CLASE 9 and 10.

The United Nations and the United Nations System:

Introduction
I. SETTING UP OF THE UN

Antecedents → League of Nations Atlantic Charter (14/8/1941). There seems to be a slight confusion in your
question. The League of Nations and the Atlantic Charter are two distinct entities and events. The League of
Nations was established after World War I in 1920 with the aim of promoting international cooperation and
preventing future conflicts. However, it failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II, and its influence
declined over time. The League of Nations officially ceased its operations in 1946.

The Atlantic Charter, on the other hand, was a joint declaration issued by British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 14, 1941, during World War II. This charter
outlined the goals and principles that the Allies hoped to achieve after the war. It emphasized self-determination
for nations, free trade, disarmament, and the establishment of a post-war world order based on the rights of
individuals. The Atlantic Charter laid the groundwork for the creation of the United Nations after the war.

If you have specific questions about either the League of Nations or the Atlantic Charter, please feel free to ask
for more information.

Declaration by the United Nations (1/1/1942). The Declaration by the United Nations was a significant
document signed on January 1, 1942, during World War II. Representatives from 26 Allied nations gathered in
Washington, D.C., and pledged their commitment to the principles outlined in the Atlantic Charter. The term
"United Nations" was coined in this declaration, and it laid the foundation for the later establishment of the
United Nations organization. The signatories of the Declaration by United Nations pledged to uphold the
following principles:

1. The Four Freedoms: The document endorsed the principles of the Atlantic Charter, which included the
freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

2. No Separate Peace: The signatory nations agreed not to make a separate peace with the Axis powers and to
work together until victory was achieved.

3. Military and Economic Cooperation: The signatories committed to mutual assistance in military and
economic terms to defeat the common enemy.

The Declaration by the United Nations marked a significant moment in the collaboration of Allied nations
during World War II. The use of the term "United Nations" in this context eventually led to the adoption of the
name for the international organization founded in 1945, the United Nations, which continues its work to this
day.

Dumbarton Oaks Conference (8-10/1944). The Dumbarton Oaks Conference took place from August to
October 1944 and was a crucial diplomatic meeting during World War II. Representatives from the United
States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China gathered at the Dumbarton Oaks estate in Washington,
D.C., to discuss the framework for a new international organization that would maintain peace and security after
the war.

The conference laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United Nations. The delegates drafted
proposals for the structure of the organization, including the creation of a Security Council with both permanent
and non-permanent members, as well as the General Assembly. The Security Council was given the
responsibility to address threats to international peace and security, and it had the power to take enforcement
actions, including the use of military force if necessary. The Dumbarton Oaks proposals formed the basis for
further discussions at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 and the subsequent United Nations Conference on
International Organization in San Francisco in April 1945, where the final text of the United Nations Charter
was negotiated and adopted. The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, when the
Charter was ratified by the required number of nations.

Yalta Summit (1/1945). The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimea Conference, took place from
February 4 to 11, 1945, in the Livadia Palace in Yalta, Crimea. It was a crucial meeting during World War II
between the leaders of the three major Allied powers: Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom, Franklin D.
Roosevelt of the United States, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union. The Yalta Conference aimed to discuss
the post-war reorganization of Europe and the establishment of a new world order after the defeat of Nazi
Germany. Some key outcomes and agreements reached at the Yalta Summit include:

1. Occupation Zones in Germany: The Allied leaders discussed the division of Germany into four zones of
occupation, to be administered by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France.

2. Free Elections and Self-Determination: The leaders agreed to support the principle of free elections in
liberated European countries and to allow them to determine their own political future. This was aimed at
ensuring the independence and sovereignty of nations after the war.

3. United Nations: The Yalta Conference affirmed the commitment to the establishment of the United Nations,
building on the foundation laid during the earlier Dumbarton Oaks Conference. The leaders discussed the
structure and functioning of the future international organization.

4. Soviet Involvement in the Pacific War: In exchange for Soviet support against Japan in the Pacific War, the
Allies agreed to allow the Soviet Union to regain territories lost during the Russo-Japanese War, including the
Kuril Islands and parts of Sakhalin.

While the Yalta Conference achieved some important agreements, tensions between the Western Allies and the
Soviet Union were already beginning to emerge. The subsequent Cold War would see a breakdown in the
wartime alliance as ideological and geopolitical differences intensified.

San Francisco Conference ‘UNCIO’ (4-6/1945). The San Francisco Conference, officially known as the
United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), took place from April 25 to June 26, 1945,
in San Francisco, California. The conference brought together representatives from 50 Allied nations to draft
and negotiate the Charter of the United Nations. This charter established the structure and principles of the
United Nations (UN), an international organization intended to promote peace and cooperation among nations
after World War II. Key outcomes and features of the San Francisco Conference include:

1. Adoption of the United Nations Charter: The primary goal of the conference was to create a framework for a
new international organization. The delegates successfully negotiated and adopted the United Nations Charter,
which outlined the purposes, principles, and structure of the United Nations. The charter established the General
Assembly, the Security Council, the International Court of Justice, and other specialized agencies.

2. Universal Membership: Unlike its predecessor, the League of Nations, the United Nations aimed for broader
and more inclusive participation. The San Francisco Conference achieved a commitment to universal
membership, allowing any "peace-loving" nation to join the UN.

3. Security Council Composition: The Security Council, tasked with maintaining international peace and
security, was established with five permanent members (China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,
and the United States) and six non-permanent members. The veto power held by the permanent members
became a significant aspect of Security Council dynamics.

4. Ratification and Establishment of the United Nations: The United Nations Charter was signed on June 26,
1945, by the representatives of the participating nations. The charter came into effect on October 24, 1945,
officially marking the establishment of the United Nations.

The San Francisco Conference was a crucial diplomatic event that laid the foundation for the post-war
international order and the United Nations' role in promoting global cooperation and peace.

Signature of Charter on 26 June 1945 Entry into force: 24 October 1945. The United Nations Charter was
signed on June 26, 1945, by representatives of 50 countries during the United Nations Conference on
International Organization (UNCIO) in San Francisco. However, the Charter officially entered into force on
October 24, 1945, after being ratified by the required number of member states. This date is now celebrated
annually as United Nations Day. The United Nations was officially established on that day, marking the
beginning of its role in promoting international cooperation, peace, and security.

II. THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS

“We the peoples of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,
which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind".

The phrase is the opening line of the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations. This preamble articulates
the collective aspirations and objectives of the international community as embodied in the United Nations
Charter.

"We the peoples" signifies the collective will of the nations and their citizens who are coming together under the
United Nations. The phrase "determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war" expresses the
shared commitment to preventing future generations from experiencing the devastating impacts of war.

The preamble acknowledges that war has brought "untold sorrow to mankind" in the past, referring to the two
World Wars that occurred in the lifetime of those drafting the Charter (World War I and World War II). The use
of the term "scourge of war" emphasizes the destructive and widespread nature of armed conflicts, and the
determination to prevent their recurrence. The reference to "succeeding generations" underscores the idea that
the actions taken by the United Nations are not only for the benefit of the current generation but are intended to
create a lasting foundation for peace and security for future generations.

In summary, this opening statement in the Preamble reflects a collective resolve among nations to work together
through the United Nations to prevent the tragedy of war, promote peace, and create a better, more secure world
for present and future generations.

III. OBJECTIVES

1) Maintain international peace and security. 2) Develop friendly relations among nations based on
respect for the principle of equal rights and self determination of peoples. 3) Achieve international
cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character
and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights. 4) Be a centre for harmonizing the actions
of nations.

The Charter of the United Nations outlines the purposes and principles of the organization. According to the
Charter, the main purposes of the United Nations, as stated in its Preamble and Article 1, include:

1. Maintenance of International Peace and Security: The primary purpose of the United Nations is to maintain
international peace and security. The organization seeks to prevent the occurrence of conflicts, facilitate peaceful
resolution of disputes, and take collective measures to address threats to peace.

2. Promotion of Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among Nations: The UN is committed to fostering friendly
relations and cooperation among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination
of peoples. It aims to promote understanding and goodwill among different countries and cultures.

3. Promotion of Human Rights: The Charter affirms the commitment to promoting and encouraging respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion. The UN
has played a significant role in the development and promotion of international human rights standards.

4. International Cooperation in Solving International Problems: The UN is designed to be a forum for

international cooperation in addressing global challenges. It provides a platform for nations to work together in
addressing issues such as poverty, disease, climate change, and more.

5. Harmonizing the Actions of Nations: The Charter aims to coordinate and harmonize the actions of nations to
achieve common goals. This involves promoting collective efforts in areas such as economic development,
social progress, and the settlement of international disputes.

6. Respect for International Law: The UN is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its member
states. It promotes adherence to international law and encourages nations to fulfill their obligations under
treaties and agreements.

These purposes reflect the core principles upon which the United Nations was founded, emphasizing the
importance of international cooperation, peace, human rights, and the rule of law in the global community. The
Charter provides the framework for the functioning of the United Nations and guides its work in addressing a
wide range of global issues.

IV. PRINCIPLES

1) Sovereign equality of Members 2) Good faith obligation Members 3) Pacific settlement of disputes
4) Refrain from threat or use of force 5) Give UN necessary assistance 6) UN shall ensure
non-members act accordingly 7) No intervention in matters ‘essentially within domestic jurisdiction’.

The Charter of the United Nations outlines several fundamental principles that guide the actions and conduct of
the organization and its member states. These principles are articulated in various articles of the Charter. Here
are some of the key principles:

1. Sovereign Equality: All member states, large or small, have equal sovereignty. They are equal members of the
international community and are entitled to the rights and responsibilities outlined in the Charter.

2. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: Member states are obligated to settle their international disputes by peaceful
means and avoid the threat or use of force. The Security Council may take action to maintain or restore
international peace and security.

3. Non-Interference in Domestic Affairs: The Charter upholds the principle of non-interference in the domestic
affairs of member states. Each state has the right to choose its political, economic, and social systems without
external interference.

4. Respect for Human Rights: The Charter is committed to promoting and encouraging respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion.

5. Self-Determination of Peoples: The Charter recognizes the right of all peoples to self-determination. This
principle aims to allow communities to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social,
and cultural development.

6. Cooperation in Solving International Problems: Member states are encouraged to cooperate in solving
international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems and to promote respect for international law.

7. Collective Security: The Charter establishes the concept of collective security, wherein member states agree
to take joint action in response to threats to peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression. The Security
Council plays a central role in maintaining international peace and security.

8. Good Faith in International Relations: Member states are expected to fulfill their international obligations in
good faith, and they are required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council.

9. Universal Membership:** The Charter is based on the principle of universal membership, allowing any
"peace-loving" state to become a member of the United Nations.

These principles collectively form the foundation of the United Nations and guide its activities and member
states in their interactions with each other. They are intended to promote cooperation, peace, and the well-being
of humanity on a global scale.

V. MEMBERSHIP

Original Members (Art 3) and “all other peace-lovingstates” (Art 4) (cf “membership”) Admission:
decision UNGA upon recommendationUNSC (cf “membership” and ICJ advisory opinions) Growth in
membership: 1945: 51 1970: 127 2002: 191 1950: 60 1975: 144 2006: 192 1955: 76 1980: 154 2011:
193 1960: 99 1990: 159 1965: 117 1993: 184.

The original members of the United Nations were the 51 countries that signed the UN Charter in San Francisco
on June 26, 1945. Since the founding of the UN, many countries have joined the organization by applying for
membership. Admission to the United Nations is decided by a two-thirds majority vote in the General Assembly
upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
Some entities and territories that are not fully recognized as sovereign states may have observer status or
participate in the work of the UN in some capacity. They are not full members but have a limited role. In certain
situations, the General Assembly can suspend the rights of membership or expel a member state if it seriously
violates the principles of the UN Charter. However, this is a rare occurrence.

The process of becoming a member involves submitting an application to the Secretary-General and a
recommendation from the Security Council. The application is then considered by the General Assembly, where
a two-thirds majority is required for admission.

VI. ORGANS

Principal organs. 1. General Assembly (UNGA) 2. Security Council (UNSC) 3. Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC) 4. Trusteeship Council 5. International Court of Justice (ICJ) 6. Secretariat
Subsidiary organs.

1. General Assembly (GA): The General Assembly is the main deliberative and policy making organ of the UN.
It provides a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate on international issues. All UN member states
are represented in the General Assembly, and each state has one vote.

2. Security Council (SC): The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It
has the authority to take action, including the use of force, to address threats to peace. It consists of 15 members,
including five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) with
veto power, and ten non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.

3. International Court of Justice (ICJ): The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the
UN. It settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred by the
General Assembly, the Security Council, or other UN organs. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges elected by the
General Assembly and the Security Council.

4. Secretariat: The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN. It is headed by the Secretary-General,
who is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The
Secretary-General is assisted by various departments and offices.

5. International Trusteeship System (Part XIV): This system was designed to oversee and administer trust
territories, territories that were not fully self-governing. However, this system has largely been phased out as
trust territories achieved independence.

6. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): ECOSOC is responsible for promoting international economic and
social cooperation and development. It coordinates the work of 15 specialized agencies, functional
commissions, and five regional commissions. ECOSOC has 54 members elected by the General Assembly.

These organs work together to implement the principles and purposes outlined in the UN Charter. Each organ
has specific functions and powers, and they collaborate to address a wide range of global challenges and
promote international cooperation.

VII. FINANCING OF THE UN

“The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly”
(Art. 17(2) UN Charter). This statement is a provision outlined in the Charter of the United Nations. This
provision addresses the financial arrangements within the United Nations and how the costs of running the
organization are shared among its member states. Here's an explanation of the key elements:

1. Expenses of the Organization: This refers to the costs associated with running and maintaining the United
Nations, including funding its various programs, agencies, peacekeeping missions, and other activities aimed at
fulfilling the organization's purposes and functions.
2. Borne by the Members: The financial responsibility for covering the expenses lies with the member states of
the United Nations. Member states are expected to contribute funds to support the organization's activities.

3. Apportioned by the General Assembly: The General Assembly, as the main deliberative and policymaking
organ of the United Nations, is responsible for determining how the financial burden should be shared among
the member states. The term "apportioned" means that the General Assembly allocates or divides the financial
responsibilities among the member states based on a certain formula or criteria.

The formula for apportionment takes into account the capacity of each member state to contribute financially. It
considers factors such as the country's economy, wealth, and income. The General Assembly adopts a regular
budget for the United Nations, and the financial contributions of member states are determined based on this
budget. In addition to the regular budget, there may be assessments for specific peacekeeping operations or
other special programs, and these are also apportioned among member states. The process of apportionment
allows for a fair and equitable distribution of financial responsibilities among member states, taking into
consideration the principle of sovereign equality.

Overall, the financial arrangements outlined in this provision ensure that member states contribute to the
expenses of the United Nations in a manner that reflects their respective capacities to support the organization's
work. The General Assembly plays a central role in determining how these financial contributions are
apportioned.

UN Secretary General prepares budget (Art. 97 UN Charter). UNGA determines the amount of money to be
assessed to finance the approved appropriation, based on work Fifth Committee UN budget and finances
include:

Programme budget ("regular budget") financed by Member States according to Scale of assessments.
Peacekeeping operations budgets financed by Member States according to Peacekeeping scale of
assessments. Voluntary, extrabudgetary, and in-kind contributions.

NB: UN Funds, Programmes and Specialized Agencies have their own governing bodies that approve
budgets and financing.

As part of UNSG management reforms, UN now approves annual budgets (in past: bi-annual) (December 2022:
definitive change) Regular budget for 2023: nearly $3,4 billion USD (3 396 308.300). Assessed contributions
UN MS: Min. 0.001 %, max. for LDC 0.01 %, max. 22 %• US (22%), China (15,254%), Japan (8,033%),
Germany (6,111%), UK (4,375%), France (4,318%), Italy (3,189%), Brazil (2,013%), Canada (2,628%), Russia
(1,866%), Korea (2,574%), Australia (2,111%), Spain (2,134%) [PM: India: 1,044%; South Africa: 0,244%;
Belgium 0,828%; NL 1,377%] EU MSt contribute nearly 40% UN budget Peacekeeping Operations
1/7/2023-30/6/2024 $6.1 billion.

VIII. THE UN DURING THE COLD WAR

The United Nations (UN) played a significant role during the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension and
ideological rivalry between the United States and its allies (the Western bloc) and the Soviet Union and its allies
(the Eastern bloc) from the late 1940s to the early 1990s. Here are some key aspects of the UN's involvement
during the Cold War:

(1945-1950s) The UN was established in 1945, just after World War II, with the primary goal of maintaining
international peace and security. The Security Council, one of the main organs of the UN, became a focal point
during the early Cold War years. The Security Council's five permanent members (the United States, the Soviet
Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China) held veto power, leading to frequent standoffs and limitations
on the Council's ability to take decisive action.

(1950-1953) The Korean War, which began in 1950, was one of the first major conflicts of the Cold War. The
UN Security Council authorized the use of force to repel North Korean aggression against South Korea. A UN
Command, led by the United States, intervened in the conflict. The involvement of the UN in the Korean War
marked a significant test of its ability to address international conflicts. However, the political divisions between
the major powers persisted, hindering the UN's effectiveness. During the Cold War, many former colonies
gained independence, and a significant number of new member states joined the UN. The decolonization
process often led to debates within the UN on issues related to self-determination and human rights. The UN
conducted various peacekeeping operations during the Cold War, including missions in the Middle East, Cyprus,
and the Congo. These operations aimed to prevent or resolve conflicts and were often conducted in the context
of Cold War rivalries.

(1962) The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear war.
The UN played a role in facilitating communication between the two superpowers, helping to defuse the crisis.
The General Assembly became a forum for debates and resolutions reflecting the ideological divisions of the
Cold War. Resolutions on issues such as disarmament, human rights, and decolonization often reflected the
geopolitical alignments of the time.

(1989-1991) The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc in the late
1980s and early 1990s. The UN played a role in facilitating the transition and supporting diplomatic efforts to
manage the post-Cold War world.

Throughout the Cold War, the UN faced challenges due to the deep divisions among its major members.
However, it also served as a platform for dialogue, conflict resolution, and cooperation in various regions,
contributing to the prevention of wider global conflicts. The end of the Cold War opened up new opportunities
for the UN to address global challenges in a changed geopolitical landscape.

Decolonization (>80 colonies). Splits in UNSC Korea crisis – ‘Uniting for Peace’ 1950. Suez Canal crisis 1956
Cuban Missile crisis 1963 Peacekeeping “Chapter Six-and-a-Half” Middle East UNSC Res. 242(1967) South
Africa (1963/’77).

The term "Chapter Six-and-a-Half" is not a formal classification within the United Nations Charter but
is sometimes informally used to describe a particular type of peacekeeping mission that falls between
traditional Chapter VI and Chapter VII operations. This concept is often associated with United
Nations Security Council Resolution 242 (UNSC Resolution 242) and the peacekeeping efforts in the
Middle East. UNSC Resolution 242 was adopted on November 22, 1967, in the aftermath of the
Six-Day War between Israel and its neighboring Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, and Syria). The resolution
is considered one of the key frameworks for achieving a comprehensive and lasting peace in the Middle
East.

The resolution emphasizes two main principles → It calls for Israel to withdraw from territories
occupied during the Six-Day War. It emphasizes the need for recognition of the sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and political independence of every state in the region, including Israel, and their right to live
in peace within secure and recognized boundaries.

The term "Chapter Six-and-a-Half" is often used to describe peacekeeping efforts that involve a mix of
traditional peacekeeping (Chapter VI) and enforcement measures (Chapter VII). In the context of
UNSC Resolution 242, it implies a peacekeeping mission that aims to facilitate the withdrawal of
Israeli forces from the occupied territories and contribute to the establishment of a just and lasting
peace. The UN Emergency Force II (UNEF II), established in 1973 after the Yom Kippur War, is an
example often associated with this concept. UNEF II was tasked with supervising the implementation
of the ceasefires and disengagement agreements between Israel and Egypt, as well as Israel and Syria.
In essence, the term "Chapter Six-and-a-Half" reflects the nuanced nature of certain peacekeeping
missions that go beyond the traditional observer roles of Chapter VI but fall short of the robust
enforcement measures outlined in Chapter VII. The peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, especially
related to UNSC Resolution 242, illustrate the complexity of balancing peacekeeping and peacemaking
objectives in the pursuit of regional stability and security.

IX. RENEWAL AND CHANGE

Persian Gulf war (1991): Chapter VII works. The rise of peacekeeping operations.

The Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War or Operation Desert Storm, was a conflict that took
place in 1990-1991 between Iraq and a coalition of countries led by the United States. The war was
triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait,
citing historical and economic reasons. The international community condemned the invasion,
considering it a violation of Kuwait's sovereignty. The United Nations Security Council passed a series
of resolutions demanding Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait. The most significant of these was UN
 Security Council Resolution 678, which authorized the use of force to uphold previous resolutions if
Iraq did not withdraw by a specified deadline. A coalition of countries, led by the United States and
comprising nations from various regions, was formed to enforce the UN resolutions. The coalition
included countries from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.

The coalition launched a massive air campaign, followed by a ground assault to liberate Kuwait. The
air campaign, known as Operation Desert Storm, aimed to weaken Iraq's military capabilities. The
ground assault, which began in February 1991, quickly overwhelmed Iraqi forces. The coalition
liberated Kuwait, and Iraq accepted a ceasefire on February 28, 1991. The Gulf War ended with a
ceasefire agreement brokered by the United Nations. Economic sanctions were imposed on Iraq, and
no-fly zones were established in northern and southern Iraq to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations.
While the coalition achieved its immediate goal of liberating Kuwait, some issues remained
unresolved, and tensions in the region persisted. The Gulf War set the stage for subsequent events in
the Middle East, including the Iraq War of 2003.

The Persian Gulf War had a significant impact on regional geopolitics and international relations. It
marked a rare instance of a coordinated international response to aggression under the framework of
the United Nations.

An Agenda for Peace (1992).

"An Agenda for Peace'' is a report presented by the-United Nations Secretary-General Boutros
Boutros-Ghali in 1992. The report addressed the changing global political landscape in the post-Cold
War era and proposed measures to strengthen the United Nations' ability to prevent and resolve
conflicts. It emphasized the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to peacekeeping and
conflict prevention.

The report stressed the importance of preventing conflicts before they escalate into violence. It
advocated for early and proactive diplomatic efforts to address underlying issues and tensions. "An
Agenda for Peace" highlighted the need for effective peacemaking efforts, including mediation,
negotiation, and diplomatic initiatives, to resolve ongoing conflicts. The report called for a
reinvigorated and more robust approach to peacekeeping. It emphasized the importance of having
well-trained and adequately equipped peacekeeping forces capable of maintaining and monitoring
ceasefires. Recognizing the long-term challenges after conflicts, the report underscored the importance
of post-conflict peacebuilding efforts. This includes rebuilding institutions, promoting economic
development, and supporting social reconciliation. The report addressed the humanitarian aspects of
conflicts, emphasizing the need for timely and effective humanitarian assistance to alleviate the
suffering of affected populations. Boutros-Ghali highlighted the necessity of coordination and
cooperation among the international community, regional organizations, and the UN in addressing
global security challenges.

"An Agenda for Peace" was influential in shaping the UN's approach to conflict resolution and
peacekeeping in the post-Cold War era. It laid the groundwork for subsequent discussions on
peacekeeping reform and the need for a more comprehensive and multidimensional approach to
maintaining international peace and security. The report has had a lasting impact on the evolution of
UN peacekeeping operations and conflict prevention strategies.

Debacles in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia, Rwanda Brahimi Report (2000) and follow-up High-Level
Independent Panel on Peace Operations (HIPPO) Report (2015).

The Brahimi Report (2000) and the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (HIPPO)
Report (2015) are two significant documents in the realm of United Nations peacekeeping operations.
These reports were responses to challenges and failures experienced in various peacekeeping missions,
including those in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia, and Rwanda.

The Brahimi Report, officially titled "Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations," was
commissioned in response to the failures and challenges faced by UN peacekeeping operations during
the 1990s, particularly in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia, and Rwanda.
 The report emphasized the importance of clear and unified command structures in peacekeeping
operations to enhance effectiveness. It recommended that peacekeeping missions should have realistic
and achievable mandates, with a focus on protecting civilians and maintaining a secure environment.
The report highlighted the need for rapid deployment of peacekeeping forces to prevent a security
vacuum and escalation of violence. The importance of well-trained and well-equipped peacekeeping
forces was underscored to ensure their ability to handle complex and challenging situations.The
Brahimi Report emphasized the importance of a strong civilian component in peacekeeping missions,
including political, humanitarian, and development elements.

The HIPPO Report was commissioned to conduct a comprehensive review of UN peacekeeping

operations in response to evolving global challenges and the changing nature of conflicts.

The report stressed the importance of prioritizing political solutions in peacekeeping, with a focus on
conflict prevention and resolution. It recommended that peacekeeping missions should be adaptable
and flexible, capable of responding to changing circumstances on the ground. The report highlighted
the potential role of technology and innovation in enhancing the effectiveness of peacekeeping
operations. The inclusion and empowerment of women in peacekeeping operations were emphasized as
crucial for success. The report called for stronger partnerships between the UN and regional
organizations, as well as the inclusion of troop-contributing countries in decision-making processes.

Both reports contributed significantly to the evolution of UN peacekeeping doctrine and practices,
aiming to address the shortcomings and challenges identified in earlier missions like those in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Somalia, and Rwanda. They played pivotal roles in shaping the UN's approach to
peacekeeping in the 21st century.

The Kosovo crisis – Kofi Annan’s ‘two concepts of sovereignty’ (1999).

The Kosovo crisis of 1999 was a conflict between Yugoslav forces under President Slobodan Milosevic
and ethnic Albanian rebels seeking independence in the Kosovo region. The crisis led to a military
intervention by NATO, marking a significant moment in the discussion of humanitarian intervention
and the evolving concept of sovereignty. Kofi Annan, then Secretary-General of the United Nations,
addressed the issue in a speech at the University of Chicago on April 12, 1999.

In his speech, Kofi Annan discussed what came to be known as the "two concepts of sovereignty." He
acknowledged the traditional understanding of sovereignty as the inviolable authority of states over
their own territory and internal affairs. However, he argued for a broader perspective that recognized
the need for a balance between state sovereignty and the international community's responsibility to
protect civilians in cases of gross human rights violations.

Annan acknowledged the importance of traditional sovereignty as a fundamental principle of

international relations. This concept implies that states have the exclusive right to govern their own
territories without external interference. Annan argued for a broader interpretation of sovereignty that
considered the responsibility of the international community to protect individuals from grave human
rights abuses. He stated that sovereignty should not be viewed as a license for governments to mistreat
their own citizens, and the international community had a responsibility to act in cases of humanitarian
crises. Kofi Annan emphasized the need for international action in situations where governments
engaged in widespread human rights abuses against their own populations. He suggested that the
principle of non-intervention should not be absolute and unconditional, particularly when civilians
were at risk. Annan stressed the importance of addressing such crises through multilateral action and
within the framework of international law. The use of force should be authorized by the United Nations
Security Council whenever possible.

The Kosovo crisis and Kofi Annan's speech contributed to the ongoing debate about the balance
between state sovereignty and the international community's responsibility to protect civilians in the
face of gross human rights violations. The ideas expressed by Annan reflected a shift toward
recognizing a more nuanced and conditional understanding of sovereignty in the context of evolving
global norms and expectations regarding the protection of human rights.

The Millenium Declaration and Millenium Development Goals (2000) → Eradicate extreme poverty and
hunger. Achieve universal primary education. Promote gender equality. Reduce child mortality. Improve
maternal health. Combat HIV/Aids, malaria, and other diseases. Secure environmental sustainability. Develop a
global partnership for development.
The era of UN world conferences → Children, NY (1990). Earth Summit, Rio (1992), Rio+20 (2012). Human
Rights, Vienna (1993). Population, Bucharest (1974), Mexico (1984), Cairo (1994). Social development,
Copenhagen (1995). Women (1975, 1980, 1985, 1995: Beijng + 5-yearly reviews). Habitat I (1976), II (1996),
III (Quito, 2016). Racism, Durban I (2001), II (2009), High-Level Meeting Sept. 2011. Least-Developed
Countries III (2001), IV (2011). Financing for development, Monterrey (2002), Addis Ababa (2015).
Information society, WSIS (Geneva 2003, Tunis 2005, NY 2015). Disaster risk reduction, Yokohama (1994),
Kobe (2005), Sendai (2015). Iraq crisis 2003, ‘Fork in the road’. High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and
Change (Dec. 2004). In Larger Freedom, UNSG (March 2005). Millenium+5 Summit – Outcome Document
(Sept. 2005). The ‘responsibility to protect’ (‘R2P’). Main institutional reforms Peacebuilding Commission
Human Rights Council UN Women UNEP.

The era of UN world conferences refers to a period during the 1990s when a series of major
international conferences were convened under the auspices of the United Nations. These conferences
covered a wide range of global issues, including human rights, development, women's rights,
population, social development, and environmental sustainability. The conferences aimed to address
pressing global challenges and promote international cooperation to achieve common goals. Several
key UN world conferences took place during this era:

1. World Summit for Children (1990): This conference focused on child survival, protection, and development.
The participants adopted the World Declaration on the Survival, Protection, and Development of Children and a
Plan of Action.

2. International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) - Cairo, 1994: The ICPD emphasized a
comprehensive approach to population issues, linking population and development. It highlighted issues such as
reproductive health, gender equality, and the empowerment of women. The conference adopted the Programme
of Action.

3. World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen, 1995): This conference aimed to address social
challenges and promote social integration, poverty eradication, and employment. The outcome was the
Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action.

4. Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995): The Beijing Conference was a landmark event for
advancing women's rights. The conference adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, which
outlined critical areas for action to achieve gender equality and women's empowerment.

5. Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II - Istanbul, 1996): Focused on urban
issues, this conference aimed to promote sustainable urban development. The outcome was the Istanbul
Declaration on Human Settlements and the Habitat Agenda.

6. World Food Summit (Rome, 1996): This summit addressed global food security and hunger. The participants
adopted the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action.

7. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, 1997): While not a
traditional world conference, the Kyoto Protocol aimed to address climate change by setting targets for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.

These conferences marked a significant period of global cooperation and consensus-building. They
provided platforms for member states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and other stakeholders to discuss and negotiate solutions to pressing global challenges. The
outcomes of these conferences laid the groundwork for international agreements, action plans, and
frameworks that continue to shape global policies and initiatives in the areas addressed by each
conference.

Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, New York, 25 September 2015.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015-30. “people, planet, prosperity, peace, partnership”. 17
Sustainable Development Goals with 169 “integrated and indivisible” associated targets. “a comprehensive,
far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative Goals and targets. We commit ourselves to
working tirelessly for the full implementation of this Agenda by 2030”. “We resolve, between now and 2030, to
end poverty and hunger everywhere; to combat inequalities within and among countries; to build peaceful, just
and inclusive societies; to protect human rights and promote gender equality and the empowerment of women
and girls; and to ensure the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources. We also resolve to create
conditions for sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all,
taking into account different levels of national development and capacities”.

"Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" is a landmark document
adopted by the United Nations on September 25, 2015. The agenda represents a comprehensive and
ambitious global commitment to address a wide range of sustainable development challenges. The
adoption of this agenda took place during the UN Sustainable Development Summit held in New York.
The agenda consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals, each with specific targets and indicators.
These goals are designed to address social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable
development. They replace and expand upon the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were in
place from 2000 to 2015. Unlike the MDGs, which primarily targeted developing countries, the SDGs
are universal and apply to all countries, recognizing that sustainable development is a shared
responsibility of all nations.

The 2030 Agenda is organized around five core principles or pillars: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace,
and Partnership. These pillars highlight the interconnectedness of social, economic, and environmental
dimensions, as well as the importance of global collaboration. A central theme of the agenda is the
commitment to leaving no one behind. This emphasizes the importance of reaching the most vulnerable
and marginalized populations to ensure that the benefits of development are inclusive. The agenda
recognizes the importance of financing, technology transfer, capacity-building, and partnerships in
achieving the SDGs. A separate section outlines the means of implementation to support the realization
of the goals. The 2030 Agenda includes a commitment to a robust follow-up and review process. This
involves periodic assessments of progress at the global, regional, and national levels, promoting
transparency and accountability. The timeline for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda is set for 15
years, from 2016 to 2030. This extended timeframe allows for sustained efforts to achieve the
ambitious goals.

The adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development marked a significant milestone in
global efforts to address poverty, inequality, environmental degradation, and other pressing challenges.
The SDGs provide a comprehensive framework that guides national and international development
policies, programs, and partnerships, fostering a holistic and integrated approach to sustainable
development.

Our vision: In these Goals and targets, we are setting out a supremely ambitious and transformational vision.
We envisage a world free of poverty, hunger, disease and want, where all life can thrive. We envisage a world
free of fear and violence. A world with universal literacy. A world with equitable and universal access to quality
education at all levels, to health care and social protection, where physical, mental and social well-being are
assured. A world where we reaffirm our commitments regarding the human right to safe drinking water and
sanitation and where there is improved hygiene; and where food is sufficient, safe, affordable and nutritious.

A world where human habitats are safe, resilient and sustainable and where there is universal access to
affordable, reliable and sustainable energy. We envisage a world of universal respect for human rights and
human dignity, the rule of law, justice, equality and non-discrimination; of respect for race, ethnicity and cultural
diversity; and of equal opportunity permitting the full realization of human potential and contributing to shared
prosperity. A world which invests in its children and in which every child grows up free from violence and
exploitation. A world in which every woman and girl enjoys full gender equality and all legal, social and
economic barriers to their empowerment have been removed. A just, equitable, tolerant, open and socially
inclusive world in which the needs of the most vulnerable are met. We envisage a world in which every country
enjoys sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and decent work for all.

A world in which consumption and production patterns and use of all natural resources – from air to land, from
rivers, lakes and aquifers to oceans and seas - are sustainable. One in which democracy, good governance and
the rule of law as well as an enabling environment at national and international levels, are essential for
sustainable development, including sustained and inclusive economic growth, social development,
environmental protection and the eradication of poverty and hunger. One in which development and the
application of technology are climate-sensitive, respect biodiversity and are resilient. One in which humanity
lives in harmony with nature and in which wildlife and other living species are protected.

DOS DIAPOSITIVAS FOTO

X. PRINCIPAL ORGANS
X.1. GENERAL ASSEMBLY (UNGA)

All UN Member States, one country-one vote Regular sessions (Sept-Dec); special sessions Extensive
competences: ‘any matters’ < Charter, + recommendations on peace and security 6 ‘main committees’:
1: Disarmament and International Security Committee 2: Economic and Financial Committee 3: Social,
Humanitarian and Cultural Committee 4: Special Political and Decolonization Committee 5:
Administrative and Budgetary Committee 6: Legal Committee.

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) is one of the six main organs of the United Nations and serves
as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative body of the organization. It is composed of all 193
member states of the United Nations and meets annually in regular sessions, with additional special sessions as
needed.

All UN member states are represented in the General Assembly, and each member has one vote. It is a universal
body, and decisions on most issues are made by a two-thirds majority. However, certain important decisions,
such as amendments to the UN Charter or budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of those present and
voting, as well as the affirmative votes of a majority of the total membership. The UNGA holds regular sessions
that typically begin in September and conclude in December. During these sessions, member states address a
wide range of international issues, including peace and security, development, human rights, and international
law. The General Assembly may also convene special sessions in response to specific needs or crises. The
UNGA agenda includes a broad range of topics, and member states have the opportunity to present their views
on global issues. Major agenda items often include reports from the Security Council, the Economic and Social
Council, and other UN bodies.

The presidency of the General Assembly rotates annually among the five regional groups: African, Asian,
Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean, and Western European and Others. The President of the
General Assembly is elected by member states for a one-year term. The UNGA works through various
committees and subsidiary bodies to address specific issues. These include the First Committee (Disarmament
and International Security), the Second Committee (Economic and Financial), the Third Committee (Social,
Humanitarian, and Cultural), and the Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization), among others.
The General Assembly adopts resolutions on a wide range of issues. While these resolutions are not legally
binding, they carry significant political weight and often set the tone for international action. The UNGA can
convene special sessions to address urgent matters. Special sessions are not part of the regular annual sessions
and are called as needed.

The General Assembly provides a forum for member states to discuss and coordinate on global issues, express
their views, and adopt resolutions that guide the work of the United Nations. It plays a crucial role in fostering
international cooperation and collaboration to address the challenges facing the world.

Groups and blocks in the UNGA 5 regional groups: African Group (54) Asia-Pacific Group (53)
Eastern European Group (23) Latin American and the Caribbean Group (GRULAC, 33) Western
European and Other Group (WEOG, 28 + 1 observer) G-77 (134) NAM (120, 18 obs).

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) consists of various regional groups and blocs, which are
instrumental in organizing the work of the General Assembly, nominating candidates for elective offices, and
coordinating positions on various issues. Here are some of the major regional groups and blocs in the UNGA:

1. African Group (54 countries): This group represents the interests of African member states. It plays a crucial
role in coordinating African positions on matters discussed in the General Assembly.

2. Asia-Pacific Group (53 countries): Comprising countries from the Asia-Pacific region, this group collaborates
on regional and global issues, ensuring a coordinated approach to matters before the General Assembly.
3. Eastern European Group (23 countries): This group represents the interests of Eastern European member
states. It helps facilitate regional collaboration and consultation on relevant issues.

4. Latin American and the Caribbean Group (GRULAC, 33 countries): GRULAC represents the countries from
Latin America and the Caribbean. It serves as a forum for member states to coordinate their positions on matters
before the General Assembly.

5. Western European and Other Group (WEOG, 28 countries + 1 observer): WEOG is a diverse group that
includes Western European countries, as well as some countries from other regions. It plays a significant role in
coordinating positions and nominating candidates for elective offices.

6. Group of 77 (G-77, 134 countries): The G-77 is a coalition of developing countries, originally established to
promote their collective economic interests. It has since become an influential bloc in the UNGA, advocating for
issues related to development, trade, and finance.

7. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM, 120 countries + 18 observers): NAM is a movement of countries that are not
formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. It was initially focused on issues of decolonization and
opposition to imperialism. NAM continues to play a role in advocating for the interests of its diverse
membership.

These regional groups and blocs are important for the organization of the General Assembly's work, including
the allocation of seats in committees and the nomination of candidates for various positions within the UN
system. They also provide a platform for member states to coordinate and present common positions on global
issues. Additionally, the regional groups facilitate cooperation and consultation among member states with
similar regional and developmental concerns.

Division of regional groups in UNSC, ECOSOC and Human Rights Council. FOTO

The division of regional groups is important in various United Nations bodies, including the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC), the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), and the United
Nations Human Rights Council (HRC). Here's a breakdown of the regional groups in each of these bodies:

United Nations Security Council (UNSC): 1. African Group: Comprising 3 seats (currently held by Kenya,
Niger, and Tunisia). 2. Asia-Pacific Group: Comprising 2 seats (currently held by India and Vietnam). 3. Eastern
European Group: Comprising 1 seat (currently held by the Russian Federation). 4. Latin American and
Caribbean Group (GRULAC): Comprising 2 seats (currently held by Mexico and Brazil). 5. Western European
and Others Group (WEOG): Comprising 2 seats (currently held by France and the United States).

United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): 1. African Group: Comprising 14 seats. 2.
Asia-Pacific Group: Comprising 11 seats. 3. Eastern European Group: Comprising 6 seats. 4. Latin American
and Caribbean Group (GRULAC): Comprising 10 seats. 5. Western European and Others Group (WEOG):
Comprising 13 seats.

United Nations Human Rights Council (HRC): 1. African Group: Comprising 13 seats. 2. Asia-Pacific
Group: Comprising 13 seats. 3. Eastern European Group: Comprising 6 seats. 4. Latin American and Caribbean
Group (GRULAC): Comprising 8 seats. 5. Western European and Others Group (WEOG): Comprising 7 seats.

These regional groups play a crucial role in the allocation of seats and positions within these UN bodies. They
also help facilitate regional consultations and coordination on various issues. It's important to note that these
allocations may change, as elections and rotations occur periodically. The distribution of seats is aimed at
ensuring geographical representation and a balanced participation of member states from different regions in the
decision-making processes of these UN bodies.

X.2. SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC)

“Primary responsibility” for maintenance of international peace and security 15 members, 5 permanent
(Ch, Fr, Rus, UK, US); every year 5 non-permanent for 2 yrs elected by UNGA Functions: Maintain
international peace and security Investigate disputes + recommend settlement (chapter VI). Determine
threat to / breach of peace and take enforcement measures (chapter VII): Provisional measures
Sanctions Armed force.
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is
responsible for maintaining international peace and security. The Security Council has 15 members, of which
five are permanent members with veto power and ten are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
The five permanent members are China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms, with five members elected each year. Each of the P5
members has the power to veto any substantive resolution, irrespective of the level of international support for
the resolution.

The primary responsibility of the UNSC is to maintain international peace and security. It can establish
peacekeeping operations, impose sanctions, and authorize the use of force to address threats to peace. The
UNSC can also refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC). The UNSC meets regularly to discuss and
address various international issues, including conflicts, humanitarian crises, and threats to peace.
Resolutions adopted by the UNSC are binding on all member states.

The UNSC operates through various committees, including the Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and the
Counter-Terrorism Committee, among others. It has subsidiary bodies responsible for addressing specific issues,
such as sanctions committees. The presidency of the UNSC rotates monthly among its members, giving each
member an opportunity to preside over meetings and guide the agenda. Discussions on reforming the UNSC to
make it more representative and reflective of the current geopolitical landscape have been ongoing. However,
reaching consensus on reform proposals has proven challenging. The UNSC recognizes regional groups for the
election of non-permanent members. These groups include the African Group, the Asia-Pacific Group, the
Eastern European Group, the Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC), and the Western European and
Others Group (WEOG).

The UNSC plays a crucial role in addressing global security challenges, responding to conflicts, and promoting
international peace and stability. However, debates on its structure, representation, and decision-making
processes continue as part of ongoing discussions about UN reform.

X.3. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)

Principal organ to coordinate economic, social and humanitarian work of UN and UN family 54
members, elected by UNGA (1/3 annually for 3 yrs), permanent members always represented
Functions: Central forum for discussion and policy recommendations Make / initiate studies and
reports, recommendations Promote respect for / observance of human rights. Assist in preparing major
international conferences. Coordinate activities with specialized agencies. Functional and regional
commissions. Consultative status NGOs (Art 71).

The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations. It is responsible for promoting international economic and social cooperation and development.
ECOSOC consists of 54 member states elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It plays a central
role in coordinating the work of various UN specialized agencies, functional commissions, and five regional
commissions.

ECOSOC consists of 54 member states elected by the General Assembly. Members are distributed among the
following regional groups: African Group, Asia-Pacific Group, Eastern European Group, Latin American and
Caribbean Group (GRULAC), and Western European and Others Group (WEOG). Promoting international
economic and social cooperation and development is the primary function of ECOSOC. It serves as a platform
for dialogue on global economic, social, and environmental challenges.

ECOSOC coordinates the work of 14 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions, and five regional
commissions. These entities cover various areas, including health, labor, education, and sustainable
development. ECOSOC has several functional commissions, such as the Commission on Population and
Development and the Commission on the Status of Women. These commissions address specific issues within
the economic and social spheres. ECOSOC holds an annual High-Level Segment, bringing together high-level
representatives from member states, civil society, and the private sector to discuss key global challenges.

ECOSOC convenes the DCF, which provides a platform for dialogue on development cooperation issues and the
implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ECOSOC addresses humanitarian issues during
its Humanitarian Affairs Segment, focusing on coordination, response, and preparedness. ECOSOC holds a
Youth Forum to engage young people in discussions on global economic and social issues. ECOSOC elects its
President and Bureau members annually. The presidency rotates among the regional groups. ECOSOC oversees
special and functional commissions that focus on specific issues, such as the Commission on Science and
Technology for Development and the Statistical Commission.

ECOSOC plays a crucial role in advancing the UN's development agenda, fostering international cooperation,
and addressing global economic and social challenges. It provides a platform for member states to discuss
policies, share experiences, and coordinate efforts to achieve sustainable development.

X.4. TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

Mandates League of Nations: continued under Chapter XII UN Charter, “trust territories” Trusteeship
Council: international supervision for 11 trust territories + ensure steps for self-government /
independence 1994: last trust territory, Pacific Islands, independent as Palau Proposal UNSG (Our
Common Agenda) to revive as multistakeholder body on emerging challenges for succeeding
generations.

The Trusteeship Council is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, established to oversee the
administration of Trust Territories and ensure that the inhabitants of these territories were prepared for
self-government. The Trusteeship Council was created under Chapter XIII of the United Nations Charter.
However, its role has evolved over time due to the completion of the trusteeship system.

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 as one of the main organs of the UN. It was tasked with
overseeing the administration of Trust Territories, which were territories placed under the trusteeship system by
the League of Nations. The trusteeship system aimed to promote the well-being and development of the
inhabitants of Trust Territories, recognizing that certain territories were not yet able to stand on their own. Trust
Territories were placed under the administration of one or more member states, known as administering
authorities, with the guidance of the Trusteeship Council. Trust Territories included former colonies and
territories seized from nations defeated in World War II. The administering authorities were responsible for
promoting the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the Trust
Territories.

As Trust Territories achieved self-government or independence, the Trusteeship Council's role diminished. The
last Trust Territory, Palau, became independent in 1994, leading to the completion of the trusteeship system.
Since the completion of the trusteeship system, the Trusteeship Council has had a limited role, meeting only
when necessary. The council is composed of the five permanent members of the Security Council (China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States). It convenes annually and as needed. The
Trusteeship Council has suspended its operations several times due to the completion of its mandate and the
absence of Trust Territories. It remains in existence, with the ability to convene if needed, but its functions are
essentially dormant.

The Trusteeship Council's historical importance lies in its role in overseeing the trusteeship system, which
facilitated the transition of certain territories to self-government or independence. As the trusteeship system has
been completed, the council's role has become minimal, and discussions about its future and potential reforms
have taken place within the broader context of UN reforms.

X.5. INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ)

Predecessor: Permanent Court of Int’l Justice Principal judicial organ of the UN Statute attached to
UN Charter Seat = The Hague, Peace Palace 15 judges Term of office 9 yrs, renewable Judge ad
hoc-mechanism Two functions Adjudicate disputes between States Give advisory opinion to UN and
UN organs / agencies.

X.6. SECRETARIAT

Secretariat International staff working in 463 duty stations around the world: 36.827 from 191
countries Tasks: Day-to-day work of UN Services other principal UN organs Administers their
programmes/policies ‘Exclusively international character’: no instructions from any government +
Member States may not seek to influence.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). Established in
1945, the ICJ is located in The Hague, Netherlands. It is responsible for settling legal disputes between states
and giving advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the UN General Assembly, the UN Security
Council, or other UN specialized agencies and bodies.

The ICJ is composed of 15 judges elected by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. Judges
serve nine-year terms and may be re-elected. The ICJ has two main types of jurisdiction: contentious jurisdiction
and advisory jurisdiction. Contentious jurisdiction allows states to bring cases against each other. States must
agree to submit to the ICJ's jurisdiction, either through a specific treaty provision or through a special
agreement. Advisory jurisdiction allows UN organs and specialized agencies to request advisory opinions on
legal questions. Contentious cases before the ICJ involve disputes between states. Parties must voluntarily agree
to submit to the court's jurisdiction.

Decisions of the ICJ are binding and final. The court can provide remedies, including compensation or a specific
course of action, to resolve the dispute. The ICJ provides advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by
the UN General Assembly, the UN Security Council, or other UN specialized agencies and bodies. Advisory
opinions are non-binding but carry significant legal weight and are often considered by UN bodies and member
states in their decision-making.

The ICJ follows a judicial process that includes written and oral phases, where the parties present their legal
arguments and evidence. The court's decisions are rendered by majority vote, and each judge has one vote. In
the case of an equal vote, the President has a casting vote. While contentious jurisdiction is generally based on
the consent of the parties, some treaties and conventions confer compulsory jurisdiction on the ICJ. The ICJ
plays a crucial role in the development and interpretation of international law. Its decisions contribute to the
formation of customary international law. The ICJ operates independently and impartially. Judges are expected
to act in accordance with their oath of office and not seek or receive instructions from any government or other
external source.

The ICJ serves as a key institution for the peaceful settlement of international disputes and the promotion of the
rule of law in the international arena. Its decisions contribute to the development and clarification of
international legal principles.

Secretary-General Charter: ‘chief administrative officer’; appoints staff Diplomatic/political functions:

Bring matters of peace and security to the attention of UNSCGood offices Symbol of UN ideals /
spokesman for world’s peoples, in particular poor and vulnerable Annual report.

The role of the Secretary-General is outlined in the Charter of the United Nations, which is the foundational
document of the United Nations. The specific provisions related to the Secretary-General can be found in
Chapter XV (Articles 97 to 101) of the UN Charter.

The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
The Secretary-General is appointed for a renewable term of five years. In performing their duties, the
Secretary-General and the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other
authority external to the organization. They are expected to act in the best interests of the United Nations. The
Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that may threaten international
peace and security. The Secretary-General has the right to participate in Security Council discussions on any
matter of particular concern to the Secretary-General. The Secretary-General may use their good offices to
prevent the occurrence of disputes and conflicts and to resolve international disputes peacefully.

The Secretary-General may provide the Security Council with information on any situation that might lead to
international friction or give rise to a dispute. The Secretary-General is required to submit an annual report to
the General Assembly on the work of the organization. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the
General Assembly any matter that may affect the maintenance of international peace and security. The
Secretary-General shall be assisted by a staff composed of officials appointed by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Secretary-General.

The Charter empowers the Secretary-General to play a central role in promoting the purposes and principles of
the United Nations. The position is characterized by a commitment to independence, impartiality, and dedication
to the best interests of the international community. The Secretary-General acts as a diplomat, mediator, and
advocate for peace, security, development, and human rights on the global stage.
 The UN’s Secretary-Generals → TRYGVIE LIE (1946-52) DAG HAMMARSKJOLD (1953-61) U
THANT (1961-71) KURT WALDHEIM (1972-81) JAVIER PEREZ DE CUELLAR (1982-91)
BOUTROS BOUTROS-GHALI (1992-96) KOFI ANNAN (1997-2006) BAN KI-MOON (2007-16)
ANTÓNIO GUTERRES (2017 - present).

XI. UN PROGRAMMES AND FUNDS

Context → 75th anniversary United Nations (UN) in 2020. Declaration with 12 commitments. UN
Secretary-General António Guterres (UNSG) mandated to put forward recommendations in Sept 2021.
Consultations with UN Member States, thought leaders, young thinkers, public consultations.

Nature and aims → UNSG’s vision (for next 25 yrs) on future of global cooperation through an inclusive,
networked, and effective multilateralism. Recommendations across 4 broad areas for renewed solidarity between
peoples and future generations, a new social contract anchored in human rights, better management of critical
global commons, and global public goods that deliver equitably and sustainably for all. Agenda of action,
designed to strengthen and accelerate multilateral agreements – particularly the 2030 Agenda – and make a
tangible difference in people’s lives.

Main proposals → 1. We the Peoples: a renewed social contract anchored in human rights. Trust, inclusion,
protection, participation. Measuring and valuing what matters to people and the planet 2. Succeeding
generations: shaping the future. Solidarity with younger generations. Solidarity with future generations 3.
Nations large and small: a new global deal to deliver global public goods and address major risks. Protecting the
global commons and delivering global public goods. Addressing major risks. Next steps: High-Level Advisory
Board, (multi-stakeholder) Summit of the Future (Sept 2023) 4. Purposes and principles: adapting the UN to a
new era UN and UN secretariat Member States.

Follow-up → With some exceptions, OCA was well received internationally and by UNMember States. UNGA
Res A/RES/76/6 of 15 November 2021 welcomed “rich and substantive report” “as a basis for further
consideration by Member States” and called upon President UNGA “to initiate, under his overall guidance,
process of follow-up to enable all Member States to begin inclusive intergovernmental consideration of the
various proposals, options and potential means of implementation and on ways to take them forward, in
collaboration with all relevant partners through broad and inclusive consultations”. February-March 2022:
UNGA considered proposals further through five two day discussions on thematic clusters. Creation of Food
Systems Coordination Hub among Rome-based UNagencies (“zero hunger”). Implementation of Global
Accelerator on Jobs and Social Protection. “Transforming Education Summit” September 2022. Work of
High-Level Advisory Board on Effective Multilateralism• Start-up of UN Youth Forum / preparations for 2024
Summit of the Future.

Instituted by resolution of UNGA Autonomous, own budget, open to non-UN Member States,
responsible v-à-v UNGA Examples: UNDP, UNHCR, WFP, UNCTAD, UNICEF, UNEP.

The United Nations (UN) administers various specialized programs, funds, and agencies to address specific
global challenges and promote international cooperation in areas such as development, humanitarian assistance,
health, education, and the environment. Some of the prominent UN programs and funds include:

1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): UNDP works to eradicate poverty, reduce inequalities,
and build resilience to promote sustainable development. It provides support to countries in areas such as
governance, economic development, and climate change.

2. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): UNICEF focuses on the well-being of children worldwide,
providing health care, nutrition, education, and protection from violence and exploitation.

3. World Food Programme (WFP): WFP addresses hunger and promotes food security by delivering food
assistance in emergencies and supporting development projects to improve access to nutritious food.

4. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA): UNFPA works to ensure access to sexual and reproductive health
services, promote gender equality, and support population and development initiatives.
5. World Health Organization (WHO): WHO is the leading global health agency, coordinating international
efforts to address public health challenges, prevent diseases, and improve healthcare systems.

6. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): UNEP focuses on environmental issues, promoting
sustainable development and addressing challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution.

7. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): UNESCO works to promote
education, scientific research, cultural preservation, and freedom of expression to build a more inclusive and
sustainable world.

8. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): UNHCR provides protection and assistance to
refugees and displaced persons, advocating for durable solutions to forced displacement.

9. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO): UNIDO promotes inclusive and sustainable
industrial development to reduce poverty, enhance economic growth, and address environmental challenges.

10. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC): UNODC works to combat illicit drugs, transnational
organized crime, and corruption, promoting justice and the rule of law.

11. United Nations Women (UN Women): UN Women focuses on gender equality and women's empowerment,
working to eliminate discrimination and violence against women and girls.

12. International Labour Organization (ILO): ILO promotes decent work and social justice by setting
international labor standards, promoting employment, and improving social protection.

These programs and funds operate independently but collaborate to achieve the broader goals of the United
Nations. Each addresses specific aspects of the global agenda, contributing to the organization's overall mission
of maintaining peace and security, advancing human rights, and fostering sustainable development.

XII. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES AND RELATED ORGANIZATIONS

What are UN specialized agencies? Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty, with wide
international responsibilities in economic, social, cultural, education, health, and related fields (Art.
57(1)). No regional organizations. No organizations in areas such as security (e.g. IAEA). Relationship
with UN : through relationship agreement between ECOSOC and the IO (Article 63 Charter).

What are related organizations? “A default expression, describing organizations whose cooperation
agreement with the UN has many points in common with that of Specialized Agencies, but does not
refer to Article 57 and 63 of the United Nations Charter, relevant to Specialized Agencies.

Big (politically important) specialized agencies → International Labour Organization (ILO) World
Health Organization (WHO) Educational, Scientific & Cultural Org (UNESCO) Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) Intl Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Technical specialized
agenciesInternational Telecommunications Union (ITU) World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
World Intellectual Property Org (WIPO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) International Maritime Organization (IMO) Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO) World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Financial specialized agencies International
Monetary Fund (IMF) World Bank Group: International Bank for Reconstruction & Development
(IBRD) International Development Association (IDA) International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) International Centre for Settlement of Investment
D Disputes (ICSID)

The United Nations (UN) has a variety of specialized agencies, each focusing on specific issues and areas of
expertise. These agencies operate autonomously but work in collaboration with the UN to address global
challenges. Here are some of the major UN specialized agencies:

1. International Labour Organization (ILO): Labor standards, employment, social protection, and workers'
rights.
2. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Food security, agriculture, rural development, and sustainable
natural resource management.

3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): Education, science, culture,
communication, and the promotion of human rights.

4. World Health Organization (WHO): Focus: Global health, disease prevention, healthcare systems, and
emergency response.

5. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): International civil aviation standards, safety, security, and
environmental sustainability.

6. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD): Focus: Rural development, poverty reduction, and
sustainable agriculture.

7. International Maritime Organization (IMO): Focus: International shipping regulations, safety, security, and
environmental protection.

8. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO): Intellectual property rights, patents, trademarks, and
copyrights.

9. World Meteorological Organization (WMO): Meteorology, climatology, hydrology, and related fields to
enhance weather and climate understanding.

10. International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Global telecommunications standards, spectrum allocation,
and the development of information and communication technologies.

11. Universal Postal Union (UPU): Coordination of international postal services and the development of the
postal sector.

12. World Bank Group: Comprising entities such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the World Bank Group provides financial and
technical assistance for development projects.

13. International Monetary Fund (IMF): International monetary cooperation, exchange rates, and financial
stability.

14. World Trade Organization (WTO): International trade negotiations, trade policies, and dispute resolution to
promote fair and open global trade.

These specialized agencies play crucial roles in advancing the UN's goals and addressing specific global
challenges within their respective fields of expertise. They contribute to the overall mission of promoting peace,
development, and human rights worldwide.

Related organizations → International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Criminal Court
(ICC) International Organization for Migration (IOM) International Seabed Authority (ISA)
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW).

1. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy, prevents the
spread of nuclear weapons, and safeguards nuclear materials.

2. International Criminal Court (ICC): Investigates and prosecutes individuals for the most serious international
crimes, including genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

3. International Organization for Migration (IOM): Addresses migration challenges, provides humanitarian
assistance to migrants, and promotes international cooperation on migration issues.
4. International Seabed Authority (ISA): Regulates seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction and
ensures the protection of the marine environment.

5. International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS): Adjudicates disputes related to the interpretation and
application of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

6. Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO): Advances
the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and establishes the global verification regime to monitor
compliance.

7. Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW): Implements the Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) to eliminate the use, development, production, and stockpiling of chemical weapons.

These organizations play critical roles in addressing global challenges, ranging from nuclear non-proliferation
and criminal justice to migration management and the protection of the marine environment. They contribute to
the promotion of international peace, security, and cooperation in their respective areas of focus.