Asian Journal of Sociological Research

Volume 6, Issue 1, Page 35-47, 2023; Article no.AJSR.937

Demands and Task That Prospective

Educational Administrators Need to
Know for Aiding School Improvement
and Governance
M. A. Mkpa a and M. C. Anuna a*
a
Department of Educational Administration, Abia State University, P. M. PMB 2000, Uturu, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the
final manuscript.

Received: 01/04/2023
Accepted: 02/06/2023
Opinion Article
Published: 28/06/2023

ABSTRACT

In contemporary times, the discipline of leadership research has shifted from a focus on Leaders to
followers - that is forging links between (principals, headmasters) and teachers. Educational leaders
have the awareness that their primary tasks and functions are not only to enhance learning
outcomes, but also to assist effective governance, it how to blend the merits of centralized
management devolution of power for enhancing management and school improvement. Also, the
new perspective is persuading educational policy makers, administrators and managers of schools
that school enhancing learning environment needs the efforts of every teacher not just a few
individuals. It also integrates educational administrators that are result oriented, instilling hope in
their staff and concentrate on aiding learning through collaboration. The current trend that education
leaders need to integrate is the public-private partnership through the voucher system, to enable
youths living in the slums and inner cities to have access to qualitative education. Another
significant demand is the necessity to stress the retraining of principals and educational leaders to
st
enable them undertake new responsibility in the 21 century. This demand has become imperative
because they perform the roles of human resource managers to the teachers, public relation
officers to the communities and counsellor to people. Switching from command and control
(hierarchical skills) of the 20th century to coordination and collaboration as managerial skill has
st
become absolutely necessary for leaders in the 21 century. The change in leadership skills
constitute a fundamental challenge for educational leaders. This paper further emphasizes that
educational leaders must blend integral, strategic, transformational, distributed and visionary
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected];

Asian J. Sociol. Res., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 35-47, 2023

 Mkpa and Anuna; Asian J. Sociol. Res., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 35-47, 2023; Article no.AJSR.937

leadership styles because they constitute the fundamental means to sustain reforms and new
global trends in educational practices. The trend in the future prioritize the professional training of
school heads because of enormous responsibilities placed on them for improving learning
outcomes, training of teachers and retention of staff and ability to achieve result in a complex
environment.

Keywords: Educational leaders; school improvement; learning outcomes; school effectiveness,

knowledge management and leadership models.

1. INTRODUCTION educational institution through improving learning

outcomes for the entire pupils in the school.
Education is one powerful tool for political, Hence, Fullan [20] insists that effective school
democratic, economic reforms and development. leaders have the key for achieving sustainable
It provides the remedy for solving economic and enormous education reforms like devolution of
social problems in any society. Every country power, standardized test, and site based
witnesses economic growth with the presence of management and transforming higher schools
education and suffers from atropy in its absence, into professional learning communities [31,34,36].
(OECD, 2001), Education is the bedrock of
development, hence administrators in every The manner and the strategies of administering
nation must utilize it effectively to achieve its public supported institutions have been a
goals [1,2,5]. The initial industrialized nations in sources of concern to guardians and the
Asia, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong Secondary School Management Boards. Hence,
achieved higher buoyant economies that is as the quality of schools depend upon how focused
strong as Britain, United States of America, the public supported institutions managers are,
Japan, Canada and Australia through creative their vision, their ability to emphasize working
educational innovation that enhanced learning together among the teachers instead of undue
outcomes and school improvement [44,49]. competition [11,16,23]. The school Administrator
Majasan [46], and Akinyanju [22], linked the plays a vital role learning aiding qualitative
economic success of Hong Kong, Malaysia and growth in the educational policy making,
Singapore to their huge investment in basic implementation and planners must realize that
education, retraining, retention of teachers, educational leadership exists in context shaped
headmasters and human capital development. by its historical and cultural milieu. Loke, [43].
The school head need special endowment in
Ghana, Nigeria and Gambia to assist their managing schools and act as a bridge in aiding
economies and strengthen the political systems teachers to handle professional responsibilities,
initiated in 1996, 1999 and 2002, Free autonomy, shared leadership and strengthening
Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) job satisfaction for teachers. Mulford, [48].
programme. To enable (FCUBE) aid economic
development, all the nations designed activities Pertaining to governance the trend is toward
to ensure that there is absolute availability and adopting decentralization and centralization at
the retention of all school age children in the nine the same time in the educational system. The
year fundamental academic education government in various nations should maintain a
programme, participation of all stakeholders and firm grip and exercise control over educational
expansion of infrastructural facilities. policy. Some educational leaders maintain that
the most appropriate strategy for aiding school
No doubt as a result of the enormous hope of learning outcomes is to create a learning
parents, students, communities in every country, organization which will give instructors
stakeholders administering and leading schools responsibility, control and empowerment, Dalin,
have enormous responsibility. The school [14]. The adoption of old public administration,
principals are responsible for school new public management will hinge on the
improvement, managing the curriculum, political, economic and cultural milieu that has
harnessing the human capital, the teachers and been in existence in the country [51-55].
students. They also make up the interface
between the school boards, the teachers, This paper will analyze various leadership
parents and students. It is the Principal as a theories, models, governance, the roles of
leader who will ensure the success of an decentralization, old public administration, new

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public management, and learning organization a result of reforms and innovations the era of a
as they relate to what school leaders need to single individual as an instructional leader has
know. It will also examine professional training of became out-dated. Leadership involves the
teachers and head teachers, as well as the participation of other educators, and teachers
importance of inculcating knowledge and who are committed to implementing the goals of
learning management for enhancing school the school because of their empowerment. They
effectiveness. are likely to support the goals of the school,
participate in decision making, and no more
2. LEADERSHIP MODELS alienated, helpless and powerless. Dalin, [14].
Distributed leadership will usher in trust and
2.1 Instructional Leadership integrity because the Principal has surrendered
power, control and shares authority with the
The contemporary concept of accountability teachers, Yukl, [71]. As a non-hierarchical
ushered in by 'Leave Nobody Behind Act of approach and concept that emphasizes
2002' and the effective implementation of free emergence of teams and cluster of teachers as
and compulsory primary education made it leaders, it will foster cooperation, collaboration in
imperative for reforms. What is in vogue is the the schools and integrity as well as instill hope
instructional leadership that accommodates and and ethical value, equity, social justice and trust.
allows other teachers to participate in school Wright, [69]; Hoy and Miskel, [33].
management. Through participation of teachers
as an integral part of the management will Distributed leadership which entails leadership
enhance learning outcomes. Instruction through bottom - up participation of teachers.
leadership as a concept in the present Leithwoocl, [46] will enhance commitment to the
dispensation is necessary because an effective school, institute collaboration and turn teachers
school leader must be able to comprehend the into learners and the entire school will become a
innovations and new trends in curriculum design, professional learning community. Distributed
teaching blend with transformative leadership leadership involves multiple source of leadership
skills and knowledge in order to stimulate to guide, monitor and control complex tasks in
educational changes in the future. As aptly the school. The utilization of distributed
explained by Hallinger [27]; Glathorn; and leadership has become important and imperative
Yilmarkl, [25], the vital features of shared because no single leaders has the enormous
instructional leadership are climate of enormous energy, skills and knowledge to cope with the
expectations; a shared sense of purpose in the gigantic tasks of managing a school.
school; compensation structure; arrangement of Integrating the portrait methodology with the
activities harnessed towards intellectual distributed leadership is important as it
stimulation of staff and students, and turning the recognizes that the core of educational activities
school into a learning organization that stresses are not vision, strategies or process but people.
continuous learning. Instructional leadership in It makes available a space where teachers can
the past merely emphasized supervision, reflect, think and evaluate their unique
evaluation of curriculum, positioning school goals contributions to the educational process and
and monitoring of student achievement. procedures, Bottery, Man, Wright and Ngai, [8].
2.2 Distributed Leadership 2.3 Strategic Leadership Model
Leadership is very important for effective Leadership is the most peculiar characteristics of
management of any organization. Leadership individuals and whenever a group of individuals
takes place within a social system milieu and is come together, obviously a leader will emerge.
shared among the members of the organization Hence, leadership is a function of group
and also members of a group influence the persistence. It is clear that the existence of
interpretation of internal and external events, the followers is a criteria for leadership. There can
choice of goals, organization of work activities, be no leaders without followers. Leadership
personalize motivations, abilities, talents and researchers have changed focus from leaders to
authority. Yukl, [71] also prove it as a social leadership, which is the interface between
influence. leaders and fellowers Crosby, [13]; Pisapia [57].

Shared leadership entails individuals in teams, Most leadership studies focus on individuals,
groups, cluster in an organizational features. As groups, teams and organizations. For example,

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Kouzes and Poisner [38], stress the importance The theory of transformational leadership does
of leaders being honest, future focused, not emanate from the conventional leadership
competent and inspirational. Furthermore, theories of influencing a group of fellowers to
attention has being focused also on the teams. In acomplish specific target in a clearly defined
this aspect, the researches carried out by situation. Rather, the transformational theory of
Wheelan, [57]; and Johnson and Johnson, [35] leadership the man in-charge tends to highlight
indicate that interest is no more a single in - the specific actions the leaders should undertake
charge leader but to a leader that shares his in order to transform the organization (the
roles with team members. school). The basic characteristics of
transformational leadership as discussed by
To aid learning outcomes and school Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson [29]; Kapur, [38]
improvement head teachers must leave over - are personal commitment to the transformation,
reliance on the command and control communicating the possibility of maintaining the
(hierarchical) skills of the twentieth century that system; clear and enthusiastic communication of
have become antiquity in a globalised world. an inspiring imagination of what the organization
They should emphasize coordination and could become and prompt establishment of a
collaboration, skills vital for effective critical mass of support for the transformation.
management or schools and improving learning The leadership must identify the major players
outcomes. and stakeholders in the education system and in
its operating environment solicit and obtain their
According to Pisapia [57], strategic leadership is support for the change. It is necessary to
the zeal and the knowledge to make acknowledge their powers and the need to put
consequential decisions about ends, activities away the status quo. It is important also to
and tactics in complex environments. Strategic acknowledge and deal with resistance to the
leadership mixes management with leadership, transformation. Defining and setting up an
governance, with ethics and strategic goal with organization that can implement the vision has
tactics and actions. He further states that the become necessary. Constant communication of
strategic leaders achieve much by using a information as well as giving recognition and
holistic learning approach managing and leading reward for achievement is very essential. The
at the same time. By understanding the near leadership must communicate to the organization
omnipresent nature of politics and ethics. (school) how the transformation is progressing,
Strategic leadership is responsible for the announce and celebrate achievement, openly
development and emergence of a high share setbacks and encourage the risk taking
performing school, Mulford, [48]. It is obvious behaviour required to implement the decision.
that strategic leadership is important for Crosby For retention of Principals and in order to attract
even a classroom teacher who performs the new ones in developed nations, it is necessary to
function of a leader and acquiring knowledge in adopt the transformational leadership policy of
the classroom. One of the most important reward, recognition for achievement.
features of strategic leadership in turning schools
into learning organizations must originate at the Shava [62] research finding revealed that
micro -- level, the classroom with the teachers integrating the instructional and transformational
and the students emerging as continuous model have the capacity and potential to
learners. enhance learner performance. The study has
shown that integrating the two models led to
2.4 Transformational Leadership Model climate that aid culture of teaching and learning,
hence enhancing quality learning outcomes and
school improvement.
It is clear that the successful transformation of
schools globally depends on the roles and 2.5 Visionary Leadership Model
decision taken by the school head and his
management: team. Transformational leadership Imagination is the talent to formulate ideas for
model entails selective leadership, attitude, the future, create a vision, visualize and realize it.
values, actions, strategies and plans needed for Creative leaders always have a strong sense of.
the radical transformation of the primary and purpose and are able to get their subordinates
secondary schools, Luthan, [46]; Kreitrier and committed to the vision. Followers always share
Kinicki, [40]; Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson, the vision of their leaders which is already
[29]. embedded in their minds. In Nigeria and any part

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of the world, the visionary leader must create to cope with challenges imposed on schools by
goals, initiate activities, actions and enlist the co- changing internal structure practice while
operation of his followers implementing the adopting the external framework. (OPA)
actions necessary for actualizing the aims and administration integrating school leaders are
the projects. In order to inspire pictures of what "rule driven bureaucrats" executing and
he want the organization (education system) to maintaining legal norms with integrity in a neutral
achieve the leaders must articulate the vision so way and with the common good in mind. The
that the subordinates must see the possibility of system of OPA emphasizes reliability, current
actualizing their hopes, potentials and trend consistency and result oriented Mulford,
aspirations, (Bennis and Nanus, [6]; Kapur, [35]. [48].

Visionary heads do not adhere to tradition. They The New Public Management (NPM) is the
strongly believe in change, inspired with great dominant managerial pattern in Western Europe,
passion to achieve result. They are known for even though of the fact that some countries still
self efficacy, perseverance and commitment to preferred the antiquated Public Management.
their vision of what they want schools to be. Most The features of New Public Management are
of the time in the words of Collins [12], he involvement of all stakeholders through self
reflects, follow their inner sense of decision and management, the injection of competition among
use themselves to initiate change. Furthermore, all public high schools, greater demands for
they are incorruptible with power. Visionary financial accountability public- joint management
leadership is not corrupted by power, instead between government and private sector
leaders of this model exhibit moral leadership investors, clearly defined explicit standards,
and commitment to humanity. Most of the times indices of measuring school effectiveness and a
the visionary leaders are humble and greater emphasis on results, not processes. The
unpretentious, expressing enthusiasm to accept NPM also stresses privatization as a paradigm
change and ready to make sacrifices to achieve shift from public funding of school to private
great results. sector playing crucial role, Dempster, [17],
Mulford [48].
Visionary leader needs to understand that
innovation in the Nigerian new secondary school It is also clear that high schools managed by
curriculum is achievable when the human capital, government have both the features of Old
the teachers arc efficient. Effective teacher is a Public Administration and current trends in
reality when there is general improvement in school management with variants from time to
teacher's welfare in terms of higher remuneration time. In New Zealand, Netherlands and Demark,
and advances, more favourable working the management of school has been transferred
environment, greater chance to participate in to Local Board of Trustees. This was a part of
decision making and opportunity for upward the managerial and market driven reform.
mobility in terms of career opportunities Anuna, (Bostom, Martin and Pailot and Welsh [7]; Dalin,
[4]. [14]. In these countries, the appointment of
Principals has become the responsibility of the
2.6 Administrative Strategies for Aiding boards of trustees, with no representative from
Result oriented learning the Local Government Education Board as an
observer to monitor the selection as in Britain,
The provision of schooling to an extent is Wylie, [70]). But in Britain, in selecting a Principal
provided and financed by governments in many by the Board of Trustees, an official from the
countries. However, in order to meet demand for Local Government (LEA) is always a member of
education and introduce reforms, the public the appointment panel with observer status to
sector in many parts of the globe is evolving monitor the process.
creative partnership, with the private sector, due
to dwindling government budgetary allocations. In Cyprus, the educational system is
Reforms in schools are necessary to enhance conservative and centralized with the Ministry of
accountability, competition, and make schools Education and Culture exercising control through
result-oriented. The three procedures utilized by education laws and guidelines. In Nigeria, the
governments to achieve reforms are legislative Federal Ministry of Education like in Cyprus
System, New Public Management (NPM) regulates and prescribes syllabi, textbooks,
strategy, and adopting Organisational Learning supervision of schools but not offering
(OL). In Europe, countries have made attempts opportunity for the teachers to develop their

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potential through initiative and local autonomy industrialized and want to dominate the world
like Cyprus. The Cyprus education system is commerce and trade, while CEECs are striving
centralized at the macro level but highly to be like them.
decentralized at the micro level.
In integrating features of bureaucratic
Under communism in Soviet Union, education administrative management and new site
was centralized, but with the advent of capitalism, management concept, each country must be
there was a change in nature which ushered in guided by their political, economic, cultural,
novel concepts on public-private partnership and beliefs, values and social needs. There is no
freedom. Thus, with capitalism, schools owned need for any country to copy a model of
by foreigners were thriving. Teachers were able governance that has worked in Western Europe,
to encourage independent thinking among as such may be genesis of conflict capable of
students. crippling the educational system. In the past, the
Romans utilize rhetoric's in their educational
In Nigeria, where there was no organized system to sustain their empire while discarding
leadership for prospective Principals, prolonged philosophy which was the ultimate in ancient
military rule, diarchy-sharing of power between Athens. The Romans discarded philosophy
civilians and soldiers, illiteracy has not been which was the ultimate aim of learning while
wiped out, hence adopting NPM, site based accepting rhetoric's, the act of public speaking.
management would be a disaster. The same The Roman educational system was centralized
thing is applicable to Egypt, Pakistan, and uniform in order to service the needs of an
Bangladesh and Ethiopia. Although the Egyptian empire, while in the city states of Athens, Sparta
Constitution guaranteed free and compulsory the basic education was decentralized. The issue
education, pupils living in penury received no is determining if one-size would fit all in
education at all. For those who attend schools governance of schools.
certified teachers are few and classrooms are
crowded. Consequently, one third of Egyptian Accountability as an integral part of the NPM with
men and over-half of Egyptian women are not the leave no-child-behind bill passed into law in
educated Henslin, [30]. These countries cannot 2002, became more necessary. It intends to
utilize NPM, Site based management, assess the academic performance of students
governance to administer their schools like through uniform standardized tests and
Britain, United States, and New Zealand, comparing the performance of various schools.
because of the level of illiteracy lack of Any school that fails to measure the proficiency
professional trained educational leadership, standard in a state of United States of America
there is no prolonged period of democratic for two years is subjected to sanctions and
culture, values and goals of education. The interventions. Brym and Lie, [10].
challenges for the educational leadership in
these countries is to blend OPA Features such 3. KNOWLEDGE AND LEARNING
as accountability, consistency, maintenance of MANAGEMENT
legal attributes of governance norms, integrity
with NPM, public private partnership, emphasis 3.1 The Need for Organization Learning
on standards and results, competition between for Schools
schools, outcome based assessment and
exposure of schools to public assessment. Organizational learning in the schools is the
beginning for establishing knowledge as a
Examining the criteria for adopting NPM, Central manageable asset and significant factor for the
and Eastern European countries need not to educational system, plans and rules. Knowledge
instill and accept it because it will jeopardize their and Learning Management (KALM) enables
educational policies. Eastern European teachers as individuals to be creative and at the
Countries (CEEC) like Poland, Slovak, Czech, same time utilize well known strategies to satisfy
Hungary, Romania, Serbio-Croatia and Slovenia heterogeneous learning and knowledge needs.
were under bureaucratized governments that
were not democratic for a long time, and the Knowledge is intricately linked to learning, as
aims envisaged for the schools was to serve for both cannot exist without the other. Organization
them were contradictions from those of the learning as explain by Fiol and Lyles [21] as the
Western European nations like Britain, France process of improving actions through better
and Germany. These nations are highly knowledge and understanding. It is in vogue

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because the wide acceptance of knowledge as a remedies of enhancing teaching, learning

major source of having an edge, the great outcomes and make the system proactive to the
pressure on the on the school as an organization needs of the nation.
to satisfy the yearnings and aspirations of the
stakeholders. Organizational learning has Learning organization theory was originally
become necessary for effective management of initiated by Arygris with his idea of single loop
schools, enhancing learning outcomes because and double loop learning. Single loop learning
of dissatisfaction of teachers, educational entails the organization actualizing the capacity
administrators, principals with the traditional to achieve specific purposes and goals. It is
control and management paradigm. It stresses linked with normal change and attributes learning.
learning management system with its vital Double loop learning assess the nature of the
features of systematic assessing competency, group, objectives, beliefs and norms around
problem solving skills and performance levels in them. This type of learning entails changing the
the educational systems by making strategic group’s culture and administration. Significantly,
information available. Organization learning is double loop of the organization is endeavouring
important as educational systems in United to learn through prior shared organizational
States of America, Britain, Japan, Singapore and memory. Marks and Louis [47].
Canada, have realized the need to nurture and
manage learning in their various countries. In contemporary times, Senge and his
colleagues showed various part of learning
Colleges and Institutions are learning organization through adaptive and continuous
organizations where members, teachers, and learning. The simple adaptive learning entails
school leaders continually increase their organization adapting to the environmental
capacities and potentials to create and achieve, changes. Example of adaptive learning is the
where current trends of thinking are encouraged, study of entrepreneurship education as a result
collective aspirations are train, and students of change in the Nigerian economy. However,
learn how to read together. The school leaders generative learning changes creativity, reforms,
perceive organizational learning as a problem solving skills and changes going beyond
collaborative capacity building process. The just adapting to change to being ahead of and
school as an organization also expands its expecting change. Example is the teaching
capacity for changes, innovations, prompt quick strategies that will enable people from inner
decision making, creativity and problem solving. cities, slums, inspite of English as a second
Kreither and Kinick, [14]; Young and King, [72]; language and deprived environments, enhance
Hoy and Miskel, [33]. their academic achievement.

Furthermore, Edano, Punzalan and Tumutod [18] 3.2 Characteristics of Learning

study indicated that the attributes of Organizations
transformational leadership style-inspirational
motivation, individual consideration, idealized The three characteristics of learning
influence were perceived to be always used. The organizations are:
school social organisational factors-teachers
certainty, shared goals, teachers collaboration i. The presence of tension and stress Senge
and commitment were perceived to always affect envisaged tension as aspect of creativity. It
school effectiveness. serves as a catalyst or motivational needs to
acquire knowledge. The tension originates from
Explaining learning organization clearly, the gap between the organizational vision which
Leithwood and Louis [42] and Hoy and Miskel, is hopefully always being adjusted upwards and
[33] see it as one which the followers, and the reality that the learning organization is
members pursue common purpose, objectives continually questioning and challenging the
with a collective commitment to routinely status quo.
assessing the value of those purposes,
modifying them when appropriate and continually ii. System characteristics of learning organization
developing more effective and efficient ways to recognize the shared imagination of teachers
achieve those goals. If schools in our educational through the entire education system and the
system must be effective learning organizations, openness to new ideas and the external
the distributed, visionary, transformational environment. School as learning organization
leadership must endeavour to find ways and possess features such as shared norms, values,

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focus on students, learning and achievement, take place in isolation. Hence Hopkins, Enskill
dialogue, de-privatization of practice and and West [32]; Dalin, [14], see school
collaboration. improvement as a strategy for educational
change that aid student learning outcomes as
iii. The fundamental next characteristic is the well as enhancing the school strength for
school culture favourable to learning. The culture managing change. It involves move raising
of the organization stresses higher values on the student academic performance through
course of learning and goes beyond mere token highlighting teaching, learning process and the
tune by putting up mechanisms in place for condition which prop it. It is the means of
suggestions, teams, empowerment and subtle improving the school capacity for making
but necessary empathy for the employees. available quality education in times of reforms
and change.
The effectiveness as reflected by the genuine
concern for and interest in employees (teachers) In contrast the research findings of Krier [39]
suggests an novel idea to augment the reward revealed no statistically significant effect for
system. In the past a Nigerian professor was either professional learning community, its
earning more than a permanent secretary, the subscales, or academic optimism on school level
highest civil servant and teachers were regarded academic achievement, only prior achievement
with awe and respect by the society Luthan [45]; had such an effect. This result was collaborated
Giles [22]. further by Almarshad [3] study that no
discernable differences with respect to the types
Knowledge and Learning Management (KALM) of leadership, instructional transformational and
will allow visionary educational administrators in distributed leadership on student academic
Nigeria to know the extent quality of teachers outcomes.
affect students, learning outcomes and
achievement more than other factors. For the K-12 school heads are the hub of school
nation to be a good performing state in improvement, aiding school effectiveness, and
knowledge management it is important to custodians of reforms. In the modern era
enhance the training, selection, retention, and educational administrators are ushering in radical
retraining, and personal emolument of the change rather than maintaining the existing
teachers. This creativity acquired from schools culture. In the past in contrast, they were
knowledge and learning management concept the gate keepers of the status quo, autocratic
was explained by Abdullah (2008) that the best managers of day to day business and benevolent
sl
performing countries in education like South despots. (The 21 Century Principal, [63].
Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Finland place
high value on teacher training, selection The pervasive education reforms, innovation like
procedure and retraining utilizing procedures like self management of schools, privatization of
peer sharing, mentoring and monitoring. In education, private-public involvement in funding,
addition, Abdullah notes that in Finland all newly free education, compulsory education and the
certified teachers need to have a higher degree. result oriented, qualitative education demand by
South Korea, Singapore and China recruited stakeholders have made the professionally
elementary school instructors from the top 5% of trained prepared school leaders inevitable. In
the best graduate cohorts, for however for addition, building a positive relationship between
Malaysia and Hong Kong it was 40% of the the school and the stakeholders is imperative for
outstanding scholars. school effectiveness and turning the schools into
professional learning communities. (Hargreaves
3.3 Human Resource Development: and Fink [28]; Blakesley [12].
Empowerment of School Managers,
Instructors and Institutional To enhance professional development of
Improvement teachers in Canada, professional retraining
workshop and policy base intervention to support
Professional coaching of instructors and school teachers and instructors in teaching indigenous
administrators have become imperative. In all content. Interventions often prioritize cultural
nations, the retraining of school leaders is safety to strengthening teaching practices and
necessary so that the teachers turn to agents of focus on addressing settler biases, racism and
change and transform themselves into leaders. harmful stereotypes. (Webb & Mashford-Pringle
Effective schools and learning outcomes cannot [65].

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To cope with the enormous reforms, innovations management of the Department of Education
in the educational system, continuous (DOE).
development of Principals have become
inevitable and continuous career circle Solomon Islands in the Southern Pacific in the
development is the only option instead of ad-hoc past appointed school principals from those who
staff development, Clatter [24], Fullan and are in deputy positions although a classroom
Hargreaves, [19]. teacher may be promoted to the position of a
school head. In the Solomon’s Island, University
Nations like Spain, Germany, Singapore, of Southern Pacific introduced the certificate in
Malaysia, Cyprus and Namibia, the professional school leadership and academic courses for
training of school leaders is rigidly satisfying the requirement of duty principals,
bureaucratized, need and demand driven. teachers who want be administrative heads,
Programmes are uniform, compulsory and Educational leaders and planners in the
assessment aspect fully monitored and Southern Hemesphere [64,67,68].
identifying the learning needs of the school head
in training necessary, Karajiorgt and Nicolaidou, Within Africa also, Namibia's professional
[37]. In the United States of America the training, development of schooI heads stress not only
licensing and professionalization of school provision and improvement of management,
leaders has been in existence for two centuries leadership skills and knowledge, but also attitude,
Brown, [9], and in the nation strong, robust problem solving skills and putting into action
training emphasis is laid on efficient funding what was learned (Clatter, [24]; Salazar [60];
patterns Goldstein, [26]. Other countries like Mushaandja, [50]. An effective professional
England, Britain, Scotland and New Zealand also development programme should emanate from
emphasize training on financial management as the needs assessment of the principals, identify
important. their professional needs and channel these
needs into professional training areas.
United Kingdom and New Zealand established
national colleges for school principal and national Turning educational institutions into a learning
institutes for quality teacher training respectively. organization and propagate changes need
These institutions were responsible for training proper articulation to be school administrators.
school leaders; their induction and putting in Hence Clatter [24] aptly hinted that the training
place the professional qualification for headship and professional development of school
of schools. principals should hinge on adequate period of
training that is also impactful. Furthermore, the
Sweden's professional development and training ought to relate to concrete ideas and
recruitment of school heads pass through a application of learning in collaboration with
rigorous and complex process. According to instructors.
Johansson [35], there is induction for new Principal succession has became a vital
appointed school Principals, a national challenge in the school system globally. Hence
professional development training after two years Lee [41] contented that succession planning was
on the job; continuous career development, a prerequisite for enhancing school improvement
through university based academic courses and for significant. Innovative schools desperately
elaborate unflinching support from professional need a quality succession plan to accelerate
association of school Principals. innovations. Integrate measures to identify
potential candidates early. Feedback is obtained
In South Africa, no teacher is eligible to be from the potential principal peers, subordinates,
recommended as a head teachers without supervisors and individuals who are human
compulsory professional certification. resource professionals within the school system
Implementation of South African National and outside, Partiff [56].
Professional qualification for Principalship is the
fundamental means of school improvement and To enhance the improvement in the learning
enhancing learning outcomes. Professional process , in the schools, and check wastage,
certification for school heads will ensure drop-out and drop-in, Rhodes and Brundrett [58],
professional competence, specialized knowledge explained that teachers with potentials need to
and skills. Westhuizen and Vuuren, [66]. The be valued and have strong ties in the educational
professional qualification is validated by national system when their own interest are aligned with
accreditation process under the control and that of the college and State and this will help in
their retention. In Rome, the teachers from

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 Mkpa and Anuna; Asian J. Sociol. Res., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 35-47, 2023; Article no.AJSR.937

Greece were greatly cherished by the citizens leadership and governance is to exploit
and Roman citizenship was given to them as strategies to aid learning instead of
compensation. Hence, teacher qualification is a strengthening the teaching process. It is
prerequisite for aiding effective school necessary to turn the folks, guardians, students,
improvement. The findings of a study by teachers, and professionals in the community
Darling-Hammond [15] indicate that policy into a professional learning community with each
investments in the quality of teachers may be group interacting to assist school effectiveness.
related to improvement in student performance. In short, one size is not appropriate for all
Quantitative analysis showed that the measures stakeholders. Self management that have
of teacher preparation and certification are by far worked in United States of America, Sweden,
the strongest correlates of achievement in Denmark and Netherlands will be a disaster if
reading and mathematics. utilize in Central Eastern European countries and
Africa. Acquiring alien models of governance
In Nigeria, there is no national education from developed nations will destroy the
leadership institute for grooming teachers for educational system of the nations trying to adopt
Principalship like in South Africa, Solomon or adapt them. Development of education
Islands and Namibia. What are in vogue and reveals that the Roman Empire never adopted
trend in Nigeria is adhoc seminars, workshops the Sparta and Athenian system but modified it
initiated by the National Institute of Educational to suit them. The trend is that every country in
Administration and Planning (NIEPA) for the world should allow needs of their economy,
Principals and educational Administrators. There values, their goals and philosophy of education
is no organized school leadership training for to dictate the appropriate leadership and
potential principal aspirants in Nigeria [59,61]. management models. Also, educational reforms,
Principals are selected from Vice-Principals and innovations take a long, incubation period and
tutors with many years experience as classroom must involve all stakeholders. It is important not
teachers. to rush into carrying out reforms without
consultation with parents, the community,
4. CONCLUSION instructors, and professional associations. Every
country must endeavour to turn teachers into
This paper has endeavoured to describe the learners and realize that school leaders are
various leadership models, assorted aspect of learners. Also, primary and high school leaders
administration, Old Public Administration need to know that to achieve continuous
(OPA), New Public Management (NPM) and improvement; they must build team commitment
Organizational Learning. Since aiding learning which is a prerequisite for the emergence of a
results depends on the school head, the learning organization. The Principals also should
Principal, continuous coaching and re-learning realize that for effective communication, star and
have become necessary, through internship and circle modes of communication are significant. It
mentoring. He needs to evolve a mental model of is also important for Principals to understand that
how to change a school into result oriented change process is important to sustain
institution where life-long learning is assured. continuous growth. As William, Brien and
Furthermore, another daunting task is for the Leblanc [58] argue that we need a learning
Principals to realize that only through distributed organisation approach to prepare our students
shared and cooperative leadership that they for this world. A final task is for the school
would put up vision, set goals, and change their leaders to know that political and bureaucratic
schools into a learning organization. To constraints are impediments to the school heads
achieve school effectiveness and enhance and the educational system.
academic achievement, the culture of
professional learning community must be COMPETING INTERESTS
entrenched. To ensure school improvement
there must be equitable distribution of human Authors have declared that no competing
and physical resources among schools. interests exist.
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