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Concepts and Modeling of Groundwater System

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 IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 2 Issue 2, February 2015.
www.ijiset.com
ISSN 2348 – 7968

Concepts and Modeling of Groundwater System

C. P. Kumar1, Surjeet Singh2
1, 2
National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee – 247667, Uttarakhand, India

Abstract water that is found underground in cracks and spaces in

soil, sand and rocks. The area where water fills these
Groundwater is of fundamental importance in water spaces is called the saturated zone. The top of this zone is
resources planning, development and management. called the water table, the top of the water is the table. The
Groundwater flow has many applications, among which water table may be only a meter below the ground’s
are agricultural developments, domestic use such as surface or it may be hundreds of meters down.
supply of drinking water, irrigation, and a variety of water
quality applications. As the usage of groundwater Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water
expands, our knowledge of groundwater systems must table may be deep or shallow; and may rise or fall
also expand. Numerical groundwater modelling is a tool depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting snow
that can aid in studying groundwater problems and can may cause the water table to rise, or an extended period of
help increase our understanding of groundwater systems. dry weather may cause the water table to fall.
The purpose of this article is to highlight major Groundwater is stored in and moves slowly through layers
groundwater issues, concepts of groundwater modelling, of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. The speed, at which
and commonly used groundwater modelling software. groundwater flows, depends on the size of the spaces in
the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.
Keywords: Groundwater, Aquifer, Model, Calibration, Aquifers typically consist of gravel, sand, sandstone or
MODFLOW, ArcGIS. fractured rock, like limestone. These materials are
permeable because they have large connected spaces that
allow water to flow through.
1. Introduction
Water in aquifers is brought to the surface naturally
Groundwater lies almost everywhere below the earth's
through a spring or can be discharged into lakes and
surface. It is an important source of drinking water supply
streams. This water can also be extracted through a well
and irrigation and caters to more than 45% of the total
drilled into the aquifer. A well is a pipe in the ground that
irrigation in the country. More than 90% of the world’s
fills with groundwater. This water then can be brought to
total supply of drinkable water is groundwater. The
the surface by a pump. Shallow wells may go dry if the
contribution of ground water irrigation to achieve self-
water table falls below the bottom of the well. Some wells
sufficiency in food grains production in the past three
called artesian wells do not need a pump because of
decades is phenomenal. In the coming years, the ground
natural pressures that force the water up and out of the
water utilization is likely to increase manifold for
well.
expansion of irrigated agriculture and to achieve targets of
food production. Although the groundwater is annually
Groundwater supplies are replenished or recharged by rain
replenishable resource, its availability is non-uniform in
and snow melt. In some areas of the world, people face
space and time. Hence, precise estimation of ground water
serious water shortages because groundwater is used faster
resource and irrigation potential is a prerequisite for
than it is naturally replenished. In other areas groundwater
planning its development.
is polluted by human activities. In areas where material
above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can sink into the
When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop
groundwater. Groundwater can be polluted by landfills,
moving. Some of it flows along the surface in streams or
septic tanks, leaky underground gas tanks and from
lakes, some of it is used by plants, some evaporates and
overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. If groundwater
returns to the atmosphere, and some sinks into the ground.
becomes polluted, it will no longer be safe to drink. It is
Imagine pouring a glass of water onto a pile of sand.
important for all of us to learn to protect our groundwater.
Where does the water go? The water moves into the
spaces between the particles of sand. Groundwater is

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2. Groundwater Issues anticipated activity, like agriculture. In agriculture, various

crops need air (specifically, oxygen) to a greater or lesser
Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater depth in the soil. Waterlogging of the soil stops air getting
around the world. Just as river waters have been over-used in. How shallow the water table to be classified as
and polluted in many parts of the world, so too have waterlogged, varies with the purpose in view. A crop's
aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of demand for freedom from waterlogging may vary between
sight. The other major problem is that water management seasons of the year, as with the growing of rice. In
agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield" of irrigated agricultural land, waterlogging is often
aquifer and river water, have often counted the same water accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged soils prevent
twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its connected river. leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water.
This problem, although understood for centuries, has
persisted. Following are the major issues related to 2.4 Saltwater intrusion
development and management of groundwater resources.
Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into
2.1 Overdraft freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination of
drinking water sources and other consequences. Saltwater
Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal
resource. However, over-use, or overdraft, can cause aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between
major problems to human users and to the environment. groundwater and seawater. Because saltwater has a higher
The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a
use is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push
the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must inland beneath the freshwater. Certain human activities,
be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places, especially groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater
the water table has dropped hundreds of metres because of wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many coastal
extensive well pumping. In the Punjab region of India, for areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh
example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters groundwater, reducing its water pressure and allowing
since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. A saltwater to flow further inland. Other contributors to
lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems saltwater intrusion include navigation channels or
such as groundwater-related subsidence and saltwater agricultural and drainage channels, which provide
intrusion. conduits for saltwater to move inland. Saltwater intrusion
can also be worsened by extreme events like hurricane
2.2 Subsidence storm surges.

Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out 2.5 Pollution
from underground, deflating the space below the surface,
and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can Water pollution of groundwater, from pollutants released
look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in to the ground that can work their way down into
its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater, can create a contaminant plume within an
groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquifer. Movement of water and dispersion within the
aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area, its
sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers advancing boundary often called a plume edge, which can
by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop then intersect with groundwater wells and springs, making
and compression of the aquifer may occur. This the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife.
compression may be partially recoverable if pressures Different mechanism have influence on the transport of
rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets pollutants, e.g. diffusion, adsorption, decay in the
compressed, it may cause land subsidence, a drop in the groundwater. The interaction of groundwater
ground surface. contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of
hydrology transport models.
2.3 Waterlogging
The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the
Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. transport of these pollutants. An area can have layers of
Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when the water table sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hard pan. Areas of
of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit an karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes
vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater.

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Earthquake faults can also be entry routes for downward The modelling studies in India have so far been confined
contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great to academic and research organisations. The practising
importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural professionals mostly still prefer to employ lumped models
irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), for planning of groundwater development and recharge.
wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues. Such models completely ignore the distributed character of
the groundwater regime. Thus, they are based upon rather
3. Applications of Groundwater Models conservative concepts like safe yields and are incapable of
accounting for the stream-aquifer interaction and the
The use of groundwater models is prevalent in the field of dependence of lateral recharge on the water table pattern.
environmental science. Models have been applied to Consequently, permissible mining (i.e. withdrawals in
investigate a wide variety of hydrogeologic conditions. excess of vertical recharge) and perennial yield can not be
More recently, groundwater models are being applied to arrived at. The objectives of modelling studies in India
predict the transport of contaminants for risk evaluation. have been mainly (i) groundwater recharge, (ii) dynamic
behaviour of the water table, (iii) stream-aquifer
In general, models are conceptual descriptions or interaction, and (iv) sea-water intrusion etc. It is important
approximations that describe physical systems using to understand general aspects of both groundwater flow
mathematical equations; they are not exact descriptions of and transport models so that application or evaluation of
physical systems or processes. By mathematically these models may be performed correctly.
representing a simplified version of a hydrogeological
system, reasonable alternative scenarios can be predicted, 4. Model Development
tested, and compared. The applicability or usefulness of a
model depends on how closely the mathematical equations A groundwater model application can be considered to be
approximate the physical system being modeled. In order two distinct processes (Figure 1). The first process is
to evaluate the applicability or usefulness of a model, it is model development resulting in a software product, and
necessary to have a thorough understanding of the the second process is application of that product for a
physical system and the assumptions embedded in the specific purpose. Groundwater models are most efficiently
derivation of the mathematical equations. developed in a logical sequence.

Groundwater models describe the groundwater flow and

transport processes using mathematical equations based on
certain simplifying assumptions. These assumptions
typically involve the direction of flow, geometry of the
aquifer, the heterogeneity or anisotropy of sediments or
bedrock within the aquifer, the contaminant transport
mechanisms and chemical reactions. Because of the
simplifying assumptions embedded in the mathematical
equations and the many uncertainties in the values of data
required by the model, a model must be viewed as an
approximation and not an exact duplication of field
conditions. Groundwater models, however, even as
approximations, are a useful investigation tool that
groundwater hydrologists may use for a number of
applications.

Application of groundwater models include water balance

(in terms of water quantity), gaining knowledge about the
quantitative aspects of the unsaturated zone, simulating of
water flow and chemical migration in the saturated zone
including river-groundwater relations, assessing the
impact of changes of the groundwater regime on the
environment, setting up/optimising monitoring networks,
and setting up groundwater protection zones. Fig. 1 Development Process of a Model

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within some acceptable criteria. Model calibration requires
4.1 Model Objectives that field conditions at a site be properly characterized.
Lack of proper site characterization may result in a model
Model objectives should be defined which explain the calibrated to a set of conditions that are not representative
purpose of using a groundwater model. The modelling of actual field conditions.
objectives will profoundly impact the modelling effort
required. 4.7 Sensitivity Analysis

4.2 Hydrogeological Characterization A sensitivity analysis is the process of varying model

input parameters over a reasonable range (range of
Proper characterization of the hydrogeological conditions uncertainty in value of model parameter) and observing
at a site is necessary in order to understand the importance the relative change in model response. Typically, the
of relevant flow or solute transport processes. Without observed change in hydraulic head, flow rate or
proper site characterization, it is not possible to select an contaminant transport are noted. Data for which the model
appropriate model or develop a reliably calibrated model. is relatively sensitive would require future
characterization, as opposed to data for which the model is
4.3 Model Conceptualization relatively insensitive.

Model conceptualization is the process in which data 4.8 Model Verification

describing field conditions are assembled in a systematic
way to describe groundwater flow and contaminant A calibrated model uses selected values of hydrogeologic
transport processes at a site. The model conceptualization parameters, sources and sinks and boundary conditions to
aids in determining the modelling approach and which match historical field conditions. The process of model
model software to use. verification may result in further calibration or refinement
of the model. After the model has successfully reproduced
4.4 Modelling Software Selection measured changes in field conditions, it is ready for
predictive simulations.
After hydrogeological characterization of the site has been
completed and the conceptual model developed, a 4.9 Predictive Simulations
computer model software is selected. The selected model
should be capable of simulating conditions encountered at A model may be used to predict some future groundwater
a site. For example, analytical models can be used where flow or contaminant transport condition. The model may
field data show that groundwater flow or transport also be used to evaluate different remediation alternatives.
processes are relatively simple. Similarly, one- However, errors and uncertainties in a groundwater flow
dimensional/ two-dimensional/ three-dimensional analysis and solute transport analysis make any model
groundwater flow and transport models should be selected prediction no better than an approximation. For this
based upon the hydrogeological characterization and reason, all model predictions should be expressed as a
model conceptualization. range of possible outcomes that reflect the assumptions
involved and uncertainty in model input data and
4.5 Model Design (Input Parameters) parameter values.

Model design includes all parameters that are used to 4.10 Performance Monitoring Plan
develop a calibrated model. The input parameters include
model grid size and spacing, layer elevations, boundary Groundwater models are used to predict the migration
conditions, hydraulic conductivity/transmissivity, pathway and concentrations of contaminants in
recharge, any additional model input, transient or steady groundwater. Errors in the predictive model, even though
state modelling, dispersion coefficients, degradation rate small, can result in gross errors in solutions projected
coefficients etc. forwarded in time. Performance monitoring is required to
compare future field conditions with model predictions.
4.6 Model Calibration
5. Groundwater Flow Equation
Model calibration consists of changing values of model
input parameters in an attempt to match field conditions

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Groundwater modelling begins with a conceptual models, a discrete solution is obtained in both the space
understanding of the physical problem. The next step in and time domains by using numerical approximations of
modelling is translating the physical system into the governing partial differential equation. Various
mathematical terms. In general, the results are the familiar numerical solution techniques are used in groundwater
groundwater flow equation and transport equations. The models. Among the most used approaches in groundwater
governing flow equation for three-dimensional saturated modelling, three techniques can be distinguished: Finite
flow in saturated porous media is: Difference Method, Finite Element Method, and
Analytical Element Method. All techniques have their own
 h  h  h h (1) advantages and disadvantages with respect to availability,
( K xx ) + ( K yy ) + ( K zz ) - Q = S s
x x y y z z t costs, user friendliness, applicability, and required
knowledge of the user.
where,
The input data for a groundwater model include natural
Kxx, Kyy, Kzz = hydraulic conductivity along the x,y,z axes and artificial stress, and parameters, dimensions, and
which are assumed to be parallel to the major axes of physico-chemical properties of all aquifers considered in
the model. A finer level of detail of the numerical
hydraulic conductivity;
approximation (solution) greatly increases the data
H = piezometric head;
requirements. Input data for aquifers are common values
Q = volumetric flux per unit volume representing
such as transmissivities, aquitard resistances, abstraction
source/sink terms;
rates, groundwater recharges, surface water levels etc. The
Ss = specific storage coefficient defined as the volume of
most common output data are groundwater levels, fluxes,
water released from storage per unit change in head per
velocities and changes in these parameters due to stress
unit volume of porous material. put into the model.
The transport of solutes in the saturated zone is governed
by the advection-dispersion equation which for a porous
6. Groundwater Modelling Software
medium with uniform porosity distribution is formulated
Salient features of the frequently used groundwater
as follows:
models and supporting software have been presented
below. The most widely used numerical groundwater flow
c   
=- cvi +   Dij c  + Rc i, j = 1,2,3 (2) model is MODFLOW which is a three-dimensional model,
t  xi  xi   x j  originally developed by the U.S. Geological Survey
(McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988).
where,
6.1 MODFLOW
c = concentration of the solute;
Rc = sources or sinks; MODFLOW is the USGS's three-dimensional (3D) finite-
Dij = dispersion coefficient tensor; difference groundwater model. MODFLOW is considered
vi = velocity tensor. an international standard for simulating and predicting
groundwater conditions and groundwater/surface-water
An understanding of these equations and their associated interactions. Originally developed and released solely as a
boundary and initial conditions is necessary before a groundwater-flow simulation code when first published in
modelling problem can be formulated. Basic processes, 1984, MODFLOW's modular structure has provided a
that are considered, include groundwater flow, solute robust framework for integration of additional simulation
transport and heat transport. Most groundwater modelling capabilities that build on and enhance its original scope.
studies are conducted using either deterministic models, The family of MODFLOW-related programs now includes
based on precise description of cause-and-effect or input- capabilities to simulate coupled groundwater/surface-
response relationships or stochastic models reflecting the water systems, solute transport, variable-density flow
probabilistic nature of a groundwater system. (including saltwater), aquifer-system compaction and land
subsidence, parameter estimation, and groundwater
The governing equations for groundwater systems are management.
usually solved either analytically or numerically.
Analytical models contain analytical solution of the field The current core version of MODFLOW is MODFLOW-
equations, continuously in space and time. In numerical 2005 v.1.11.00. MODFLOW-2005 is the standard version

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of MODFLOW supported by the USGS Office of a two-dimensional or three-dimensional hybrid finite-
Groundwater and is the most stable and well-tested element and integrated finite-difference method to
version of the code. There are few other USGS software approximate the governing equations that describe the two
most commonly used as USGS MODFLOW utitilities. interdependent processes that are simulated: (1) fluid
GW_Chart is a graphing application for MODFLOW, density-dependent saturated or unsaturated ground water
ZONEBUDGET, and other codes. GW_Chart also flow and either (2a) transport of a solute in the ground
converts binary cell-by-cell flow files to text files. water, in which the solute may be subject to equilibrium
ModelMuse is a GUI for MODFLOW-2005, MODFLOW- adsorption on the porous matrix, and both first-order and
LGR, MODFLOW-NWT, MT3DMS, PHAST, zero-order production or decay, or (2b) transport of
MODPATH, and ZONEBUDGET. Model Viewer is a thermal energy in the ground water and solid matrix of the
program for 3D visualization of groundwater-model aquifer.
results. ZONEBUDGET is a program for computing
subregional water budgets for MODFLOW. 6.4 MT3DMS

6.2 FEFLOW MT3DMS is a latest version of the Modular 3-D Transport

model, where MS denotes the Multi-Species structure for
FEFLOW is an acronym of Finite Element subsurface accommodating add-on reaction packages. MT3DMS has
FLOW simulation system and solves the governing flow, a comprehensive set of options and capabilities for
mass and heat transport equations in porous and fractured simulating advection, dispersion/diffusion, and chemical
media by a multidimensional finite element method for reactions of contaminants in groundwater flow systems
complex geometric and parametric situations including under general hydrogeological conditions.
variable fluid density, variable saturation, free surface(s),
multispecies reaction kinetics, non-isothermal flow and 6.5 SEAWAT
multidiffusive effects.
SEAWAT is a generic MODFLOW/MT3DMS-based
FEFLOW is a professional software package for computer program designed to simulate three-dimensional
modelling fluid flow, groundwater age and transport of variable-density groundwater flow coupled with multi-
dissolved constituents and/or heat transport processes in species solute and heat transport. The program has been
the subsurface. FEFLOW contains pre- and post used for a wide variety of groundwater studies including
processing functionality and an efficient simulation those focused on brine migration in continental aquifers as
engine. A user-friendly graphical interface provides easy well as those focused on saltwater intrusion in coastal
access to the extensive modelling options. FEFLOW - in aquifers. SEAWAT uses the familiar structure of
contrast to some of the competing products - is not a MODFLOW and MT3DMS. Thus, most of the commonly
graphical front end for a separately developed simulation used pre and post-processors can be used to create
kernel. It is a completely integrated system from SEAWAT datasets and visualize results. The MODFLOW
simulation engine to graphical user interface. It includes a concepts of "packages" and "processes" are retained in
public programming interface for user code. SEAWAT, which allows the program to work with many
of the MODFLOW-related software programs, such as
FEFLOW is developed by DHI-WASY GmbH, the MODPATH, ZONEBUDGET, and parameter estimation
German branch of the DHI group. DHI-WASY's areas of programs. SEAWAT is a public domain computer
expertise encompass groundwater hydrology, surface program. The source code and software are distributed
water hydrology and geographic information systems. In free of charge by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).
these fields, DHI-WASY provides software, training and SEAWAT Version 4 is a replacement for SEAWAT-2000.
consulting services. FEFLOW is used by leading research
institutes, universities, consulting firms and government 6.6 MIKE SHE
organizations all over the world. Its scope of application
ranges from simple local-scale to complex large-scale MIKE SHE is an integrated hydrological modelling
simulations. system for building and simulating surface water flow and
groundwater flow. MIKE SHE can simulate the entire land
6.3 SUTRA phase of the hydrologic cycle and allows components to
be used independently and customized to local needs.
SUTRA is a computer program which simulates fluid MIKE SHE emerged from System Hydrologique
movement and transport of either energy or dissolved European (SHE) as developed and extensively applied
substances in a subsurface environment. SUTRA employs

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since 1977 onwards by a consortium of three European Recharge/ET memory compression for large transient
organizations: the Institute of Hydrology (United models, support for the HUF Package in
Kingdom), SOGREAH (France) and DHI Water- MODFLOW2000/2005 and PEST SVD Assist
Environment-Health (Denmark). Since then, DHI has capabilities. The Professional version of Groundwater
continuously invested resources into research and Vistas 6 includes everything in the Advanced version plus
development of MIKE SHE. GW3D for 3D Visualization. The Premium version of
Groundwater Vistas 6 is everything included in the
MIKE SHE delivers truly integrated modelling of Professional version plus the sophisticated SAMG Solver.
groundwater, surface water, recharge and
evapotranspiration. MIKE SHE includes all important 6.9 GMS
aspects of hydrology when a project requires a fully
integrated model. MIKE SHE can be used for the analysis, GMS (Groundwater Modelling System) is a complete
planning and management of a wide range of water program for building and simulating groundwater models.
resources and environmental problems related to surface It features 2D and 3D geostatistics, stratigraphic modelling
water and groundwater, especially surface-water impact and a unique conceptual model approach. GMS provides
from groundwater withdrawal, conjunctive use of tools for every phase of a groundwater simulation
groundwater and surface water, wetland management and including site characterization, model development,
restoration, river basin management and planning, impact calibration, post-processing, and visualization. GMS
studies for changes in land use and climate. The program supports both finite-difference and finite-element models
is offered in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions for Microsoft in 2D and 3D including MODFLOW 2000, MODPATH,
Windows operating systems. MT3DMS/RT3D, SEAM3D, FEMWATER, PEST,
UTEXAS, MODAEM and SEEP2D. The program's
6.7 Visual MODFLOW modular design enables the user to select modules in
custom combinations, allowing the user to choose only
Visual MODFLOW Flex (VMOD Flex) is a graphical those groundwater modelling capabilities that are required.
interface for MODFLOW. The program also combines
proprietary extensions, such as MODFLOW-SURFACT, 6.10 PMWIN
MT3DMS (mass-transport 3D multi-species) and a 3D
model explorer. Visual MODFLOW supports Processing ModflowTM (PMWIN) is a comprehensive
MODFLOW-2000, MODFLOW-2005, MODFLOW- integrated groundwater modelling system. It includes the
NWT, MODFLOW-LGR, MODFLOW-SURFACT, and following components.
SEAWAT. The software is used primarily by
hydrogeologists to simulate groundwater flow and  Intuitive graphical user interface to greatly simplify
contaminant transport. The program, developed by and clarify data input and result visualization processes
Schlumberger Water Services, is one of the first that work with result files of practically unlimited file
commercial graphical interfaces for MODFLOW. size (way greater than 2 GB).

6.8 Groundwater Vistas  3D finite-difference groundwater model MODFLOW.

Supports multiple versions, including MODFLOW-96,
Groundwater Vistas 6 (GV) is a pre- and post-processor MODFLOW-2000, MODFLOW-2005, and
for MODFLOW models. GV is a state of the art software MODFLOW-NWT.
package for 3-D groundwater flow and contaminant
transport modelling, calibration and optimization using the  Solute transport models MT3DMS (v5.3), MT3D,
MODFLOW suite of codes. GV also couples a powerful RT3D (v2.5), and MT3D99 (MT3D99 is sold
model design system with comprehensive graphical separately by SSP&A.)
analysis tools. Developed by the author of ModelCadTM,
GV is a model-independent graphical design system for  Multicomponent reactive transport model PHT3D
MODFLOW MODPATH (both steady-state and transient (v2.17) that incorporates MT3DMS (v5.3) for the
versions), MT3DMS, MODFLOWT, MODFLOW- simulation of three-dimensional advective-dispersive
SURFACT, MODFLOW2000, GFLOW, RT3D, multi-component transport and the geochemical model
PATH3D, SEAWAT and PEST. PHREEQC-2 (v2.14) for the quantification of reactive
processes.
The Advanced version of Groundwater Vistas 6 adds
Monte Carlo uncertainty analysis, SWIFT support,

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 Variable-density groundwater flow and multi-species

solute and heat transport model SEAWAT (v4.0). Surfer’s sophisticated interpolation engine transforms
XYZ data into publication-quality maps. Surfer provides
 Nonlinear parameter estimation package PEST (v12.0). gridding methods and control over gridding parameters,
Supports advanced features such as regularization, including customized variograms. One can also use grid
truncated singular value decomposition (SVD), and files obtained from other sources, such as USGS DEM
powerful SVD-Assisted Parameter Estimation. files or ESRI grid files. Display grid as outstanding
contour, 3D surface, 3D wireframe, watershed, vector,
 Particle-tracking Model PMPATH which uses a semi- image, shaded relief, and post maps. Add base maps and
analytical particle-tracking scheme similar to combine map types to create the most informative display
MODPATH to calculate the groundwater paths and possible.
travel times. Through the interactive graphical
modelling environment of PMPATH, the user can 6.13 Hydro GeoAnalyst
place particles and perform particle tracking with just a
few mouse clicks. Hydro GeoAnalyst is a groundwater, borehole,
hydrogeologic interpretation and data management
 Water Budget calculator for computing sub-regional software that integrates a complete range of easy-to-use
water budget and inter-region water budget. It can analysis and reporting tools, with a powerful yet flexible
optionally creates time-series of water budget for SQL Server database technology. Hydro GeoAnalyst is an
transient models. all-in-one desktop concept that provides one-click access
to many powerful features e.g. data transfer system, query
 Field Generator to generate heterogeneously- editor, GIS map manager, 2D cross-section editor, 3D-
distributed parameter fields for stochastic simulation. explorer, template manager, report editor, and much more.

 Field Interpolators to interpolate from point-wise data 6.14 RockWorks

to model cells by using interpolation methods such as
Kirging, Inverse distance, etc. RockWorks is a comprehensive program that offers
visualization and modelling of spatial data and subsurface
6.11 ArcGIS data. RockWorks offers numerous options for analyzing
the subsurface data, and accepts many different data types,
GIS is a powerful tool for developing solutions for water such as stratigraphy, lithology, quantitative data, color
resources such as assessing water quality and managing intervals, fracture data and hydrology and aquifer data. In
water resources on a local or regional scale. ArcGIS is an addition to its impressive collection of existing
integrated collection of GIS software products for building capabilities, the latest RockWorks version has numerous
a complete GIS. Hydrologists use GIS technology to new features, including dozens of Google™ Earth display
integrate various data and applications into one, tools (the "EarthApps"); coordinate and unit support for
manageable system. The suite of tools contained in Arc data, models, and graphics; enhanced cross section
Hydro facilitate the creation, manipulation, and display of drawing tools; and much more.
hydro features and objects within the ArcGIS
environment. ArcGIS Spatial Analyst includes a variety of 6.15 ArcHydro Groundwater
tools for Hydrologic Analysis. The groundwater tools can
be used to perform simple 2D advection–dispersion Arc Hydro Groundwater is a data model and set of tools to
modelling of groundwater flow and constituents in help better manage groundwater and subsurface data
groundwater. within ArcGIS. The Arc Hydro Groundwater data model
is a geodatabase design for representing multidimensional
6.12 Surfer groundwater data. The data model supports
representations of different types of groundwater data
Surfer is a full-function 3D visualization, contouring and including representation of data from aquifer maps and
surface modelling package that runs under Microsoft well databases, data from geologic maps, 3D
Windows. Surfer is used extensively for terrain modelling, representations of borehole and hydrostratigraphy,
bathymetric modelling, landscape visualization, surface temporal information, and data from simulation models.
analysis, contour mapping, watershed and 3D surface The data model is based on the Arc Hydro framework
mapping, gridding, volumetrics, and much more. which is shared by the surface water and groundwater data

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ISSN 2348 – 7968
models. Users can add groundwater and surface water Mathematical models are tools, which are frequently used
components to the framework as necessary, or develop in studying groundwater systems. In general, mathematical
their own components. This new componentized approach models are used to simulate (or to predict) the
enables tailoring the geodatabase design to meet specific groundwater flow and in some cases the solute and/or heat
project needs. transport. In order to avoid model misuse, it is important
to know and understand the limitations and possible
The Arc Hydro Groundwater tools enable to take sources of error in numerical models. To avoid applying
advantage of the ArcGIS platform to archive, manage, and an otherwise valid model to an inappropriate field
visualize groundwater information. Use Arc Hydro situation, it is not only important to understand the field
Groundwater to create water level, water quality and flow behavior but also to understand all of the assumptions that
direction maps, create, archive and visualize MODFLOW form the basis of the model.
models, and create and visualize both 2D and 3D geologic
models. Additionally, one can georeference subsurface Predictive simulations must be viewed as estimates,
data including boreholes, sketch cross sections, and dependent upon the quality and uncertainty of the input
geovolumes, and store, georeference, and create GIS maps data. Models may be used as predictive tools, however
of MODFLOW model input and solution data. field monitoring must be incorporated to verify model
predictions. The best method of eliminating or reducing
6.16 PEST modelling errors is to apply good hydrogeological
judgement and to question the model simulation results. If
PEST is a nonlinear parameter estimation package. It can the results do not make physical sense, find out why.
be used to estimate parameters for just about any existing
computer model, whether or not a user has access to the References
model's source code. PEST is able to "take control" of a
model, running it as many times as it needs to while [1] Anderson, M.P. and W.W. Woessner, 1992, Applied
adjusting its parameters until the discrepancies between Groundwater Modelling. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego,
selected model outputs and a complementary set of field or CA., 381 p.
laboratory measurements is reduced to a minimum in the
[2] American Society for Testing and Materials, 1993, Standard
weighted least squares sense.
Guide for Application of a Ground-Water Flow Model to a
Site-Specific Problem. ASTM Standard D 5447-93, West
PEST communicates with a model through the model's Conshohocken, PA, 6 p.
own input and output files. Thus PEST adapts to the
model, the model does not need to be adapted to PEST. It [3] American Society for Testing and Materials, 1995, Standard
implements a particularly robust variant of the Gauss- Guide for Subsurface Flow and Transport Modelling. ASTM
Marquardt-Levenberg method of nonlinear parameter Standard D 5880-95, West Conshohocken, PA, 6 p.
estimation. Furthermore, through adjustment of a number
of control variables, a user is able to "tune" PEST's [4] Bear, J., and A. Verruijt, 1987, Modelling Groundwater Flow
and Pollution. D. Reidel Publishing Company, 414 p.
implementation of the method to suit the model for which
parameters are sought. [5] Franke, O.L., Bennett, G.D., Reilly, T.E., Laney, R.L.,
Buxton, H.T., and Sun, R.J., 1991, Concepts and Modelling
Considering the large variability and the quick in Ground-Water Hydrology -- A Self-Paced Training
development of groundwater models, a new, more Course. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-707.
sophisticated model can often replace a previously applied
model. Additionally, the reconsideration of the conceptual [6] Kashyap, Deepak, 1989, Mathematical Modelling for
model and the regeneration of the mesh may need a new Groundwater Management – Status in India. Indo-French
allocation of the parameters. Therefore, it is important that Seminar on Management of Water Resources, 22-24
model data (information) are stored independently from a September, 1989, Festival of France-1989, Jaipur, pp. IV-59
given model, with a preference for GIS-based databases. to IV-75.
Considerable development in the field of user-friendly
[7] Kinzelbach, W., 1986, Groundwater Modelling: An
GIS and data base servers makes the set-up and the Introduction with Sample Programs in BASIC. Elsevier, New
modification of models easier and more time-effective. York, 333 p.

7. Concluding Remarks [8]Kumar, C. P., 1992, Groundwater Modelling – In.

Hydrological Developments in India Since Independence. A

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 IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 2 Issue 2, February 2015.
www.ijiset.com
ISSN 2348 – 7968
Contribution to Hydrological Sciences, National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee, pp. 235-261.

[9] Kumar, C. P., 2001, Common Ground Water Modelling

Author’s Biography:
Errors and Remediation. Journal of Indian Water Resources
Society, Volume 21, Number 4, October 2001, pp. 149-156. Mr. C. P. Kumar: He post-graduated in Hydraulic Engineering
from University of Roorkee in 1985. From 1985, he has been
[10] McDonald, M.G. and A.W. Harbaugh, 1988, A Modular working for National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee -
Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Ground-Water Flow 247667 (Uttarakhand). He is at present Scientist ‘F’ in Ground
Model, USGS TWRI Chapter 6-A1, 586 p. Water Hydrology division at NIH, Roorkee. His major research
areas of interest include assessment of groundwater potential;
[11] Mercer, James W. and Charles R. Faust, 1980, Ground- seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers; numerical modelling of
Water Modelling: An Overview, Ground Water, Vol. 18, No. unsaturated flow, groundwater flow and contaminant transport;
2, March-April 1980, pp. 108-115. management of aquifer recharge; and impact of climate change
on groundwater. He has authored more than 100 technical papers
[12] Pinder, G.F., and J.D. Bredehoeft, 1968, Application of the and reports. Many of his publications are available at
Digital Computer for Aquifer Evaluation, Water Resources http://www.angelfire.com/nh/cpkumar/publication/
Research, Vol. 4, pp. 1069-1093.
Dr. Surjeet Singh: He did PhD in Irrigation and Drainage
[13] Wang, H.F. and M.P. Anderson, 1982, Introduction to Engineering from G. B. Pant University of Agricultural and
Groundwater Modelling. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Technology, Pantnagar in 2003. Since 1998, he has been
Francisco, CA, 237 p. working for National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee -
247667 (Uttarakhand). He is at present Scientist ‘D’ in Ground
[14] Website - USGS Ground-Water Software: Water Hydrology Division at NIH, Roorkee. His major research
http://water.usgs.gov/nrp/gwsoftware/ areas of interest include groundwater modelling; lake hydrology;
rainfall-runoff modelling; groundwater recharge; water balance;
[15]Website – Wikipedia: Groundwater, Waterlogging, Saltwater impact of climate change on groundwater and water quality. He
Intrusion has authored more than 80 technical papers and around 25
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater technical reports.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion

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