OP and OP’ are position vectors PQis the displacement vector for representedby r andr’. any path followed (represented by PP’ is the displacement vector. green, blue and red paths).Free and Localized Vectors free vector(or non-localized vector): it is a vector of which only the magnitude and direction are specified, not the position or line of action. + Displacing it parallel to itself leaves it unchanged. localized vector: it is a vector where line of action and position are as important as magnitude and direction. + These vectors change with change in position and direction. Velocity vector of a car moving in Force vector is a localized vector as a straight line is a free vector it depends upon position as well Equality of Vectors Two vectors are said to be equal only when they have rection and magnitude. For example, two cars travelling with same speed re direction, then they are equal. If they are travelling in opposite directio same speed, then the vectors are unequal. Magnitude of vector Direction of vector after multiplication after multiplication ‘Same as that of A Opposite to that of A 0 (null vector) None. The initial and final positions coincide. The method of adding vectors graphically is by arranging them so that head of first is touching the tail of second vector and making a triangle by joining the open sides. This method is called head-to-tail method or triangle method of vector addition / P a Z Rabe On nsave | F Head-to-Tail or Triangle Method of vector addition Vector addition is: © Commutative: A+B=B+A© Associative: (A + B)+C =A + (B+ C) Adding two vectors with equal magnitudes and opposite directions results in null vector. © Null Vector: A + (-A) = 0 ‘Subtraction is adding a negative vector(opposite direction) to a positive vector. o A-B=A+(-B) Addition of Vectors - Parallelogram Method The method of adding vectors by parallelogram method is by: © Touching the tail of the two vectors o Complete a parallelogram by drawing lines from the heads of the two vectors. Vector resulting from the origin to the point of intersection of above lines gives the addition. A vector can be expressed in te vectors A, a and b, then A cai ressed as sum of a and b after multiplying them with some real — AU oN “a 3 vectors in a plane Joining the three to make a triangle a A can be resolved into two component vectors Xa and ub. Hence, A = ha + ub. Here X and u are real numbers. Unit Vectors A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and a particular direction. © They specify only direction. They do not have any dimension and unit. In a rectangular coordinate system, the x, y and z axes are represented by unit vectors, i, jand ‘These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.AaAT x Unit vectors in the coordinate system Vector Aas combination of A, and Ay along the three axes. which are expressed in terms of unit vectors. In a 2-dimensional plane, a vector thus can be expressed as: 1. A=A,i+A,j where, A, = A cos and A, = A sind 2A= Sata? Motion in a plane (two dimensions) can be tr one-dimensional motions with constant a: directions. X and Y directions are hen If vo being the velocity at time 0, the X= Kot Voxtt % at? and y = yor Motion of an object in a Velocity V= Vot at 1 = Tot vot+ ¥% at? The concept of relative velocity in a plane is similar to the concept of relative velocity in a straight line. x Va Velocity of A relative to B , Vig * Va - Vp e Velocity of 8 relative to A, vaa=Va- Va — = — Maal = Iveal Y Relative Velocity in a planeProjectile Motion An object that becomes airborne after it is thrown or projected is called projectile. Example, football, javelin throw, etc. Projectile Motion Projectile motion comprises of two parts - horizontal motion of no acceleration and vertical motion of constant acceleration due to gravity. Projectile motion is in the form of a parabola, y Projectile motion is usually calculated by negl AN Motion object proje: << velocity vo + Sees > simplify calculations. Components of velocity at time t Position at time t Equation of path of projectile motion Time of maximum height Time of flight Maximum height of projectile Horizontal range of projectile Maximum horizontal range (8:=45°) +b. inig/air resistance to ¥ = (Vo SinOy)t - % gt? y= (tan @0)x ~ 9x*/2(vo cos@o}* tm = Ve SiN@> /g 2 tm = 2 (Vo sins /g) hm = (vo sin@o)¥/29 R= vo? sin 20o/g Rm = vo/dWhen an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion is called uniform circular motion. Velocity at any point is along the tangent at that point in the direction of motion. Average velocity between two points is always perpendicular to Average displacement. Also, average acceleration is perpendicular to average displacement. For an infinitely small time interval, Ata 0, the average acceleration becomes instantaneous acceleration which means that in uniform circular motion the acceleration of an object is always directed towards the center. This is called centripetal acceleration. ae = VIR, R — radius of the circle a. = wR, w — angular speed Angular Distance SpeedLaws of Motion DESIGNED By Edustudy pointMotion: An object is said to be in motion when it changes its position with time. © Anexternal force is always involved in motion. This force helps body to perform required actions and these actions are according to Laws of Motion. Contact & Non-contact forces + Contact force- force applied by coming in contact with the body Example: hitting of cricket ball with bat in game. + Non-contact force- force applied without coming in contact with body Example: coin attracted towards magnet. Aristotle's fallacy: ‘According to the Aristotle, an external force is required to keep a body in uniform motion. His concept is obsolete now, because he fails to explain if body is in motion then how does it come torest? There came the concept of the opposing external force of Friction. For example, a ball rolled on the floor comes to rest after some time due to opposing force of friction. we x Ss =) =) Conclusion: xy An external force is required to ro in motion, only if resistive forces ( like frictional & viscous forces) ore present Tectia ~» Inertia is the resist nay to change its state of motion. A body at rest wants to be at rest ‘A body in motion wants to be in motion 's First | i > A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in uniform motion tends to remain in the state of uniform motion until & unless an external force is applied on it. For example, a ball lying on the table at rest will remain at rest until an external force is applied onit. Balanced & Unbalanced forces Balanced Forces: © Equal & Opposite forces Do not cause any change in motionUnbalanced Forces: © Unequal forces © Can be in the same or opposite direction © Causes a change in motion Momentum: Momentum is the product of mass of a body 4 its velocity © It isa Vector quantity > Tt is denoted by p = my For example, A ball of 1 kg moving with 10m/sec has o momentum 10kg m/sec. > Momentum of a system remains conserved. Therefore, © Greater force is required to set heavier bodies in motion. Greater force is required to stop bodies moving with higher velocities. Newton's Second Law o The rate of change of momentum of a body is cera ‘to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which thé. 1s © F= ma: the direction of the force vector is aoe the direction of acceleration Fx dp/dt Tessie ‘the change in momentum, sree gare] F =k dp/dt Fe dp/ dt F = d/ dt (mv) Let, m: mass of the body be F=mdv/dt ~e Fema Tf F =0, thena=0 According to First law, if a= 0, Then F = 0 Thus, both the laws are in syne © Vector form of Newton's Second law ss F-Fai+Rj+ Fk Fez dpe/ dt = max Fy= dpy/ dt = may F,= dp:/dt = mar NOTE: Newton's Second Law was defined for point objects. For larger bodies.Impulse: co Impulse is defined as « force multiplied by time it acts over. © For example: Tennis racket strikes a ball, an impulse is opplied to the ball. The racket puts « force on the ball for a short time period. FAt= Ap F = Ap/ At = Rate of Change of momentum Newton's Third Law To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. For example, when you hold the ball, a force acts on the ball (Action), and an ‘equal and opposite force acts on your hand (Reaction). © Action & Reaction forces always act on different bod © Fan= -Fen © Fas: Force acting on A by B © Fea: Force acting on B by A © Action & Reaction forces occur at the < Let the two bodies 1 & 2 have mo collision their momentum For 1: Fie= (pi System of 2 bodies For 2: Fai = (pe'~ pz) /At By Newton's Third law, Fiz=-Fat pit pe'= pis pe Conclusion: Final momentum of the system = Initial momentum of the system i ls A particle is said to be in equilibrium when the net external force on it is zero © Ingeneral, Fi* Fr + Fs ------ + Fe= 0.Friction is « contact force that opposes relative motion. © No friction exists till an external force is applied. ‘There are 3 types of Friction: 1, Static friction: Force that resists initiation of motion of one body over another with which it is in contact © Opposes Impending metion * Denoted by fs Let the ball be at rest initially Applied force, Static friction, f, = 0 ¥,- 0 noo Ball at Rest oY Later, applied force, F. = F, then fs also increases toa certain limit, As soon as F, becomes greater than fs, the ball starts to = Kh x Ball Starts M. ao fr acts when a body is at rést. Hence called Static friction © Limiting value of f; depends on Normal reaction, and is independent of the area of contact femax « N femax = us N where us is the coefficient of static friction This coefficient depends on the nature of surfaces in contact. © According to the Law of Static friction, Static friction is always less than or equal to tthe limiting value of f, fs =* famax famax = us N fs =e N 2. Kinetic friction: Force that resists motion of one body over another with which it is in contact. © Denoted by fs‘© Asmotion starts, f vanishes and fk appears Kinetic frition appears all Starts Moving © Kinetic friction is Independent of the area of contact and velocity of the body Tt varies with Normal reaction, N fn f= tue N: unis the coefficient of kinetic friction ‘Three scenarios can arise in a body's motion When applied force > fx Fa? fe (Fe~ fi) = ma a= (Fe- f/m .. When applied force = fi ie. the body moves with uni So No motion occurs, the body om 3. When applied force = 0 fe ate keep the we Ws N> uN Or, pes le nt of kinetic friction is smaller than the coefficient of static friction. 3. Rolling friction © Rolling friction is applicable for bodies whose point of contact keeps changing Tt is the force that opposes the motion of a body which is rolling over the surface of another Bowling balls, rotating wheels are examples illustrating Rolling friction > Coefficient of Rolling friction is lesser than that of Kinetic friction, fre fic feriction-_A boon or Bane against Friction is a boon because of its advantages like: ‘+ Friction helps in walking When we walk, we push the ground backwards with one foot, ‘According to Newton's Third law, there is an equal and opposite force exerted by the ground. This force is exerted on a comparatively smaller mass i.e. our foot. So, acceleration is increases. Hence the other foot gets accelerated. Tf there is no friction, we will slip and can't walk. + Friction helps in movement of automobiles > Friction is a bane because of its disadvantages: © A.good omount of useful energy is wasted as heat in machine ports © Noise produced in machines ° \ Engines of automobiles consume more fuel oY § Methods to reduce Friction: \ Use of Lubricants Ss? Use of Grease ay Use of Ball bearing ay Ball bearings are kind of rolling’elements that use small freely rotating metal balls which reduce friction, os Design modification “ent parts of machine to reduce friction » Circular motion: It is the Force that makes a body follow a curved path. It acts towards the centre. © Motion ina circular path © Centripetal force plays a crucial role in circular motion. ° cone denoted by Fe o Feemé/r Sine we oe that F = ma: therefore v? /r is termed as Centripetal acceleration ‘Motion of a car on a level road 9 Static friction provides the centripetal acceleration fez¢udN m/e =e uN vF ze ysNR/m = yumgR/m = weRg 7v =< J Rg This is the maximum speed of a car in circular motion on a level road Bankes. Neos@ In the vertical direction (¥ axis) N Neos® = fsind + mg -—~ Nsin@ In horizontal direction (X axis) feos0 + Nsino = mv?/r -. mg For maximum velocity, f = uN (becomes: eae Neos@ = y.Nsine + mg N Or, Neos® - usNsin6 = mg Or, N= mg/(cos@- y,sin8) “A eS sin Put the above value of N in (ii) “0, uNcos® + Nsind = mv2/r tumgcos0/(cos0- y,sin8) + mgsino /(cos0- ys AX fsin@ ng (sin® + usc0s0)/ (cos® - yssind) = mv?/r Divide the Numerator & Denominator = c v= Rg (tond tus) /(1- 1. tan) a v= J Rg (tan® +p.) /(1- neon De This is the miximum speed mae ‘@ banked road, Special case: Y When the velocity of the car = vo, © No f is needed to provide the centripetal force. (u.=0) © Little wear & tear of tyres take place, v. = J Rg (tane) KHATAMwork energy and power g DESIGNED By Edustui intScalar product ‘+ The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (Read A dot B) A.B=AB Cos® where @ is the angle between the two vectors. A, Band cos 8 ore scalars, the dot product of A and 8 is a scalar quantity, Both vectors, A and B, have a direction but their scalar product does not have a direction B is the product of the magnitude of A and the component of B along A. Alternatively, it is the product of the magnitude of B and the component of A along B. + AB=BA, ie. Scalar product is commutative + A(B+C)=AB+AC, ie. Scalar product is distributive i+ Ayj + A? & B= Bi + Byj + B,2 then the scalar product |B = A,B, + A,B, + AB, Notions of Work and Kinetic Energy The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to ‘the work done on it by the net force. Ke- Kis W We know the equation in 3D : v’- u® = 2a.d (where u-initial velocity, v-final velocity, a- acceleration, d-displacement) now multiplying the equation by m/2 we have, # mv? = $mu?=mad=Fd (Since ma =F)Work: The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement, W = F.d No work is done if + The displacement is zero + The force is zero. The force and displacement are mutually perpendicular. Work done by a variable force * The variable force is more commonly encountered than the constant force. + Tf the displacement Dx is small, we can take the force F (x) as approximately constant and the work done is then DW =F (x) Dx " we [ Faer Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work an object can do by the virtue of its motion Tf an object of mass m has velocity v, its kinetic energy K is K= (1/2)mv? + Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. ‘The Work-Energy Theorem for a Variable Force ef my?)-2 =m (2 an eGm)-aom (i) Since dv/dt is acceleration, m.a becomes force © = Fu = F = dk =F dx, integrating this equation we get Ky — K, = W Potential energy: + Potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue of the position or configuration of a body. P=mgh Mathematically, the potential energy V(x) is defined, if the force F(x) can be written as F@)=-%. SE FQ) = Vi ~V%+ This relation is valid only for Conservative Forces. Conservative & Non-Conservative Forces * Conservative forces are those for which work done depends only on initial and final points. Example- Gravitational force, Electrostatic force. Non-Conservative forces are those where the work done or the kinetic energy did depend on other factors such as the velocity or the particular path taken by the object, Example- Frictional force ‘The Conservation of Mechanical Energy + Mechanical Energy is the energy associated with the motion and position of an object. + The quantity K +V(x), is called the total mechanical energy of the system, * For a conservative force, AK = AW = F(x) Ax Also, - V(x) = F(x) Ax This employs A(K+V) =0 for a conservative force. Individually the kinetic energy K and the potential energy V(x) may vary from point to point but the sum is ¢ constant. Conservative Force: + A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation : F(x) = - dv/dx + The work done by the conservative force depends only on the end points. Potential energy of spring + The spring force is an example of a variable force, which is conservative Inan ideal spring, Fs = ~ kx this force law for the spring is called Hooke's law, The constant k is called the spring constant. Its unit is N ke The spring is said to be stiff if kis large and soft if k is small.W, = — PF kx dx ‘Spring force is position dependent as first stated by Hooke, (F;= - kx) Work done by spring force only depends on the initial and final positions. Thus, the spring force is a conservative force. We define the potential energy V(x) of the spring to be zero when block and spring system is in the equilibrium position, ‘+ For an extension (or compression) x, V(x) = kx?/2 Tf the block of mass m is extended to Xm and released from rest, then its total mechanical energy at any arbitrary point x (where x lies between - xm and + xm) will be given by’ 1 1 1 Deed, = Nix? + dmv? ghri = ght + ymw Various forms of energy Heat: The work done by friction is not ‘lost’, but is transferred as heat energyChemical Energy: Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules participating in the chemical reaction have different binding energies If the total energy of the reactants is more than the products of the reaction, heat is released and the reaction is said to be an exothermic reaction Example- When you freeze water you remove energy from water to lower its temperature and its phase is changed to ice, so it is a exothermic process If the reverse is true, heat is absorbed and the reaction is endothermic. Example- While melting the ice you provide energy to the ice to increase its tempreature and change its phase to water, so it isa endothermic process. Electrical Energy: The flow of electriccl current causes bulbs to glow, fans to rotate and bells to ring, Energy is associated with an electric current. Nuclear Energy: The energy released from the nuclear reactions, either fission or fusion, is called as nuclear energy. Nuclear fusion and fission are manifestations of the equivalence of mass and energy. ‘The Equivalence of Mass and Energy Physicists believed that in every physical and chemical process, the mass of an isolated system is conserved till Albert Einstein show the relation , E = mc” where c, the speed of light in vacuum is approximately 3 *10° ms"! This equation showed that mass and energy are equivalent and are related by € = mc? Tf there is a difference between the sum of reactants and products that difference, Dm, is called mass defect. In case of chemical reactions the mass defect is very small and can be neglected, but in the case of ruclear reactions this becomes significant.Principle of Conservation of Energy + Tf the forces involved are non-conservative, part of the mechanical energy may get transformed into other forms such as heat, light and sound. Since the universe as @ whole may be viewed as an isolated system, the total energy of the universe is constant. 3 it is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred Average Power: Ratio of work done(W) in a total time interval of ¢ Pays W/t Instantaneous Power: When the time interval .t approaches zero the limiting value of ‘average power becomes instantenous power. P= dW/dt We can write W = F.dr, P=F.dr/dt P= Fv, where vis instantaneous velocity Power is a scalar quanitity ST unit of power - Watt(W) thp = 746 W Gollosion A collision is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other for a relatively short time. Tall collisions the total linear momentum is conserved. The total impulse on the first object is equal and opposite to that on the second, if two bodies collide Elastic collision is when the initial Kinetic energy is equal to the final kinetic energy. © Tnelastic collision is when some of the kinetic energy is lost after collision + Completely inelastic collision is when the bodies after collision move together Collision in 1-D + If the initial velocities and final velocities of both the bodies are along the same straight line, then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or head-on collision.Elastic collision: (A ball of mass m; with initial velocity v; strikes o ball of mass m2 initially at rest and after collision ball 1 moves with velocity v; and ball 2 moves with velocity v', in the same direction) + Momentum conservation: m; vs + me v2 = mir + me vel KE conservation: mr vi? + mz ve? = mv? + me v2? Where mi,mz are the masses of the two blocks vi is initial velocity of block 1, v2=O here Viis final velocity of block 1 After solving these two equations we get, ,_ mm v= ” + my +m 2m m, + mp vy % ‘Special cases in elastic collision : + Case 1 If the two masses are equal m;=mz, then, vi'= 0 4 ve'= v1 The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the second mass with its initial speed on collision © Case 2 - If mz» my then, v:'» -v & ve'> 0 The heavier mass is undisturbed while the lighter mass reverses its ve Completely inelastic collision (A ball of mass m: with initial velocity vi strikes @ ball of mass me initially at rest and the two ball stick to each other after collision, in the same direction) Momentum conservation: mv + mzvz = (amy +ma)uy my y= ” KE conservation: mv? + mv? = (m, +m,)u7 Where mim: are the masses of the two blocks vis initial velocity of block 1, vz=0 here wr is final velocity of the two block moving togetherCollosions in 2-D (A boll of mass m; with initial velocity v: strikes a ball of mass v, mz initially at rest after collision, ball 1 moves with velocity v1 —_— ‘and ball 2 moves with velocity v2 with directions as shown in figure) Momentum conservation : xaxis: mv, = mv{cos®, + mzv;cosd, yeaxis:0 = mvj sind — mv} sind, Hcollision is elastic , Kinetic Energy conservation Sngy? = ime’? Lame v! Jmare = Emyv'e + Emy v3 KHATAMSystem of Particles and Rotational Motion DESIGNED By Edustudy pointRigid Body: Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances between all pairs of particles of such a body do not change. ‘+ Inpure translational motion at any instant of time all particles of the body have the same velocity. ‘* Inrotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle, which lies ina plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. «The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation. The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation ig a 4 i Imaginary point where the whole mass of system can be assumed ti rated S| i line, . The centre of mass of two boca (Here m; & m2 are two bodies such tha: at ince x; from O, sr 4 m2 at a distance x: from O.) tai yx; + Mads fp ay ™m, +m, +The coordinates of centre of mass of « body is gi yz) Here, «© M=Smztl rom 1 ton = om ‘the i"* particle «+ athe position of the i” particle is given by (x. y. 2). Increase the number of elements n., the element size bm, decreases , and of COM is given by r=xity j+zfe and R= Nity j+Zie m, Then R ine x! inates of COM of small element dm sition of COM of body position of COM of small element of mass dm Consider a thin rod of length |, taking the origin to be at the geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be along the length of the rod, we can say that on account of reflection symmetry, for every element dm of the rod at an én x, there is an element of the same mass dm located at ~x. ‘The net contribution of every such pair to the integral and hence the integral x dm itself is zero. Thus the COM coincides with the geometric centre.‘The same symmetry argument will apply to homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even thick rods of circular or rectangular cross section: their centre of mass coincides with their geometric centre. “iis Ciena RBs. At center Radin =f a= Twa Ros at At alte feng Saud sphere At center Motion of COM: The centre of mass of a system of particles mo) e mass of the system was concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external force, lied at that point. MR = Emr = myn + marten + mate Differentiating w.rt time OR an 8 5 ug Att any wom et ma at nicest ¥ MA= ma, + ma; + May MA = Fear (Since the obs out each other) nal forces is zero, because they appeor in pairs ond cancel Where, M=Sm ne forces acting on system of particles = basting extended bodies as single particles, we can now treat them as systems + Whena bomb explodes ina parabolic path, different fragment goes in different path with complex trajectories, but COM continues to travel in the same parabolic path.Linear Momentum of System of Particles: The total momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of its COM. © Pep epee. +p = mivi © mave* -.* Mave * P=MV Where ‘* pi= momentum of i'* particle , + P=momentum of system of particles + V=velocity of COM + Newton's Second Law extended to system of particles: dP/dt = Fext + When the total external force acting on a system of particles is zero fe total linear momentum of the system is constant (dP/dt = 0 => P = constant). A ity of the centre of mass remains constant (Since P = mv = Constant ) + If the total external force on a body is zero, then internal n cause complex trajectories of individual particles but the COM moves with o constant + Example: Decay af Ra atom into He atom & Rn At Case I - Tf Ra atom was initially at rest, a {tom will have opposite direction of velocity, but the COM will remain at rest. Case IE - If Ra atom is having an unif before , then He and Rn can have complex trajectories but COM will have 1 TTY as of Ra atom. Vector Product: Vector pr ~ Os angle betweena dd Product) of two vectors aandbisaxb=absin@=c, where © Vector proflact: licular to the plane containing a and b © Tf youke in direction of vector a and curl your fingers to the . lon’ in thumb will give you the direction of vector product ¢ Prope! Br product i Seba Bee “ © axbs-bxa © ax(brc)=axbraxc © axa=0, Oiscalled null vectori,e having zeromagnimde * ixjek © jxkat xt Gm ait ajtayk mdb =o,i+ b,j + 0,k then their vector products given byAngular velocity & its relation with linear velocity: Every particle of a rotating body moves in acircle, Angular displacement of a given particle about its centre in unit time is defined as angular velocity, * Average angular velocity = A@/At ‘+ Instantaneous angular velocity, w = d@ / dt + v-wr,where vis linear velocity of particle moving ina circle of [ae > radius r cae + All parts of « moving body have the same angular velocity in pure rotation motion. ‘+ Angular velocity (w) iso vector quantity * If you curl your fingers of right hand will give direction of angular velocity. Ce fation, thumb * ovewxr ‘Angular Acceleration is given by rate of ch: locity with respect to time. + a=dw/dt Torque & Angular Momentum The rotational analogue of Force i force (Torque), . le at a point P whose position of the force acting on the particle origin Q is defined as the vector pi > =x Perk sind . Te ‘ctor quantity. ¥ + The moment of a force vanishes if either the magnitude of the force is zero, or the line of action of the force (r sin@) passes through the axis. The quantity angular momentum is the rotational analogue of linear momentum. + It could also be referred to as moment of (linear) momentum, “Pp + Rotational analogue of Newton's second law for the translational motion of a single particle: di/st=Torque and angular momentum of system of particles: The total angular momentum of a system of particles about a given point is addition of the angular momenta of individual particles added vectorially. b= thterth = Eh Where = 7.x; «Similarly for total torque on a system of particles is addition of the torque on an individual particle added vecterially. = Ein x A= tere + tine + The torque resulting from internal forces is zero , due to Newton's third law i forces tare equal and opposite. These forces act on the line joining any two particles + The time rate of the total angular momentum of a system of particles abditfia Boi is equal to the sum of the external torques acting on the system taken abou Conservation of Angular Momentum: if the total external torque ona syste ‘icles is zero, then the total angular momentum of the system is conserved © Tf tea=0, thendL/dt= 0 L= constant Equilibrium of Rigid Body + A force changes the translational state, o linear momentum. ‘the rigid body, ie. it changes its total +A torque changes the rotati momentum of the body ion of the rigid body, i.e. it changes the total angular Note: Unless stated other féea! with only external forces and torques + Arigid body is sai in ‘hanical equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and — momentur with time. aan as : ‘This mear . 7 — a) . should be zero =» Rotational fea = 2F ha = 0 Tho Tyr Rotational Equilibrium ‘Translational Equilibrium + A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as a couple or torque. A couple produces rotation without translation. 2 Example: When you open the lid of a jar , you apply couple on it — hy+ Anideal lever is essentially a light rod pivoted at a point along its length. This point is called the fulcrum + The lever is a system in mechanical equilibrium, Loud arm 4: Effort arm Mechanical Fi _ 2 Advantage Fd + Mechanical advantage greater than one means that a small effort “oo ge load Centre of Gravity + The centre of gravity of a body is that point where the total gravi *" on the body is zero, «It coincides with the centre of mass in uniform gravity or Space. + If g varies from part to part of the body, then the ceptre o and centre of mass will not coincide Moment of Inerti “ + Moment of inertia (Z) is analogue of mass | Retion T= Dhar? «Moment of inertia about a gi jation resists a change in its rotational motion; it can be regarded as a measure of rtia of the body. + It isa measure of th ich different parts of the body are distributed at different distances from the, + the momi rigid body depends on ° body, 3 ize ‘iffftion of mass about the axis of rotation + The of gyration of a body about an axis may be defined as the distance from the axis of a mass Point whose mass is equal to the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about the axis. T= MIé where kis radius of gyration. ‘ Perpendicular Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia of a planar bedy Eq Paar (lamina) about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its 2 moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body L, ee Ty* Applicable only to planar bodies. Parallel Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is Dew] equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes >. Tee Te. Ma? «This theorem is applicable to a body of any shape. Kinematics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis + We can derive equation of motion similar to translationel motion 4) & Translational Motion v=, +at 6, initial angular displacement ofthe rotating body itial angular velocity of the body. angular acceleration, whichis constants this section rpendicular to the axis. Forces which are Lae a X= Xo tiet + pat —y 0 @ sate hat +2ax 8 a? = a4? +2010-4) We need to consider only those forces 1 parallel to the axis will give torques pey the axis. + We need to consider only those f the position vectors which are perpendicular to the axis, Components of position, 1 axis will result in torques perpendicular to the axis Work done by torque is given by: dW = 1 d@ Power (instantaneous) is given by: Kinetic Energy is given by: K = yvvyvy The rave of increase ofkinetic energy is# ('S*) = tw“ (This is considering the momext ofineria does not change with time.) ae Hs) = twa ‘We know that Work Done is equal to Change in Kinetic Energy > The angular accelerationis directly propartional tothe applied torque and isinversely propertional tothe moment of inaria ofthe body. > r= 1a cambecalled as Newon’s second law for rotation about fixed axis. Vv v v Peer tational Mot ern “Anggilar displacement ® Velocity v= dx/ar Anguilar velocity = d0/de Acceleration a= deft | Angular acceleration a = dev/ae Mans M Moment of inertia £ Force F» Ma Torque sl Work di'= Fads Work W= ode Kinetic enenty K=Mve/2_ | Kinetic enveray K = 1o?/2, Power P= Fv Power P= 2»Rolling motion: Rolling motion is a combination of rotation and translation, + All the particles on a rolling body have two kinds of velocity + 1, Translational, which is velocity of COM. , y Trantaoes Reval 2. Linear velocity on account of rotational motion. ‘+ Here in the figure we can see that every point have two velocities, one in the direc tiamiof velocity of COM and other perpendicular to the line joining centre and the point. + Point P. have opposite velocities . and i n OF no- slipping is there then it must have zenglyeloéliyage Yar = w R + At point Py both the velocities + At any other point, add bot ies vectorially to get the resultant, which are sho the cases in red color in figure +The line passing throug) parallel to wis called the instantaneous axis station. + The point Po is instantaneously at rest. KE= blu? + i mvdm ‘Substinuting / = mk? (where k is radius of gyration) and rom = Rw Weget + Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion # KEraling= KEnansanon + KEroterene e bs Oscillations Edustudy pointPeriodic and Oscillatory motions’ Oscillations are defined as to and fro motion which repeat itself after regular intervals of time, In oscillations, the frequency of vibrations is comparatively less. For example: The to and fro motion of a pendulum clock Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion that is every oscillatory motion repeats itself after the fixed interval of time. But every periodic motion is not oscillatory For e.g.- Motion of planets around the sun is periodic but is not oscillatory motion Period: The time taken by an oscillating body to complete one cycle of oscillation. KR, © Ttis denoted by T. 6 © Tts ST unit is second, aS Frequency: It is defined as number of cycles per second eo + Itis denoted by v. © Its ST unit is sec? © Special Unit is Hertz(Hz) Relation between Period and Frequency: v= 1/T r of cycles in 1 second cycle Displacement: displacement in tion can be represented by a function which is periodic which repeats after fixed interval of F(t) = Ac As cosine functio so it can be written as 2m) Equation (1) where displacement keeps on repeating after (t+T) Acos (wt) ¥ cosw(t+T) = Acos (wt+ wT) Acoswt = A cos (wtewT) Equation (2) From Equation (1) and Equation (2) Tete fwDis as a cot F(t)= Asinuit + A cos wt LetA=Dcos® = B= D sin® f(t) = Deos® sinwT + Dsin® cos wt =D (cos@ sinwT + sin® cos wt) f (t)= D sin (wt + 8) (Using sinAcos® + sinBcosA = sin (A+B) Din terms of A and B:- ton & = B/A KR, Or &= tan" B/A 6 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM); I* is a periodic motion the body jand fro about its mean position, The restoring force on the oscillating body is directly displacement and is always directed towards its mean position. A +A a Oscillatory motion is said to be SHM if the displa fhe porticle from origin varies with time x (1) = A cos (wt + #) ‘Az amplitude (It is defined as magni displacement of the particle from its mean position.) wt +8 = phase angle (time-depender Phase: It is that quantity that he state of motion of the particle. + Tts value is (wt + ° we are taking (® = 0) (0)= A (cos0=1) 457/4, t T/2, 1237/4, t2T and 4257/4 In the given graph the displacement as a function of time is obtained when @ = 0. The curves (1) and (2) are of two different amplitudes A and 8.In the above graph the curves (3) and (4) are for p= Oand outecemert -0/4 respectively but the amplitude is same for both. Angular Frequency (w): Tt refers to the angular displacement per unit time, Angular frequeney is larger than frequency v by a factor of 2m. Consider the oscillatory motion which is varying with time + and displacement x of the partjele trom the = w= 2n/ T 6 > SHM _& Uniform Circular Motion: Uniform Circular motion can be i fas 0 SHM. Consider any particle moving ina circular path whose radius is R A oe Angular position =[6 dt — 7 swt + i Consider the projection of particle on x-axis be P a, circular motion Displacement = Acos® x =A cos(wt+ @) As the particle is moving in the sar tions are also moving We can conclude that the p: jing from left to right and ‘again from right to left SHM is the projecti ‘circular motion on the diameter of the ce. form Circular motion can be defined as motion of an object ina circle ata ae) ticle moving in circular path. The velocity ot any point P at ny time + will be tongential to the point P P V(t) = = Aw sin(wr + 9) ‘ eo) ‘Acceleration in SHM: Acceleration in uniform circular motion always directed towards the centre. It is known as radial acceleration, a(t) = - wA cos (wt + 9)Inall the below graphs displacement, velocity and acceleration all have the same time period T, but they differ in phase. The acceleration is maximum where velocity is minimum and vice-versa. ie Kinetic and Potential energies ina SHM values, Kinetic energy, potential energy and the total ene energy and potential energy repeats after time T/ + The kinetic energy (k) of a particle executing defined as Kzdmé K = $k A? sin? (wt + 9) + The potential energy, cle executing SHM is, Ua)=$ U abk +9) ‘system always remains the same Usk = EKA? sin? (wt + 9) + $k A? cos? (wt + 9) E = 3k A%(sin? (wt + @) + cos? (wt + @)) Evtka Total energy is always constant, Oscillations due to spring: Consider a block if it is pulled on one side and is released, and then it executes te and fro motion about a mean position.E@ ens ‘At -A.and +A maximum + kis known as spring constant. Goplecemens k © Ts2n JE where Tis the period wm 4A AS 20 Sping is in equilibrium, Simple Pendulum: A simple pendulum is defined as an object that has a small mass, whi juspended from a wire. LLLLLL find Support § + Simpie pendulum can be set into oscillato jing it to one ' side of equilibrium position and then releasih : wo: Pe ° = T=2n ery OR Damped SHM: I+ can be stated as motion in whi f the oscillating body reduces and eventually comes to its mean position. Dissipating forces cause damping, Consider a pendulum which is oscillatis ‘ream tne cn nt starts decreasing and finally it comes to rest. This implies that there is force which opposes the motion of the pendulum. This type of SHM is known as Damping Force: T+ 0p) Ton of the body. © Magnitu ‘ce is proportional to the velocity of the body. * ir ite direction of the velocity. . ‘4 where d is the damping force. re bv where b is a damping constant and it depends on characteristics of the medium (viscosity, for example) and the size and shape of the block. Equation for Damped oscillations: Consider a pendulum which is oscillating. Tt will experience two forces 1, Restoring force F,=-k x 2. Damping Force Fs=-bv The total force Frei = FstFa = -kx-byLet a (+) = acceleration of the block Feoror= ma (1) -kx-by=md?x/dt? m dx/dt? + kx + b dx/dt=0 x(t) = A e*”" cos (w't + @ ) (Equation of damped oscillations) fe de angular frequency, w ‘= 4 x (1) = cos (w't + g) (Equation of Simple Harmonic motion) Free Oscillations: - In these types of oscillations the amplitude and time stant it does not change. This means there is no damping. But in real scenario there is no constant amplitude and time period. Forced Oscillations: - If we apply some external force to keep itinue such oscillations are known as forced oscillations. In forced oscillations the syster rot with natural frequency but with the external frequency Example: when a child in a garden swing periodically pres feet against the ground to maintain the oscillations. Resonance: ~The phenomenon of increase in ampli iving force is close to the natural frequency of the oscillatoris called resonanci Tf an external force with angular f nan oscillating system with natural angular Frequency w, the system oscillates with angul ueh@Ys,, The amplitude of ascillations is the greatest when wae w this expression is ~ Kepler's 1% Law: Law of Orbits Statement: - The orbit of every planet is an ellipse around the sun with sun at one LY foci of ellipse. 8 } Whenever a planet revolve races cn 2» ellipse around the sun is P and the p 7 farthest point is A, P is, ihelion and A the qs ‘ophelion. The semi lf the distance AP. c —SS ee > Kepler's 2 law: Law of Areas Statement: -The line that joins a planet out equal areas in equal intervals of time. * Area covered by the planet ‘around the ara sun will be equal in equal in the rate of change o| Ps © BAS At =1/2(rxv) + BAS At= co) means equal areas are covered i is of time) Prat Pe w of periods jing to this law the square of time period of a planet is directly proportional to he semi-major axis of its orbit. 2xr3 (In ellipse semi-major axis is same as radius of the circle) rsal Law of Gravitational Universal law of Gravitation states - Every single body in this universe attracts each other with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them * This law holds good for all the bodies in the universe.+ If the product of mass of the bodies increase the force of attraction also increases between them and if the square of the distance between the bodies increases, force decreases. ‘Mathematically: * Consider 2 boxes having mass mi and m2. The distance between them is r. © Fecmime Fe t/r? Combining above equations: F sx mimz/r? Fe 6 mime/r? K, Where 6 = universal Gravitational constant. Its value is constant and it never cl Gravitational Constant: Cavendish nt + Te calculate the value of 6, Cavendish took a wooden plank and a lls on either side of the plank and hung this with a thin thread from the top. ‘+ He introduced 2 very big balls and those balls are near ‘Schematic drawing of Cavendish’s experiment:- + Siand Sp are large spheres that are kept f the ellipse. + When the big spheres ore token to the ellipse (shown by dotted circles), the little since the torque reverses dit The angle of rotation can be He observed that: - Plank wisting force s@ becomes equal to the force between the balls. This hopper force of attraction between the small balls and bigger balls the earth All the objects fall towards the earth because of gravitational pull of the earth, And when a body is falling freely, it will have some velocity and therefore it will attain some acceleration, This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity. Tt isa vector quantity Denoted by 'g' Its value is 9.8m/s*,Expression for Acceleration due to gravity A * Consider any object of mass 'm’ at a point A on the surface of the earth. The force of gravity between the body and earth can be calculated as F=G m Me /Re? (1) where © -m=mass of the body © Me= mass of the Earth © Rez distance between the body and the earth is same as the radius of “Rk, Newton's Second law states that Fema(2) Comparing the equations (1) and (2) F2m(6mM/R?) - (Gm M,/R,2) is same as g (acceleration due to gravity) eo Therefore, the expression for Acceleration due to gravi 976 MARE To calculate the value of acceleration due, int mass m at a height h above the surface of the earth Pore soove ta tet bt given figure shows the value of ai ee @ height h above the surface of . me t and the earth will F= 6 mMe/(Resh) Where, m= object, Re = radius of the earth fh +h)? = GMe/[Re*(Ith/Re)*) ius of the earth is very large) By cAleWating we will get, {h) = o(1-2h/R.) leration due to below the si * Density of the earth is constant throughout. Therefore, P= Me/(4/31Re?) equation (1) where, Me= mass of the earth, Volume of sphere= 4/31 R.*, Re = radius of the earth.As entire mass is concentrated at the centre of the earth. Therefore density can be written as b= Ms/ (4/30 Re?) equation (2) depth d below the earth surface PAG ATER EY ped TE Earth's Surface Me/Me = Re?/Re? where Re = (Re-d) * d= distance of the body from the centre to the surface of the earth, dius of Earth Therefore, Me/ Ms = Re?/(Re-d)? Me Me(Re- d)*/ Re} from equation (3) To calculate Gravitational force (F) between earth and point mass m 4 a dep} a YY of the earth. Above figure shows the value of g at a depth d. In this case only the s radius (Re-d) contributes to 9. F=6mM/(R-d¥ =F /muhere g= acceleration due to gravity at point d face of the earth. 9 = G Me/(Re-d) Putting the value of M, from equation (3) dP /R(Re-d)? Re We know g = G Me/Re® equation (4) 9(d) = G Me / Re? (1-d/Re) From equation (4) g (4 Inertial and Gravitati fined as the mass of body by virtue of inertia of mass. + By Newton tial mass (as it is because of inertia of a body) Gravitational mass is defined as the mass of the body by virtue of the gravitational force exert he earth. + By Gravitation Force of attraction - o -F26mM/e* + M=Fe/6M 3 Gravitational Potential Energy is due to the potential energy of a body arising out of the force of gravity + Tt depends on the height above the ground and mass of the body,Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy Casel:-'/ is constant. * Consider an object of mass 'm' at point A on the surface of earth. Work done will be given as : Was = Force X displacement (where F = gravitational force exerted towards the earth) = mg (he-hi) (body is brought from position A to B) = mg ha-mgh, Was = Va-Ve- (where, Va=potential energy at point A, Ve= potential energy at point B) From above equation we can say that the work done in moving the porticle is just te difference of potential energy between its final and initial positions. 'g' is not constant. Calculate Work done in lifting a particle from r= ri tor =r2 (re ri) al AS th, We will get , W=V (rz) ~ V(r) Conclusion: - In general the gravitational potential energy at a dj ven by : V(r) = ~GMam/r + Vo © Where, V(r) = potential energy at distances + Vp= At this point gravitational potesihial, zero. © Gravitational potential energy is «' particle. Gravitational Potential: Tt is defined as ‘energy of a particle of unit mass at that point due to the gravitational force exerted by * Gravitational potential ene: is known as gravitational potential + Mathematically: Planetary Motion: Ptolemy ist who studied the planetary motion. |. It means all the planets, stars and the earth and earth is at the centre. ‘model was proposed by some Indian According to which all planets revolve around the sun. Geocentric _Heliocentrie Nicholas proposed the Nicholas Copernicus model according Centre Centre to which all planets move in circles around the sun. Finally came Johannes Kepler who used Tycho Brahe observations and he gave Kepler's 3 laws of Gravitation. These 3 laws became the basis of Newton's Universal law of Gravitation.Escape Velocity: Escape velocity is the minimum velocity that a body must attain to escape the gravitational field of the earth. Mathematically: - ‘© Suppose we throw a ball and the initial velocity of the ball is equal to the escape velocity such that ball never comes back. At Final Position: At Infinity Total Energy (+) = kinetic Energy () + Potential Energy (=) Kinetic Energy (se) = $ mvs? where viefinal velocity Potential Energy (~)=-6 Mm/r+ Vo, (where M=mass of the earth, m= Vozpotential energy at surface of earth, r=distance from the con, Therefore: - Potential Energy (=) =0 Total Energy () =} mv@ eo At initial position:- = amv? == - GMm/ (Reth) * Vo__(Where h= heigh the surface of the earth.) Total Energy (initial) = 1/2mv2- GMm/ (Ret! According to law of conservation of e1 $mve = Lamy? As LH.S= positive V2mve - GI rown from earth surface he Natural Satellite: Satellite created by nature Example: - Moon is the only natural satellite of earth. Artificial Satellites: Human built objects orbiting the earth for practical uses. There are several rejones which these satellites serve, Example:- Practical Uses of Artificial satellites Communication Television broadcasts Weather observation Military support Navigation Scientific research 7 As satellites move in circular orbits there will be centripetal Fez mv*/Reth It is towards the centre. Where, h= distance of satellite form the earth, Féitentri Fe= GmMe/(Reth)? where, Fy: Gravitation force, m= mass, ‘Me= mass of the earth FoFe mv?/Reth = GmMe/ v=GMe/Reth This is the velocif ‘satellite revolve around the earth. = 2-n(Reth) with velocity v. w{Rech}"/ J GM.) Special Case: — he< R. (satellite is very near to the surface of the earth) © Then T=2n/R2/GM. OR = Tz2 WR/g of an orbi reli + m= mass of the satellite, vevelocity of the satellite + KE=L/2mvi = 1/2 m (6Me/Rerh)KE. 21/2 GMe/(Rerh) P E.= -GMam/(Re+h) Total Energy = KE. + PE. = 1/2 GMe/(Reth) + -GMem/(Reth) Es 6Mm/2(Rerh) Conclusion:- P.E.= 2x KE. Total energy is negative. This means the satellite cannot escape from the earth's %, Geostationary Satellite: -Geo means earth and stationary means at resHris thing stationary. Satellites orbiting around the Earth in equatorial plane with time fo 24 hours. Appear to be stationary with respect to earth These satellites can receive telecommunication signals and, ‘them back to a wide area on earth Example: INSAT group of satellites. Polar Satellites: These are low altitude satellites! orbit around earth at lower heights. They orbit around the earth in Nor tion. Whereas earth is moving from East to West, A camera is fixed above thi ite so they can view small strips of earth. ‘As earth also moves, so mS different types of stripes of earth can be viewed They are useful in ry i. meteorology and environmental studies of the earth ay. of free fall, in which the effect of gravity is cancelled by the inertial ulting from orbital flight. There is no force of gravity acting on the objects, hen an apple falls from a tree it wor't feel its weight. This condition experienced by while in free-fall is known as weightlessness. i Incase of a satellite there is an acceleration which is acting towards the centre of the Earth This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration (a). There is also earth's acceleration which is balancing this centripetal acceleration,© g=ac they are equal in magnitude and they are balancing each other. * Inside the satellites there is no acceleration which means everything is moving with uniform velocity. + Inside an orbiting satellite weightlessness is experienced. KHATAMThermal Properties of Matter CONVECTION ea CONDUCTION ~ Ls RADIATION DESIGNED By Edustudy pointTemperature and Heat } Temperature is defined as the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Example:- A cup of hot soup or a scoop of Ice-cream. The SI. Unit of Temperature is Kelvin (K) and some of the commonly used units are: Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C) > Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. For e.g, :- a cup of hot coffee can be considered as system and anything apart from hot cof surroundings, Then the heat will flow from one object to another as there is differe re. A S will become cold as there will be transfer of heat. The S.I Unit of Heat is joule ‘of the commonly used units are: calorie and kilo: lcalorie=4.18 Joules Ikilocalorie = 1000 calories Measurement of Temperature: Tem; sured with the help of thermometer. ‘Mercury and Alcohol are commonly used li iquid-in-glass thermometers. The ice and steam point in Fy perature scale are 32°F and 212 °F resp, It has 180 equal intervals be. ference points. On Celsius Scale val ind 100°C for ice and steam point resp. It has 100 equal intervals between points. Mercury-in- Thermometer temperature in Celsius and in Fahrenheit is given by the equation is: Where tr= Fahrenheit temperature , t= Celsius temperature tememame vam Ideal-gas Equation and Absolute Temperature A thermometer that uses any gas, however, gives the same readings regardless of which gas is used because all gases have same expansion at low temperature. Variables that describe the behaviour of gas are:- Quantity(mass), Pressure, Volume, TemperatureGases which have low density obey certain laws: ~ 1.Boyle's Law- PV = constant (when temperature T is constant) 2.Charles' Law-\V/T = constant (when pressure P is constant) * Tf combine both the above laws the equation becomes PV = RT where R is called universal gas constant and its value = 8.31 J mol? K. PV = RT is the ideal gas equation which is applicable only at low temperature, For any quantity of dilute gas, PV=uRT where y, is the number of moles in the si F gas. Ina constant volume gas thermometer temperature varies with respect to pressu ature changes linearly with increase in pressure. Absolute Zero: Absolute Zero is defined as minimum absolute temperature * The relation between the temperature in kelvin and in Celsius scale, Ts te+ 273.15 emampoee 978,15 ffio0.00°c 212.00 veevomli273.15« -flo.ootc ff 32.00°F aveones srl 0.00K 273.15°C 4|-459.69 Thermal Expansion: Therm is the phenomenon of increase in dimensions of a body due to increase in its temperature, ‘expansion in length, he expansion in area. ion: Linear Expansion means expansion in length due to increase in temperature, AS we can see images the length has been increased from | to | + Al. Tf the solid is in the form of long rod, then for small change in temperature, AT, the fractional change in length, AI/I, is directly proportional to AT. Where a the coefficient of linear expansion+ It is denoted by ai. It is characteristic of the material of the rod. It varies for different substance. Area Expansion: Area Expansion can be defined as expansion in area due to increase in temperature. In case of area expansion there is increase in both length wise and breadth wise. DA/ Aza, OT Where a. = coefficient of area expansion Coefficient of Area Expansion is defined as a. expansion divided by the change in temperature. there is increase in area of an object with the cl empebeture. ‘+ Tris denoted by as, It is characteristic of the substance and it varies, Vol Expansion: 1+ can be defined as expansion in volume due to temperature. This means there is increase in length, breadth and height of a substance, AV/V =a, OT — ‘Where a.= coef of vol Coeffici n be defined as degree of volume expansi in temperature. ‘© It is denoted by a, It is characterist jance, It voree ith ampere fh: aston) 3 300 S00 Temperacure(k) => later: Water shows some exceptional behaviour that is when it is heated of expanding and it happens till it reaches 4 °C. The volume of a given amount of therefore its density is maximum (Refer the Fig). After 4°C water starts IC, the volume increases, and therefore the density decreases. This means water has maximum densify ot 4 °C. + Advantages of Anomalous behaviour of Water ae + Because of this property of water in lakes and ponds Volume df tke freeze only at the top layer and at the bottom it does of wate 10m) not, but if the water freezes at the bottom also then anitnal and plant life would not be possible. fore + 00000 1 o Ss wo 100 Temperature (°C)Relation between av and al: the relation between coefficient of volume expansion and coefficient of linear expansion is a, = 3a) parts are not free to expand or contract in response to change in temperature, Example:- While designing structures like. concrete highways gaps are left which are filled by some flexible material so that concrete is allowed to expand or contract. Thermal stress: Mechanical stress induced by a body when some or all of its | a i Heat Capacity: The change in temperature of a substance, when a given quantity by or rejected by substance is characterised by a quantity called the heat copacity gh + Tris denoted by S. S$ =AQ/ AT Where AQ = amount of heat supplied to the substance and T to T its temperature. Specific Heat Capacity: Specific heat is defined int of + per unit mass absorbed or 's the defined as the amount of heat (in moles) absorbed or substance to change its temperature by one unit. of the substance and its temperature. lar specific heat capacity is Jmol! Kt }- Tf the gas is held under constant pressure during the heat transfer, then the corresponding molar specific heat capecity is called molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) ‘Molar specific heat capacity (G,):- If the volume of the gas is maintained during the heat transfer, then the corresponding molar specific heat capacity is called molar specific heat capacity at constant volume («).Calorimetry: Calorimetry is defined as heat transfers from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature provided there is no loss of heat to the atmosphere. ‘© Principle of Calorimetry is heat lost by one body is equal to the heat gained by another body. + The Device which measures Calorimetry is known as Calorimeter. + Description of Calorimeter Change of State: The transition from either solid to liquid or gas and gas to either liquidier solid is ‘termed as change of state, 0 Change from solid (ice) to liquid (water) is known Change from liquid (water) to solid (ice) is Tite) Thermal Equilibrium: - At this state there is no loss or gain of, s S The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states,af the si are in thermal equilibrium with each other is called its melting point. It is depends on the- Substance, Pressure. The melting point of a substance at standard ic Pressure is called its normal melting point. Regelation: Regelation can be defined, non in which the freezing point of water is lowered by the application of pressure. Vaporisation: - The change of id to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation. + The eer at whi Yond the vapour states of the substance coexist is called its boiling point. + Boiling poinhat spheric pressure is known os normal boiling point + Tt deper substance & pressure . rrease in pressure and vice versa ing the sublimation (solid changes to vapour without going through liquid state) process solid and vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal equilibrium. Example:-Dry ice (solid Cz) sublimes iodine. + Naphthalene balls sublimes to gaseous state. Latent Heat: The amount of heat that a unit mass of a substance requires to change its state at a constant ‘temperature is known as Latent Heat. > Specific Latent Heat: The amount of heat that leads to the change of state of 1kg of a particular substance,where, m is mass of substance and Q is Heat released or consumed > Latent Heat of Fusion: When heat is either consumed or released in order to change the state of solid to liquid is called Latent Heat of Fusion, > Latent Heat of Veporization: When there is a change of state from liquid to gas either through the release. of heat or by its consumption, it is called Latent Heat of Vaporization Heat Transfer: Transfer of heat from one body to another is called heat transfer, 1. Conduction: In this method, heat is transferred from one body to another body due to the molecules that keep vibrating at their mean positions. Convection: The transfer of heat due to the difference in ‘temperatures in either liquids or gases is called convection. 3. Radiation: Heat is transferred from one place to another th electromagnetic waves is called radiation. © Sur's heat and light reach our Eorth’s surface th it is the fastest method of heat Newton's Law of Cooling: 1+ states that the by a body is directly proportion to the difference in temperature between the body a1 areas, In layman's terms, the hotter the body is, the faster it cools down, Here is its equati de a = ~k(T-Ts) Where T= Temperature of the Ts = Temperature of the surrou ConstantThermodynamicsThermodynamics: It is that branch of physics which deals with concepts of heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. Thermal Equilibrium: Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if the temperatures of the two systems are equal + Inmechanies if the net force on a system is zero, the system is in equilibrium. * In Thermodynamics equilibrium means all the macroscopic variables Teal temperature and volume) don't change with time. They are constant thro System and Surroundings System: System is defined as any part of universe enclosed by some exchange of heat or energy takes place. Surroundings: Any part of the universe which is not a system. + For example: - If we consider a hot coffee in a cup + is the system and everything else is the surroundings ‘System and surroundings constitute Uni of energy and matter. For Example: - Water boils ina pan without lid, a cup of Closed System: In this syst of matter does not take place but exchange of energy takes place, For E; alloon filled with gas. . Isolated System: 1 there is neither change in matter nor change in energy. For is an insulating wall which doesr't allow heat to flow from one ier, This means temperature of both the systems won't change with ; = For example: - Thermos Flask. uo Diathermic Wall: - It is a conducting wall which allows the flow of heat between any 2 systems. For example:-Hot tea in a cup.Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems ore in thermal equilibrium through a third system separately then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. ¢ Systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with C. Then they will be in equilibrium with each other Thermodynamic state variables: Thermodynamic state variables are the macro; quantities which determine the thermodynamic equilibrium state of a system RK, Types of thermodynamic state variables: - 1. Extensive variables: Extensive variables are those that depe! or the number of particles in the system. Example: volume, 2. Intensive variables: They don't depend on size of the syste! Example: Pressure and Temperature are known as int: Equation of State: Equation of State depicts.+! nship between the state variables (pressure, mass, volume, density). + Consider an ideal gas the equation PV=uR Twhere +P, Vand T are state vari = number of moles Internal Eneray (U); fed as the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies of the molecules const + It can be specified by values of pressure, volume and temperature at that particular time. ‘Two different modes to change Internal energy are:- Heat and Work. 1, Heat: Due to transfer of heat kinetic energy and potential energy changes from bottle to the balloon, This results in the change of internal energy. 2. Wark: - We can do some work on the system as a result the internal energy of the system changes,Internal energy increases when the system absorbs heat and some work is done on the system similarly internal energy decreases if we change the conditions. How Internal eneray is different from Work and Heat + Heat and work are not state variables unlike internal energy. + They are modes of energy transfer to system resulting in change in internal energy. First Law of Thermodynamics: The change in the internal energy of acl equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work d, on its surroundings. Mathematically: AQ= AU + AW a Where: AQ is the heat supplied to the system by the surroundings oe + AWis the work done by the system by the surroundi + Vis the change in internal energy of the system AQ- AW: AU where + (AQand AW are path dependent quar a AU is path independent quantity) Case 1:- System undergoes a process such th h means internal energy is constant AQ = AW + this means heat supplied ndings is equal to the work done by the system on the surroundings. Case 2:- System is a 99s i with movable piston, by moving the piston we can change the volume of the gas. ay + Tf wemi downwards some work is done and it can be given as:- . = Force x displacement = P x Area x displacement =PAV — (AV= Area x displacement) + Therefore by first law of thermodynamics AQ = AU + PAV where AV= change in volume Specific heat capacity (s): Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body per unit mass,It depends on: Nature of substance, Temperature. Mathematically:- (AQ /mAT) where m= mass of the body 4Q = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by the substance AT = temperature change Unit - J kg? K* Molar Specific Heat Capacity (C): It is the defined as the amount of hi S, absorbed or rejected by the substance to change its temperature by off ‘: ‘supplied. It depends on: nature of substance, Temperature, Conditions under C= 8/4 AQ/pAT Where, w= amount of substance in moles + AQ= amount of heat absorbed or rejected by agubstan + AT= temperature change © ST Unit: J/mol/K Specific heat capacity of water Calorie: - One calorie is defined int of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C, pa icity of water is 4186 J kg! K" + In ST units, the speci * g ich heat capacity transfer takes F004) Specific | oop Heat specific heat of capacity because of 0.996! 20 ao 60 Temperature (C= (Cp): If the gas is held under constant pressure during the heat transfer, then it is called molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp). Molar Specific heat capacity at constant volume (C,): If the volume of the gas is constant during the heat transfer, then it is called molar specific heat capacity at constant volume (C.) For ideal gas C,-C,=RQuasi Static Process: It is a hypothetical construct which means it is not in real. « Tt is aninfinitely slow process. + System changes its variables (P, T, and V) so slowly that it remains in equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. TeaT * There should not be any accelerated motion. Not large temperature gradi SC gradient means the difference in temperature (T:-T:) Ina quasi-static process, the temperature of the surrounding reservoir and al pressure differ only infinitely small from the temperature and pres: im. Isothermal Processes: In Isothermal process the temperat ‘constant throughout while all other variables change. + Foranidealgas PV = nRT Where, n= no. of moles (constant), R = amiv constant, T =constant for isothermal process. + This implies PV = constant Veuve + Pressure and volume are i ional to each other. + This curve is known as Curve. ic is a process in which there is no heat flow takes place between iabatic process of an ideal gas From Boyle's law PV "= constant Where y = C,/C, Specific heat ratio Adiabatic change of an ideal gas: I+ implies how much work is done during adiabatic change of an ideal gas. + By solving Work done W= R/ (y-1)(T2-T:), where + T= final TemperatureTisinitial temperature R=Universal gas constant Y= Specific heat ratio This is the work done during adiabatic change. Consider W= R/ (y-1)(T2-Ti) . Pressure Isothermal Volume P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic processes of anyideal Isochoric Processes: Isochoric process mi is ¢onstant while all other variables change. + As volume is kept constant th rk is done on or by the gas. + Heat absorbed by the ga: ly used to change its internal energy and its temperature. =P (VeVi) =u R(Te- Ti) Cyclic Processes: A Process in which the system will come back to its initial state. + AU=0 this means the total heat absorbed equals the work done by the system. Example: - Heat Engine, Heat PumpHeat Engines: Heat engine is a device which converts thermal energy to mechanical energy. Simple Representation of heat engine w § =e > reservoir at temperature T2 and delivers work W to the surroundings. @ The engine takes heat Q: from a hot reservoir at temperature T:, releases o Efficiency of a heat engine (n): Efficiency indicates how much get as an output by the engine by using the amount of heat energy as input. n= W/Qi where W= output and Qi = input + Bycalculating n= 1- Qe/Qu Where, Qi=heat input in 1 cycle, Q2=work d * For 100% efficient n = 1 ( whicl 170) co There is always 1% to the surroundings Refrigerators: I+ — which is reverse of a heat engine. + Inrefri 2 bodies lower temperature (cold) body which is freezer and higher + }ot) body which is surroundings, 2S 1m the cold reservoir and then some work is done on the refrigerator and jount of heat is transferred to heat reservoir. + Mathematically Q2+ W=Qr Simple Representation of Refrigerators " wile iM wn Working of a refrigerator or a heat pump is based <= (rene)

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