2023 Notes Chapter 1 (Introduction)
2023 Notes Chapter 1 (Introduction)
Introduction and
Fundamental Concepts
Learning objectives
This chapter is intended to help you learn how to:
• Define a system that has clearly understood boundaries
• Define a process that has a clear beginning and end
• Identify systems and processes that fall into specific
categories, such as open, closed, isothermal, and
adiabatic
• Define equilibrium and steady state, including how they
are distinct from each other
Thermodynamics means:
o Thermodynamics is the study of
energy and the ways in which it
can be used to improve the lives
of people around the world.
Heat
o Chemical Engineer: the most
important problems to solve are
the determination of heat and Kinetics
Open system
• Exchange of mass and energy with
surroundings is possible
Closed system
• No exchange of mass between a
system and the surroundings. Heat and
work may be exchanged, therefore
changes in Internal energy and volume
may occur.
Isolated system
• Can exchange neither energy nor
matter with its surroundings. This is a
system, which is totally unaffected by
the changes in its surroundings.
What type of system are shown below?
Types of Systems
Processes
The changes taking place within the system is referred to as a process.
(e.g. hydrocarbon fuel and oxygen in a combustion chamber)
Isothermal Process
• Any process occurring in a system taking place at a constant
temperature. To maintain the constant temperature, the system has
to exchange heat with the surroundings e.g. refrigerator
Adiabatic Process
• A process occurring in either an open or closed system without the
exchange of heat with the surroundings (Perfect insulation against
the flow of heat). NB: This does not mean that heat cannot be
generated within the system. Occurs under varying temperature.
Since no physical process can happen instantaneously and no
system can truly be perfectly insulated, a perfectly adiabatic
condition can never be achieved in reality. E.g. The turbines as they
utilize heat as a source to produce work, so any heat lost to the
surroundings would reduce their efficiency
Isobaric Process
• A system in which the pressure of the working fluid remains
constant from the initial to its final state. E.g. the boiling of water to
steam or the freezing of water to ice. In the process, a gas either
expands or contracts to maintain constant pressure
Isochoric Process
• A system in which the volume of the working fluid remains
constant from the initial to its final state. E.g. a nearly isochoric
process is a pressure cooker. When sealed closed, the volume
inside cannot change, so when heat is added both pressure and
temperature increase rapidly. In actuality, pressure cookers do
expand slightly, and some gas is released from a valve on top.
Isentropic Process
• A system in which no heat crosses the system boundary. The fluid
or gas entropy tends to be constant.
• NB: this process is thermodynamically reversible
Properties and Variables
State Variable
A variable whose value depends on
the state in which the system exists.
e.g. Temperature, Pressure, Volume
Path variable
Changes depend on the path traveled
by the system. These variables have
meaning only when applied to a
process in which a path exists between
two states and that path is specified.
e.g. Work, Heat
Extensive Property
A property which depends on the size of the system
e.g. Volume NB: When the system is
homogenous, an
extensive property can
be converted into an
intensive property by
dividing by the total
quantity of the system
Intensive Property
Properties which do not depend on the size of the system
e.g. Temperature, Pressure, Specific Volume
Equilibrium
F=ma
Force = mass x acceleration
N = kg x m/s2
1
In terms of Pound Force (lbf): F = ma
gc
a = 32.174 ft/s2, gc (dimensional constant) = 32.174
(lbm)(ft)(lbf)-1(s)-2
Conversion(s): 1 lbf = 4.4482216 N
Example 1
An astronaut weighs 730 N in Cape Town, where the local
acceleration of gravity is g = 9.792 m/s2. What are the
astronaut’s mass and weight on the moon, where g = 1.67
m/s2?
Solution
F = ma
F = mg
F 730
m= = = 74.55kg
g 9.792
weight of astronaut on moon is:
Conversions:
t ∘C = T (K) – 273.15
T (R) = 1.8 T (K)
t (∘ F) = T (R) – 459.67
t (∘ F) 1.8 t ∘ C + 32
VOLUME
OR
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum
pressure
Solution
F = mg = 6.14x9.82 = 60.295N
F 60.295
Gauge Pr essure = = = 76.77 N.cm −2
A (1/ 4)(ρχ )(1)2
The absolute pressure is therefore:
P = 76.77 + (748)(0.013332) = 86.47N.cm−2
Example 4
At 27 ∘C the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is
60.5cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.784m/s2. To
what pressure does this height of mercury correspond?
Example 5
A special manometer fluid has a specific gravity of 2.95
g/cm3 and is used to measure a pressure of 1.15 bar at a
location where the barometric pressure is 760 mmHg.
What height will the manometer fluid indicate? The
gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2.