Ethiopian Technical University

Introduction to Power System (EACT 4032)

Chapter- 1 Generation of Electrical Energy

 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Electrical energy is the most preferred used form of energy.
Why? B/c
➢ can be easily, economically and efficiently transported from the production
centers to the point of use.
➢ is highly flexible in use as it can be converted to any desired form like
mechanical, thermal, light, chemical etc.
➢ Flexible for operation and control
1.1 The Structure of Electrical Power System
• A power system is divided into three major parts: generation, transmission and
distribution system.
1.1.1 Generation
▪ Electricity is conventionally produced by converting the mechanical energy (i.e.
thermal or hydro energy) into electrical energy using synchronous generators by
induction principle.
▪ Thermal energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear fuel.
▪ Renewable energy sources for electricity generation is wind, solar, tidal, and
geothermal, biogas and Hydro.
▪ The power generated at low voltage (i.e. from 11-35 kV) fed into the
transmission system after using a step up transformer.
▪ In order to supply power reliably during peak demand, the electrical energy need
to be stored during low loading condition. Even if there is a lot of problem in
storing electricity in large quantity, there are a no. of ways and options available.
These are: pumped storage plant, compressed air, heat, hydrogen gas (fuel cell),
flywheels, superconducting coils and secondary batteries.
1.1.2 Transmission System
▪ forms the back bone of the power system.
▪ interconnects all the generating stations and major load centers in the system.
▪ The transmission lines operate at the highest voltage levels (i.e., 220 kV and
upwards) in order to reduce mainly the power loss and voltage drop.
▪ It has a meshed structure in order to provide many alternate routes for the power
to flow from the generators to the load points. This improves the reliability of the
system.
▪ connect the neighboring power systems at transmission levels, thus forming a
grid (network of multiple generating resources and several layers of transmission
network).
Advantages of interconnected power systems:
(a) Quality: The voltage profile of the transmission network improves as more
generators contribute to the system, resulting in an increased total system capability.
This also improves the frequency behavior/stability of the system following any
load perturbation due to increased inertia of the system.
(b) Economy: In interconnected systems, it is possible to reduce the total set of
generating plants required to maintain the desired level of generation reserve. This
results in reduction of operational and investment costs. Also, operational (including
plant start-ups and shut down) and generation scheduling of units can be more
economically coordinated.
(c) Security: In case of emergency, power can be made available from the
neighboring systems and each system can benefit even when individual spinning
reserves may not be sufficient for isolated operation. So that it enhances reliability
of the system.
1.1.3 Distribution System
▪ the final stage of power transfer to the individual consumer.
▪ generally connected in a radial structure.
▪ The primary distribution feeders having voltage ranges between 11 kV and 33
kV supply small industrial customers.
▪ The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and commercial at 415/240
or 400/230 V.
Medium and small generating plants located near the load centers are usually
connected to sub-transmission or distribution system directly which is normally
called Distributed Generation System.
Structure of a Power System
1.2 Organizational Structure of Power System Industry
• There are two organizational structures of electric power supply industry.
Vertically Integrated (Regulated) – older, monopolistic structure
✓ Only one company or government agency (mostly state-owned) produced, transmitted,
distributed and sold electric power and services.
✓ generation not subjected to competition and there is no choice of suppliers.
✓ Provision of electric power based on cost-of-service regulation.
✓ Upgrade in technology, quality and reliability of electric power supply is limited
✓ had an obligation to serve all of its customers and the electricity rates were set by the
regulating entity in each state.
✓ Customer is captive and has no access or role in power industry market.
Horizontally Integrated (Deregulated) – conceptually come recently in early 1990s.
✓ Designed to encourage competition and provide the choice of electricity suppliers for
customers.
✓ The objectives of electric utility restructuring are to increase competition, decrease
regulation, to improve the continuity of supply and the quality of services, to promote
efficiency and economy of the power system and in the long run lower consumer
prices.
✓ Provides fertile ground for the growth of embedded generation.
✓ The first primary requirement (structure) for deregulation is the unbundling of the
entire power system into Generating Companies (Gencos.), Transmission Companies
(Transcos.), Distribution Companies (DistCos.), Independent Power producer (IPP),
Independent System Operator (ISO), Power Exchange (PX) and Retail Energy Service
Companies (RESCos.). The role and responsibility of each company must be clearly
defined.
✓ Was driven by reduction in capital, operational and maintenance cost, satisfaction of
customer service and privatization leading palatable to potential investors
The important concepts of deregulation are
Competition: The competition is at two levels in deregulated power industry: Wholesale
(generation) and retail (distribution).
Deregulation: The rules governing the electric power industry are changed. The new structure
introduces competition into the market, in place of a few large regulated companies.
Open Access: In deregulation of power system the Independent Power Producers (IPP) are
permitted to transmit the power using utility transmission and distribution systems.
The benefits associated with deregulation are:
• Systems capacity will be used efficiently.
• Optimization of energy supply will takes place.
• Price of the electricity will become clearer.
• Consumer choice will be improved.
• Bad technologies are ignored and good technologies are replaced in their place.
• Electricity prices are reduced.
• The usage efficiency is improved due to restructuring in price signals.
• Power flow will takes place from surplus areas to shortage areas.
• The cost of ancillary services is reduced by reserve sharing.
1.3 Distributed and Dispersed Generation
✓ It is the use of small-scale power generation technologies located close to the load
being served (on-site), capable of lowering costs, improving reliability, reducing
emissions and expanding energy options.
✓ Can be standalone/autonomous or grid connected based on the requirement
Distributed Generation
✓ Many small generating units ranging from 2 – 50 MW
✓ Installed on site and deliver power to small number of consumers nearby
✓ Can be solar, wind turbines, mini/micro hydro turbines, gas turbines, combined cycle
or heat and power plants, grid connected power storage units
Dispersed Generation
✓ Smaller generating units of less than 1 MW output and often sized to serve individual
homes and businesses (micro gas turbines, fuel cells, small wing and PV generators,
biogas)
✓ Has been used for emergency backup power source for reliability reinforcement.
✓ Modular, flexible , portable and relocatable
1.4 Centralized and Decentralized Control in Existing Power Systems
Purpose of controls
• To maintain system voltages and frequency and other system variables within their
acceptable limits, in response to normal load and generation variations as well as large
disturbances.
Centralized controls
✓ Generation scheduling and dispatch
✓ Automatic generation control for frequency regulation
✓ Real and reactive power flow adjustments to resolve congestions or reduce loss
Decentralized controls
✓ Generator governor response
✓ Automatic voltage regulation
✓ Protection relays
Comparison of the Characteristics of Two Control Philosophies
Response time
• Decentralized control is much faster and suitable for improving system frequency
response or resolving frequency and voltage stress of the system.
• Centralized control is slower and can not follow the fast changes of regulation signal
but is suitable for load following service and spinning reserve.
Predictability
• Response from decentralized control is more complicated and harder to predict.
• Response from centralized control is close-to-linear, in terms of load change vs.
temperature setting adjustment
Reliability, complexity…
1.5 Smart Grid
• Transmission and distribution grids in industrialized countries are aging and being
stressed by operational uncertainties and challenges never envisioned when they were
developed many decades ago. The smart grid technology is the answer to the
uncertainties and challenges.
• A smart grid is not a single concept but rather a combination of technologies and
methods intended to modernize the existing grid in order to improve capacity,
flexibility, availability, energy efficiency, and reduced costs.
• It is an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the action of all users
connected to it – generators, consumers and those that assume both roles – in order to
efficiently deliver sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies.
A smart grid is characterized by the following attributes:
1. Self-healing from power system disturbances;
2. Enables active participation by consumers in demand response;
3. Operates resiliency against both physical, natural and cyber attacks;
4. Provides quality power that meets 21st century needs/digital economy;
 5. Accommodates all generation and energy storage technologies;
6. Enables new products, services, and markets; and
Allow Bi-direction energy flow
7. Optimizes asset utilization and operating efficiency.
The objective of a smart grid is to provide reliable, high-quality electric power to digital
societies in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner
The smart grid technologies and concepts
Distributed energy resources (generation and storage)
Intelligent metering
Advanced distributed and autonomous controls,
Flexible power architectures.
Advanced and distributed communications
Grid modernization.
 Energy Sources
• Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another. It
is a measure of the total amount of work that the body can do.
• Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds of work by human beings and
nature. Every thing what happens in the world is the expression of flow of energy in one of its
forms.
• Energy plays a very important role in our lives, providing comfort, increasing productivity and
allowing us to live the way we want to.
• Amount of energy used by a society is an indicator of its economic growth & development and
improvement of quality of life.
• The standard of living of a given country can be directly related to per capita energy
consumption. The per capita energy consumption in U.S.A. is 8000 kWh per year, whereas the
per capita energy consumption in India is 150 kWh
• Around the world there is a growing demand for energy and a variety of energy sources will be
needed to meet this demand.
• The total energy during a physical or chemical process is conserved. So that If energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, it can be changed from one form into another.
• why should we study and worry about energy?
➢Most of conventional energy resources are limited; Hence, once any source of energy we use to
do work is consumed or dissipated to the surroundings in less usable forms and cannot be used
again.
• At present we get most of our energy from non-renewable energy sources which
include fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil and natural gas.
What is a Good Source of Energy?
a good source of energy would be a one:
✓ which would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass;
✓ be easily accessible;
✓ be easy to store and transport;
✓ be economical and
✓ be environmentally friendly.
Forms of Energy
➢ There are many forms of energy, but all forms of energy is either potential or kinetic energy.
Potential Energy
➢ stored energy due to separation in space or simply the energy of position
• Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that
holds these particles together. Foods we eat, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are
examples of stored chemical energy.
• Elastic energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and
stretched rubber bands are examples of elastic energy.
• Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that binds the nucleus
together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear
power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines
the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion. In both fission and
fusion, mass is converted into energy, according to Einstein’s Theory, E = mc2 .
• Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored by bodies due to separation in position or
place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy because of its
position. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational
potential energy.
Kinetic Energy
➢ energy due to motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and
objects.
• Electrical energy is the energy due to the movement of electrons. Electrons are the constituents
of atoms. Applying an electric or a magnetic force can make them move. Electrons moving
through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.
• Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of
radiant energy.
• Thermal energy, which is often described as heat, is the internal energy in substances—the
vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. The faster molecules and
atoms vibrate and move within a substance, the more energy they possess and the hotter they
become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
• Motion energy or mechanical energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place
to another. According to Newton’s Laws of Motion, objects and substances move when an
unbalanced force is applied. Wind is an example of motion energy
• Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or
substance to vibrate. The energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.
Energy sources can be classified into several types based on form of occurrence, market sale, long
term availability and traditional usability trend as:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
• Conventional and Non-conventional energy
Primary Energy Sources
• sources which provide a net supply of energy or direct energy sources such as coal, oil, natural
gas, nuclear energy from radioactive substances, geothermal, solar, biomass and hydropower
• They are found in nature; however the abundance & supply of some of primary fuels is
limited.
Secondary Energy sources
• an energy source, such as electricity, thermal that is produced using a primary energy source.
• Secondary fuels produce no net energy.
Commercial Energy Sources:
• The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport
and commercial development in the modern world.
➢ Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas, Uranium etc.
Non-Commercial Energy Sources:
• The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price
➢ Examples: Firewood, cattle dung, agricultural waste in rural areas; solar energy for water
heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport,
threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and
electricity generation.
• These are also called traditional fuels used especially in remote and rural areas;
• They are often ignored in energy accounting.
Renewable Energy Sources:
• energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale or
energy sources that are essentially inexhaustible/abundant.
➢ Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal
power and hydroelectric power.
• It can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants. They are eco friendly.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources:
sources of energy that are only available in limited amounts and exhaustible quantities.
They cannot be regenerated in a short period of time or used again and again. These are mostly
conventional sources of energy, which, if exhausted, can not be replenished in a short time.
The main energy sources used by human beings are non-renewable resources.
Example: fossil fuel (i.e. coal, oil, Natural gas etc.), Nuclear energy sources like Uranium

Why Don’t We Use More Renewable Energy?

In the past, renewable energy has generally been more expensive to use than fossil fuels. Plus,
renewable resources are often located remote areas and it is expensive to build powerlines to
the cities where they are needed. The use of renewable sources is also limited by the fact that
they are not always available (for example, cloudy days reduce solar energy, calm days mean
no wind blows to drive wind turbines, droughts reduce water availability to produce
hydroelectricity).
Conventional Energy Sources:
• The sources of energy which have been commonly in use for a long period of time.
➢ Example: fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
Non-conventional Energy Sources:
• energy resources which are considered for large – scale use recently
• These resources which are yet in the process of development over the past few years.
➢ Example: solar, wind, tidal, biogas,
and biomass, geothermal
D
 Fossil Fuel
A hydrocarbon containing material such as Coal, petroleum, and natural gas formed by the
anaerobic decomposition of the remains of dead plants and animals exposing to heat and pressure
buried under the earth crust for a long time.
Fossil fuels may be burned to provide heat for use directly (such as for cooking or heating), to
power engines (such as internal combustion engines in motor vehicles), or to generate electricity.
In 2019, 84% of primary energy consumption in the world and 64% of its electricity was from
fossil fuels.
Coal is divided into 4 ranks:
(1) Lignite – very soft brown coal, the lowest rank of coal, most harmful to health when burned,
contains up to 70% water by weight. Emits more pollution than other coals, used almost
exclusively as fuel for electric power generation
(2) Sub-bituminous – whose properties range between those of lignite and those of bituminous
coal, contains less carbon, more water & is a less efficient source of heat, is used primarily as
fuel for steam-electric power generation.
(3) Bituminous – a dense but soft sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown,
contains between 69% & 86% carbon by weight, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric
power generation and to make coke.
(4) Anthracite – coal is a dense, hard rock with a jet black color & metallic luster. It contains
between 86% and 98% carbon by weight, & it burns slowly, with a pale blue flame & very
little smoke, used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.
Moisture
Dry or Fixed Heat Content
content Dry, volatile
Types of coal Carbon Ash Sulphur (MJ/kg) or
before drying content (%)
content (%) (Btu/lb)
(%)
=32-33
Anthracite 86-92 7-10 3-14 10 - 20% 0.6 - 0.8% =13,000-
15,000
Bituminous =23-33
coal 76-86 8-18 14-46 3 - 12% 0.7 – 4.0% =11,000-
15,000
Sub- =18-23
Bituminous 70-76 18-38 42-53 ≤ 10% < 2% =8,500-
coal 13,000
=17-18
Lignite 65-70 35-55 53-63 10 - 50% 0.4 – 1.0%
=4,000-8,300

Peat <60 75 63-69 =15

 Energy Units and Its Relationship
• The energy contained in coal, gasoline, wood, or other energy sources can be measured by the
amount of heat in British thermal units (Btu) it can produce.
• One Btu is the amount of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of
water one degree Fahrenheit at STP. A British thermal unit (Btu) is a measure of the heat
content of fuels or energy sources.
• The modern SI unit for energy is the Joule (J);
One Btu is approximately:
≡ 10551 J (joules) ≈ 0.2931 W⋅h (watt hour) ≈ 252.2 cal (calories)
• The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the obsolete caloric theory of heat.
• The large calorie, food calorie, dietary calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined
as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree
Celsius (or one kelvin). The small calorie or gram calorie was defined as the amount of heat
needed to cause the same increase in one gram of water. Thus, 1 large calorie is equal to 1000
small calories.
• One (small) calorie (thermochemical calorie) is equal to exactly 4.184 J, and therefore one
kilocalorie (one large calorie) is 4184 J, or 4.184 kJ.
One thermochemical calorie is:
≡ 4.184 J (joules) ≈ 0.003964 BTU ≈ 1.162×10−6 kWh ≈ 2.611×1019 eV
 Thermal Power Plant (Steam Power Plant)
• The steam power plants, Diesel power plants, Gas Turbine power plants and Nuclear Power
plant are known as Thermal power Plant. However, generally steam power plant is called as
thermal power plant.
• A Thermal Power Plant converts the heat energy of coal into electrical energy. Coal is burnt
in a boiler which converts water into steam. The expansion of steam in turbine produces
mechanical power which drives the alternator coupled to the turbine. After it passes through
the turbine, the steam is condensed in a Condenser; this is known as a Rankine cycle.
• The Steam power plant can perform two purposes:
1) To generate electricity only
2) To generate electricity along with production of steam for process heating.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Steam power plant basically works on the Rankine cycle in which steam and water is working
fluid.
• Firstly the water is taken into the boiler from a water source. The boiler is heated by means of
burning of coal.
• The increase in temperature helps in the transformation of water into steam. The steam
generated in the boiler is sent through a steam turbine. The Steam which is expanded in a
turbine, produces mechanical power.
• The turbine has blades that rotate when high velocity steam flows across them. This rotation of
turbine blades is used to generate electricity.
• The steam after expansion in turbine is usually condensed in a condenser. The condensed steam
(Water) is again feed to the boiler and cycle is repeated.
• A generator is connected to the steam turbine. When the turbine turns, electricity is generated
and given as output by the generator, which is then supplied to the consumers through high-
voltage power lines.
Rankine Cycle
• The Schematic diagram of Rankine Cycle is shown in Figure below. A Rankine cycle is
represented on p-v, T-s and h-s diagram is shown in Figure below. There are four processes in
the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the working fluid. These states are identified by
number in the diagram.
• The Main Components of cycle are:
1) Boiler 2) Turbine 3) Condenser 4) Feed Pump
• Consider 1 kg of saturated water at pressure P1
and temperature T1 .
1) Process 1-2: The water at constant pressure P1
is heated in the boiler until the saturated
temperature is reached (Process 1-a).
Saturated water may be converted into wet steam
(a-2’), dry saturated steam (Process a-2), or
superheated steam (a-2”) at constant pressure P1.
(Constant pressure transfer of heat in the Boiler)
2) Process 2-3: Steam expand reversibly and
adiabatically in the turbine from state 2 to state
3. During this process pressure and temperature falls
from P2 to P3 and T2 to T3 respectively. (Reversible
adiabatic expansion in the Turbine)
3) Process 3-4: The steam coming from turbine at state
3 is now isothermally condensed in a condenser
and the heat is rejected at constant temperature T3
and pressure P3 until the whole steam is condensed
into water. (Constant pressure transfer of heat in
condenser)
4) Process 4-1: The condensate water coming from condenser at state 4 is pumped to boiler
pressure at state 1 reversibly and adiabatically with help of feed pump. (Reversible adiabatic
pumping process in feed pump)
General Layout of Modern Thermal Power Plant
The general layout of the thermal power plant consists of mainly 4 circuits as shown in Figure
below.
1) Coal and ash handling circuit:
• In this circuit ,the coal from the storage is fed to the boiler through coal handling equipment
for the generation of steam. Ash produced due to combustion of coal is removed to ash
storage through ash handling system.
2) Air and gas circuit:
• Air is supplied to the combustion chamber of the boiler either through F.D. or I.D. fan or by
using both. The dust from the air is removed before supplying through combustion chamber.
The exhaust gases carrying sufficient quantity of heat and ash are passed through the air
heater where exhaust heat of gases is given to the air and then it is passed through the dust
collectors where most of the dust is removed before exhausting the gases to the atmosphere
through chimney.
3) Feed water and steam circuit:
• The steam generated in the boiler is fed to the steam prime mover to develop the power. The
steam coming out of prime mover is condensed in the condenser and then fed to the boiler
with the help of the pump. The condensate is heated in the feed heaters using the steam
tapped from different points of the turbine.
• Some of the steam ad water is lost passing through different components of the system,
therefore feed water is supplied from external source to compensate this loss.
• The feed water supplied from external source is passed through the purifying plant to reduce
the dissolved salts to an acceptable level to avoid the scaling of the boiler tubes.
4) Cooling water circuit:
• The quantity of cooling water required to condense the steam is considerably large and it is
taken either from lake, river or sea. The cooling water is taken from the upper side of the
river, it is passed through the condenser and heated water is discharge through the lower side
of the river. such system of cooling water is possible if adequate cooling water available
throughout the year. This system is known as open system.
• When adequate water is not available, then the water coming out from the condenser is
cooled either in cooing tower or cooling pond. The cooling is effected by partly evaporating
the water. When the cooling water coming out from the condenser is cooled again supplied to
the condenser then the system is known as closed system.
D
Site selection of Thermal Power plant
Availability of coal:
The huge quantity of coal is required for large thermal power stations. A thermal power plant of
400 MW capacity requires 5000 to 6000 tons of coal per day. Therefore, it is necessary to install
the power station near the coal mines. In this case, the power generation must be transported to
the long distances therefore, it is necessary to find the location which will give the lowest cost
considering the coal transport and power transmission charge.
Ash Disposal Facilities:
The coal used for power generation contains large percentages of ash(20 to 40%). The ash
handling problem is more serious than coal handling because it comes out in hot condition and it
is highly corrosive. Its effect on atmospheric pollution is more serious as the human health is
concerned. Therefore there must be sufficient space dispose of large quantity of ash.
The ash can be easily disposed off to river ,sea or lake economically if such facilities are available
at plant site. Presently the ash from the power plants is used for many industrial processes such as
brick making near the plant site.
Space Requirement:
The average land requirement is 3 to 5 acres per MW capacity which includes the space required
for coal storage, ash disposal, staff colony, market facilities and the space required for whole
machinery.
Nature of Land:
The selected site for the power plant should have good bearing capacity as it has to withstand the
dead load of the plant and forces transmitted to the foundation due to machine operations. The
minimum bearing capacity of the land should be 10 bar.
Availability of water:
Large quantities of water are required for condenser, for disposal of ash and as feed water to the
boiler and drinking water to the working staff.
Transport Facilities:
It is always necessary to have a railway line available near the power station for bringing in heavy
machinery for installation and for bringing the coal.
Availability of labor:
Cheap labor should be available at the proposed site as enough labor is required during
construction of the plant.
Public Problems:
The proposed site should be far away from the towns to avoid the nuisance from smoke, fly ash
and heat discharge from the power plant.
Size of the Plant:
Advantages of Thermal Power Plant
a) can be located near the load center if water source available near the site.
b) can respond quickly against change of load without difficulty esp. Gas turbine power plant.
c) is more flexible to use any types of boilers and fuels and therefore it is a cheaper method of
power generation.
d) A portion of steam generated can be used a process steam in different industries.
e) The steam turbine can be work under 25% of overload continuously.
f) requires less investment cost compared to hydro electric power plants.
g) Less space is required compare to hydro electric power plants.
h) requires less time for installation (gestation period) compared to hydro electric power plant.
Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plant
a) requires large quantity of water for boiler and condenser;
b) The fuel transportation cost is high esp. when the power plants are away from coal mines;
c) has a very high operating cost compared to hydro and nuclear power plants;
d) pollutes the atmosphere by fumes, and residues of pulverized fuels;
e) is complex, requires large number of equipments compared to other power plants;
f) is less efficient below 75%;
g) there is great difficulty experienced in coal handling.
Major Components of a Thermal Power Plant
Coal Handling Plant
• Coal is transported to power station by rail or road and stored in coal storage plant and then
pulverized.
• The function of coal handling plant is automatic feeding of coal to the boiler furnace.
Pulverizing Plant
• In modern thermal power plant, coal is pulverized i.e. ground to dust like size and carried to
the furnace in a stream of hot air. Pulverizing is a means of exposing a large surface area to the
action of oxygen and consequently helping combustion.
• Pulverizing process consists 3 stages classified as:
1. Feeding
2. Drying
3. Grinding
Ash Handling Plant
• The ash from the boiler is collected in two forms-
➢ Bottom ash(slurry): It's a waste which is dumped into ash pond.
➢ Fly ash: Fly ash is separated from flue gases in esp.
Draft or Draught Fan
• FD fan or forced draft fan, draws air from the atmosphere and forces it into the furnace through
a preheater. These fans are located at the inlet of the boiler to push high pressure fresh air into
combustion chamber, where it mixes with the fuel to produce positive pressure.
• An induced draught fan (ID fan) is provided to maintain a negative pressure in the furnace by
sucking the products of combustion from it with a slight positive pressure at the discharge end
vis-à-vis the bottom of the chimney/stack.
Boiler
• A boiler (or steam generator) is a closed vessel in which water, under pressure , is converted
into steam. The heat is transferred to the boiler by all three modes of heat transfer i.e.
conduction, convection and radiation.
• Major types of boilers are: (i) fire tube boiler and (ii) water tube boiler
• Generally water tube boilers are
used for electric power stations.
(a) Water tube: water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion flow over these
tubes
require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to explosion, produce higher
pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in steam demand. Tubes and
drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due to smaller size
of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space.
The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
(b) Fire tube: the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded, by
water.
have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely to explosion, water
volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in steam
demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the
shell of water-tube boiler.
Superheater and Reheaters
• The function of the super heater is to remove the last trash of moisture from the saturated steam
leaving the boiler tubes and also increases its temperature above the saturation temperature
without raising its pressure.
• Super heated steam is that steam which contains more heat than the saturated steam at the same
pressure. The additional heat provide more energy to the turbine hence power output is more.
• Superheated steam causes lesser erosion of the turbine blades and can be transmitted for longer
distance with little heat loss.
• The function of the reheater is to superheat the partly expanded steam from the turbine, this
ensure that the steam remain dry through the last stage of the turbine.
• A superheater and reheater may be convention type, radiant type or combination. However,
convention superheaters are more commonly used.
• The steam (wet or dry) from the evaporator drum is firstly passed through the radiant super
heater and then to the convective super heater to be converted into superheated steam. This
superheated steam is supplied to the high pressure steam turbine through a valve.
• After the vapor has passed through the first HP turbine, it re-enters the boiler and is reheated
before passing through a second intermediate pressure and lower-pressure turbines.
• The purpose of a reheating cycle is to remove the moisture carried by the steam at the final
stages of the expansion process. Reheating also prevents the vapor from condensing during its
expansion and thereby damaging the turbine blades, and improves the efficiency of the cycle.
Following are the advantages of using Super heater.
✓ There is an increase in efficiency of the steam power plant.
✓ Erosion of turbine blade is minimized (or) even eliminated.
✓ Steam consumption of the prime-mover is reduced.
✓ Condensation loss in the pipes is reduced.
✓ It removes entrained water particles from the steam conveyed to the steam turbines and
increases the temperature of saturated steam.
Reheater – The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the steam
temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After passing through the
high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam generator for reheating (in a reheater)
after which it is sent to the low pressure turbine.
Feed Water Heaters:
• These heaters are used to heat the feed water by means of blend steam before it is supplied to
the boiler. Necessity of heating feed water before feeding it back to the boiler arises due to the
following reasons.
• Feed Water heating improve overall efficiency.
• The dissolved oxygen which would otherwise cause boiler corrosion are removed in the feed
water heater.
• Thermal stresses due to cold water entering the boiler drum are avoided.
• Quantity of steam produced by the
boiler is increased.
• Some other impurities carried by
steam and condensate, due to
corrosion in boiler and condenser,
are precipitated outside the boiler.
ECONOMIZER-is a feed water heater
The feed water from the high pressure heaters enters the economizer and picks up heat from
the flue gases after the low temperature super heater.
D
D
D
 Hydroelectric Power Plant
Water energy comes indirectly from solar energy. The sun heats the surface of oceans and
lakes causing water to evaporate. This water then turns into clouds and falls as rain which
feeds streams and rivers across the world. The energy in the water as it travels to the sea can
be used to produce electricity. This is done by driving water through turbines which drive
electric generators.
People have used water energy for over 2,000 years from when the Ancient Greeks and
Romans used water wheels in mills to grind wheat into flour. About 200 years ago, there
were 30,000 water mills in the UK.
These mills were used to create energy for all sorts of machines. Today we use water
energy to create electricity. This is known as hydroelectricity.
How does Hydropower work
Water energy, or hydropower stations
usually have large dams and water
reservoirs. A reservoir is a store for
energy, and it’s possible to control the
energy produced by controlling how
and when the water leaves the reservoir.
The process is just like turning a tap on
and off!
How Hydropower Works! (ctd…)

• Water from the reservoir flows due

to gravity to drive the turbine.
• Turbine is connected to a generator.
• Power generated is transmitted over
power lines.
The Renewable Budget

Spring 2013 50
Outstanding Points from Fig. 5.1
• Incident radiation is 1741015 W
• this is 1370 W/m2 times area facing sun (R2)
• 30% directly reflected back to space
• off clouds, air, land
• 47% goes into heating air, land, water
• 23% goes into evaporating water, precipitation, etc. (part of weather)
• Adds to 100%, so we’re done
• but wait! there’s more…

Spring 2013 51
Energy Flow, continued
• 0.21% goes into wind, waves, convection, currents
• note this is 100 times less than driving the water cycle
• but this is the “other” aspect of weather
• 0.023% is stored as chemical energy in plants via photosynthesis
• total is 401012 W; half in ocean (plankton)
• humans are 7 billion times 100 W = 0.71012 W
• this is 1.7% of bio-energy; 0.0004% of incident power
• All of this (bio-activity, wind, weather, etc.) ends up creating heat and
re-radiating to space
• except some small amount of storage in fossil fuels

Spring 2013 52
Q2
Energetics of the hydrologic cycle
• It takes energy to evaporate water: 2,250 J per gram
• this is why “swamp coolers” work: evaporation pulls heat out of environment,
making it feel cooler
• 23% of sun’s incident energy goes into evaporation
• By contrast, raising one gram of water to the top of the troposphere
(10,000 m, or 33,000 ft) takes
mgh = (0.001 kg)(10 m/s2)(10,000 m) = 100 J
• So > 96% of the energy associated with forming clouds is the
evaporation; < 4% in lifting against gravity

Spring 2013 53
Let it Rain
• When water condenses in clouds, it re-releases this “latent heat”
• but this is re-radiated and is of no consequence to hydro-power
• When it rains, the gravitational potential energy is released, mostly as kinetic
energy and ultimately heat
• Some tiny bit of gravitational potential energy remains, IF the rain falls on terrain
(e.g., higher than sea level where it originated)
• hydroelectric plants use this tiny left-over energy: it’s the energy that drives the flow of
streams and rivers
• damming up a river concentrates the potential energy in one location for easy exploitation

Spring 2013 54
How much of the process do we get to keep?
• According to Figure 5.1, 401015 W of solar power goes into evaporation
• this corresponds to 1.61010 kg per second of evaporated water!
• this is 3.5 mm per day off the ocean surface (replenished by rain)
• The gravitational potential energy given to water vapor (mostly in clouds) in the
atmosphere (per second) is then:
mgh = (1.61010 kg)(10 m/s2)(2000 m) = 3.21014 J
• One can calculate that we gain access to only 2.5% of the total amount (and use
only 1.25%)
• based on the 1.8% land area of the U.S. and the maximum potential of 147.7 GW as
presented in Table 5.2

Spring 2013 55
A dam is not needed at smaller power stations. Water is diverted from a river and re-
directed along a canal to a turbine before re-joining the river.
Potential
• THEORETICAL- The maximum potential that exists.
• TECHNICAL- It takes into account the cost involved in exploiting a source
(including the environmental and engineering restrictions)
• ECONOMIC- Calculated after detailed environmental, geological, and other
economic constraints.
Continent Wide distribution

REGION THEORETICAL TECHNICAL

POTENTIAL (TWh) POTENTIAL (TWh)

AFRICA 10118 3140

N. AMERICA 6150 3120

LATIN AMERICA 5670 3780

ASIA 20486 7530

OCEANIA 1500 390

EUROPE 4360 1430

WORLD 44280 19390

Top ten countries (in terms of capacity)

COUNTRY POWER INSTALLED

CAPACITY CAPACITY
(GWh) (GW)
TAJIKISTAN 527000 4000
CANADA 341312 66954
USA 319484 79511
BRAZIL 285603 57517
CHINA 204300 65000
RUSSIA 160500 44000
NORWAY 121824 27528
JAPAN 84500 27229
INDIA 82237 22083
FRANCE 77500 77500
D
UNDP estimates
• Theoretical potential is about 40,500 TWh per year.
• The technical potential is about 14,300 TWh per year.
• The economic potential is about 8100 TWh per year.
• The world installed hydro capacity currently stands at 694 GW.
• In the 1980s the percentage of contribution by hydroelectric power was about 8 to
9%.
• The total power generation in 2000 was 2675 Billion KWh or close to 20% of the
total energy generation.
Continued…
• Most of the undeveloped potential lies in the erstwhile USSR and the developing
countries.
• Worldwide about 125 GW of power is under construction.
• The largest project under construction is the Three Gorges at the Yangtze river in
China. Proposed potential is 18.2 GW and the proposed power output is 85 TWh
per year.
Global Installed Capacity
Under Construction…
Potential of Small Hydropower
• Total estimated potential of 180000 MW.
• Total potential developed in the late 1990s was about 47000 MW with China
contributing as much as one-third total potentials.
• 570 TWh per year from plants less than 2 MW capacity.
• The technical potential of micro, mini and small hydro in India is placed at 6800
MW.
Small Hydro in India

STATE TOTAL CAPACITY (MW)

ARUNACHAL PRADESH 1059.03

HIMACHAL PRADESH 1624.78

UTTAR PRADESH & UTTARANCHAL 1472.93

JAMMU & KASHMIR 1207.27

KARNATAKA 652.51

MAHARASHTRA 599.47
Sites (up to 3 MW) identified by UNDP

STATE TOTAL SITES CAPACITY

NORTH 562 370

EAST 164 175

NORTH EAST 640 465

TOTAL 1366 1010

Small Hydro in other countries
• China has 43000 small hydro-electric power stations nationwide to produce 23
million KWh a year. It has 100 million kilowatts of explorable small hydro-
electric power resources in mountainous areas of which only 29% has been
tapped.
• Philippines has a total identified mini-hydropower resource potential is about
1132.476 megawatts (MW) of which only 7.2% has been utilized.
• There is about 3000 MW of small hydro capacity in operation in the USA. A
further 40 MW is planned.
Technology

Hydropower
Technology

Pumped
Impoundment Diversion
Storage
Impoundment facility-uses a dam to store water. Water may be
released either to meet changing electricity needs or to maintain a
constant water level
Dam Types
• Arch
• Gravity
• Buttress
• Embankment or Earth
Arch Dams

• Arch shape gives strength

• Less material (cheaper)
• Narrow sites
• Need strong abutments
Concrete Gravity Dams

• Weight holds dam in place

• Lots of concrete
(expensive)
Buttress Dams

• Face is held up by a
series of supports
• Flat or curved face
Embankment Dams

• Earth or rock
• Weight resists flow of
water
Dams Construction
Diversion Facility

• Doesn’t require dam

• Facility channels portion of
river through canal or
penstock
Pumped Storage

• During Storage, water pumped from

lower reservoir to higher one.
• Water released back to lower
reservoir to generate electricity.
Pumped Storage

• Operation : Two pools of Water

• Upper pool – impoundment
• Lower pool – natural lake, river or
storage reservoir
• Advantages :
• Production of peak power
• Can be built anywhere with
reliable supply of water

The Raccoon Mountain project

Sizes of Hydropower Plants
• Definitions may vary.
• Large plants : capacity >30 MW
• Small Plants : capacity b/w 100 kW to 30 MW
• Micro Plants : capacity up to 100 kW
Large Scale Hydropower plant
Small Scale Hydropower Plant
Micro Hydropower Plant
Micro Hydropower Systems
• Many creeks and rivers are permanent, i.e., they never dry up, and these are the
most suitable for micro-hydro power production
• Micro hydro turbine could be a waterwheel
• Newer turbines : Pelton wheel (most common)
• Others : Turgo, Crossflow and various axial flow turbines
Generating Technologies
• Types of Hydro Turbines:
• Impulse turbines
• Pelton Wheel
• Cross Flow Turbines
• Reaction turbines
• Propeller Turbines : Bulb turbine, Straflo, Tube Turbine,
Kaplan Turbine
• Francis Turbines
• Kinetic Turbines
Impulse Turbines
• Uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and discharges to atmospheric
pressure.
• The water stream hits each bucket on the runner.
• No suction downside, water flows out through turbine housing after hitting.
• High head, low flow applications.
• Types : Pelton wheel, Cross Flow
Pelton Wheels

• Nozzles direct forceful streams of

water against a series of spoon-
shaped buckets mounted around the
edge of a wheel.
• Each bucket reverses the flow of
water and this impulse spins the
turbine.
Pelton Wheels (continued…)

• Suited for high head, low flow sites.

• The largest units can be up to 200
MW.
• Can operate with heads as small as
15 meters and as high as 1,800
meters.
Cross Flow Turbines

• drum-shaped
• elongated, rectangular-section nozzle
directed against curved vanes on a
cylindrically shaped runner
• “squirrel cage” blower
• water flows through the blades
twice
Cross Flow Turbines (continued…)
• First pass : water flows from the outside of the blades to the inside
• Second pass : from the inside back out
• Larger water flows and lower heads than the Pelton.
Reaction Turbines
• Combined action of pressure and moving water.
• Runner placed directly in the water stream flowing over the blades
rather than striking each individually.
• lower head and higher flows than compared with the impulse turbines.
Propeller Hydropower Turbine

• Runner with three to six blades.

• Water contacts all of the blades constantly.
• Through the pipe, the pressure is constant
• Pitch of the blades - fixed or adjustable
• Scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube
• Types: Bulb turbine, Straflo, Tube turbine,
Kaplan
Bulb Turbine

• The turbine and generator are a

sealed unit placed directly in the
water stream.
Others…
• Straflo : The generator is attached directly to the perimeter of the turbine.
• Tube Turbine : The penstock bends just before or after the runner, allowing a
straight line connection to the generator
• Kaplan : Both the blades and the wicket gates are adjustable, allowing for a wider
range of operation
Kaplan Turbine

• The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps

around the turbine's wicket gate.
• Water is directed tangentially, through the
wicket gate, and spirals on to a propeller
shaped runner, causing it to spin.
• The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube
that helps decelerate the water and recover
kinetic energy.
Francis Turbines

• The inlet is spiral shaped.

• Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to
the runner.
• This radial flow acts on the runner vanes,
causing the runner to spin.
• The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be
adjustable to allow efficient turbine
operation for a range of water flow
conditions.
Francis Turbines (continued…)

• Best suited for sites with high flows

and low to medium head.
• Efficiency of 90%.
• expensive to design, manufacture and
install, but operate for decades.
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Thank You
After exchanging heat in heater, this steam condensed and this water (drip) goes to Deaerator.
After the heaters, this feed water goes to FRS (feed regulating station)
FD fan or forced draft fan, draws air from the atmosphere and forces it into the furnace through
a preheater. These fans are located at the inlet of the boiler to push high pressure fresh air into
combustion chamber, where it mixes with the fuel to produce positive pressure
Condensate extraction pumps (CEP) extract the condensate water from the condenser and pump
it through the condensate polishing system and the LP heaters to the de-aerator feed water tank.
The CEP are vertical canned type to ensure Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA).
An induced draught fan (ID fan) is provided to maintain a negative pressure in the furnace by
sucking the products of combustion from it with a slight positive pressure at the discharge end
vis-à-vis the bottom of the chimney/stack.
A deaerator is a device widely used to remove oxygen up to 7ppb and other dissolved gases like
carbon dioxide completely from feedwater to steam-generating boilers.
A deaerator is a device that removes oxygen and other dissolved gases from liquids and
pumpable compounds. Deaerators are considered Water treatment equipment.
Economizer
Hydro-electric Power Station
The energy contained in coal, gasoline, wood, or other energy sources can be measured by the amount of heat in
British thermal units (Btu) it can produce.
One Btu is the amount of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit
at STP. A British thermal unit (Btu) is a measure of the heat content of fuels or energy sources. It is the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid water by 1 degree Fahrenheit
The modern SI unit for energy is the joule (J); one BTU equals about 1,055 J (varying within the range of 1,054–
1,060 J depending on the specific definition
One Btu is approximately:
•1.0551 kJ (kilojoules)
•0.2931 W⋅h (watt hours)
•252.2 cal (calories)
The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the obsolete caloric theory of heat.
The large calorie, food calorie, dietary calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined as the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius (or one kelvin). The small
calorie or gram calorie was defined as the amount of heat needed to cause the same increase in
one gram of water. Thus, 1 large calorie is equal to 1000 small calories.
one (small) calorie (thermochemical calorie) is equal to exactly 4.184 J, and therefore one kilocalorie (one
large calorie) is 4184 J, or 4.184 kJ.
One thermochemical calorie is:
≡ 4.184 J
≈ 0.003964 BTU
≈ 1.162×10−6 kW⋅h
≈ 2.611×1019 eV

The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels – coal and petroleum.
D
D
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This decreases
the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some Schematic representation of an electric power
plant;
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure
and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and temperature of the condenser is
fixed by the temperature of the
cooling coils as the fluid is
undergoing a phase-change.
General Layout of Modern Thermal Power Plant
D
D
D
D
D
D
D