Computer System

Programming
Moumen El-Melegy
Professor of Computer Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Assiut University, Assiut 71516
[email protected]
https://sites.google.com/site/EC427Spring20/

EC 427
4th Year, Computer & System Eng.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Lecture 2
Computer System
Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally
known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupts

 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service

routine generally, through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service
routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupt Handling

 The operating system preserves the state of the

CPU by storing registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
 Separate segments of code determine what action
should be taken for each type of interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Structure
 Synchronous I/O: After I/O starts, control returns to user
program only upon I/O completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing
 Asynchronous I/O: After I/O starts, control returns to user
program without waiting for I/O completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for
I/O completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device
status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Structure

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular
device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Hardware Protection

 OS must protect itself and users

 Dual-Mode operation
 I/O Protection
 Memory Protection
 CPU Protection

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Dual-Mode Operation

 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself

and other system components
 User mode and kernel mode

Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system
is running user code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged,
only executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return
from call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for
guest VMs
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Protection

 All I/O operation are privileged instructions

 User cannot issue I/O instructions
 Users can do I/O only through OS.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Protection

 OS must protect interrupt vectors

 OS must protect interrupt service routines
 OS must protect its memory
 OS must protect the user’s program memory from
others
 OS uses Base and Limit registers.
 Both can be loaded by only OS

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 CPU Protection
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Components

 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 I/O Management
 Protection and Security
 Networking
 Command-Interpreter System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task

CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes
/ threads

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must

be in memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program
must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and
when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to
users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data
to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape
drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories

 Primitives to manipulate files and directories

 Mapping files onto secondary storage

 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and
RW (read-write)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Subsystem

 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware

devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering
(storing data temporarily while it is being
transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes
or users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external
attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined
and controls managed, then also associated with each
process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Command Interpreter System

CLI or command line interpreter allows direct

command entry
 Sometimes implemented in kernel,
sometimes by systems program
 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented –
shells
 Primarily fetches a command from user and
executes it
 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes
just names of programs
If the latter, adding new features doesn’t
require shell modification
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 User Operating System Interface - GUI

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface
cause various actions (provide information, options,
execute function, open directory (known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX
kernel underneath and shells available
 Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces
(CDE, KDE, GNOME)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Touchscreen Interfaces

 Touchscreen devices require

new interfaces
 Mouse not possible or not
desired
 Actions and selection based on
gestures
 Virtual keyboard for text entry
 Voice commands.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 The Mac OS X GUI

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Calls
 Programming interface to the services provided by
the OS
 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level
Application Programming Interface (API) rather
than direct system call use
 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for
Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based systems
(including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and
Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual
machine (JVM)

Note that the system-call names used throughout this

text are generic

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of System Calls

 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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 API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Call Parameter Passing

 Often, more information is required than simply identity of

desired system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS
and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and
address of block passed as a parameter in a register
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris

 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the

program and popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls
 Process control
 create process, terminate process
 end, abort
 load, execute
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time
 wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory
 Dump memory if error
 Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
 Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 File management
 create file, delete file
 open, close file
 read, write, reposition
 get and set file attributes
 Device management
 request device, release device
 read, write, reposition
 get device attributes, set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date
 get system data, set system data
 get and set process, file, or device attributes
 Communications
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive messages if message passing model to
host name or process name
 From client to server
 Shared-memory model create and gain access to
memory regions
 transfer status information
 attach and detach remote devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Protection
 Control access to resources
 Get and set permissions
 Allow and deny user access

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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 Standard C Library Example

 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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