16-01-2024

Geodesy - I
(CE-206)

Introduction to Surveying
Instruments

Dr. Ashootosh Mandpe

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Indore

[email protected]
1/16/2024 1

Surveying Instruments
• Instruments is an often-used word in surveying, but it can mean different
things to different people.

• For example, some people refer to field books as instruments. Technically, a

field book is more like what we call instrumentation – that is, all of
your survey equipment or surveying instrument put together in one place for
future reference.

• Other people refer to handheld computers as surveying instruments, but they

might be thinking about something else altogether. A handheld computer is
not an instrument per se, but it can be useful when doing certain kinds of
calculations and running certain kinds of computations.

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Surveying Instruments
• Basically, These are the Instruments Used for Measurement of
Land.
• Some uses are as follows:-
a) Instruments Used for Linear Measurements: Chain or Tape, Arrows, Pegs, Ranging
Rods, Offset Rods, Plumb Bob, Optical Square, Line Ranger
b) Instruments Used in Angular Measurement: Prismatic Compass, Surveyors
Compass
c) Instruments Used in Vertical Measurements: Leveling Staff, Dumpy Level,
Theodolite
d) Instruments Used for Measurement of area:

Brief Uses of Surveying Instruments

• Land Surveying
• Land surveying is the detailed study or
inspection, as by gathering information through
observations, measurements in the field,
questionnaires, or research of legal instruments,
and data analysis in the support of planning,
designing, and establishing of property
boundaries and draw on map with relevant
details.

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Brief Uses of Surveying Instruments

• Topographic Surveying

• Determining the relative locations of points

(places) on the earth’s surface by measuring
horizontal distances, differences in elevation
and directions

• Topos (Gr.): place; topographic maps give the

locations of places (observable features);
they serve as base maps

Brief Uses of Surveying Instruments

• Hydrographic Surveying
• Hydrographic surveying is the
survey of physical features present
underwater. It is the science of
measuring all factors beneath water
that affect all the marine activities
like dredging, marine constructions,
offshore drilling etc. Hydrographic
surveying is mainly conducted under
authority concerns.

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Brief Uses of Surveying Instruments

• Mine Surveying • Quantity Surveying
• Mine surveying is the practice of determining • A quantity surveyor is a construction industry
the relative positions of points on or beneath professional with expert knowledge on
the surface of the earth by direct or indirect construction costs and contracts. Qualified
measurements of distance, direction & professional quantity surveyors are known as
elevation. Chartered Surveyors in the UK and Certified
Quantity Surveyors in Australia and other
countries.

Types of Surveying Instruments

 Measuring Tapes,  Optical Square,  Drawing Paper,  Prismatic Compass,

 Measuring Wheel,  Prism Square,  Distance meter,  Surveyor’s Compass,

 Surveying Chains,  Site Square,  Bipod,  Theodolite,

 Arrow,  Tripod,  Plumb Laser,  Total Station,

 Peg,  Plane Table,  Dumpy Level,  GPS/GNSS,

 Ranging Rods,  Alidade,  Y Level,  3D Scanner,

 Offset Rods,  Plumbing Fork,  Reversible Level,  Drones

 Plumb Bob,  Spirit Level,  Tilting level,  Instruments for Direct

Levelling
 Cross Staff,  Trough Compass,  Leveling Staff,

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Measuring Tapes
• It is made up of cotton, coated linen, or any other synthetic material. Centimeters
or decimeters are marked on the tape. They are available in lengths of 20, 30, or 50
meters.

Some of the commonly used tapes in surveying are:

• Cloth/linen tape: Available in lengths 10, 20, 25, and 30 meters. Also available in lengths
of 33, 50, 66, and 100 feet. A brass ring is provided at the terminal end of this tape. Rarely
used nowadays.
• Metallic tape: Available in lengths 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters. Except for 2 and 5-
meter tapes, other tapes have a small ring fastened at the ends which is of the same
width as that of the tape for protection and are supplied in a leather or metal case with a
winding device.
• Steel tape: Available in lengths 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters. Except for 1 and 2-meter
tapes, other tapes have a small brass ring fastened at the ends. These tapes are supplied
in a corrosion-resistant metal case or a leather case with a winding device.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Surveying Chains
• The chain is used to measure the distance on the ground. It
gives much more accurate measurements as compared to
tape. A chain is a surveying instrument that is made up of
connecting links of galvanized mild steel. The mild steel
wire is bent into a ring and joined to each other with three
small circular or oval rings. Each connecting link measures
20 cm.
• A tally marker or a special joint is also installed sometimes
to mark the distance of 5 meters. The total length of the
chain is 20 meters or 30 meters, which also includes a brass
handle on each end. The handles are provided with swivel
• A chain has to be tested if it is accurate
joints so they can be easily turned during surveying without
and if necessary adjustments are made if being twisted.
not.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

Surveying Chains
Some of the commonly used chains in surveying are
1. Metric chain- Widely used and available in lengths of
5, 10, 20, and 30 meters.
2. Surveyor’s chain: Length is 66 feet and has 100 links
Widely used for land measurement as 10 square
chains make 1 acre.
3. Engineer’s chain: Length is 100 feet and has 100
links. Brass tags are installed every 10 feet.
• A chain has to be tested if it is accurate
4. Revenue chain: Length is 33 feet and has 16 links.
and if necessary adjustments are made
if not.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Arrow
• Arrows are used for marking and are
made up of hardened, and tempered
steel wire of good quality. 10 arrows are
usually sold with a chain. Its length is
about 25-50 cm. One of its ends is
sharpened while the other end is bent
into a circular loop.
• To mark the chain length on the ground,
an arrow is inserted at the end of the
chain.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Pegs
• Pegs are mostly made of timber. They are also used to mark out
the locations on the ground at terminal points or the end of the
survey line. They are 2.5-3 square centimeters and are of 15-
centimeter length with a tapered end. A hammer is used to
drive the peg into the ground..

• Plumb Bob
• It is used to transfer the points to the ground on a slope while
chaining. It is also used to make the ranging poles vertical. In
theodolites, compasses, plane tables, and other surveying
instruments, it is used for centering purposes.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Ranging Rods
• Ranging rods are 2-3 meters in length and are painted
with alternate bands of two colors like white and black,
red and white in succession. Each band is kept at a
length of 20 centimeters. Ranging rods are made of well-
seasoned timber. Their cross-section is kept either
circular or octagonal with a 3 cm nominal diameter.

• They are used to range an intermediate point on a survey

line. A red, yellow, or white flag is tied at its top while
carrying out longer surveys because the rod is not visible
beyond a 200-meter distance.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Offset Rods
• It is similar to a ranging rod but is of a 3-meter
length. They are also wooden rods, circular in
cross-section. Its one end is pointed with an
iron shoe and at the other, a notch or hook is
provided.
• It is used to take rough offsets in the nearby
regions. Also, the right angles can be set out
with its help as it has two narrow slots at its
center.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• It is the simplest instrument for setting out right Cross Staff
angles on a survey line. It has a frame containing two • Open cross-staff: Two pairs of vertical slits are
pairs of opposite slits mounted on a pole. The pole present which gives two lines of sight at right
can be used to fix the instrument on the ground. angles.
• French cross-staff: It has a hollow octagonal box
set up on a pole. On each face, vertical slits are
cut in the middle for sighting. The lines of sight
are at an angle of 45° to one another.
• Adjustable cross-staff: It has two cylinders of
equal diameter with sighting slits placed on each
other. The upper box can be rotated and is
provided with a vernier to take measurements.
The lower box has graduations of degrees and
subdivisions. Any angle can be set out with the
help of this instrument.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

Optical Square
• It is more accurate than a cross-staff. Also, it is convenient to use for
setting out right angles. It has a circular box with three slits. The
instrument is set on the line whose perpendicular is to be set out.
Two slits point towards the ranging rod at the end of the survey line.
• Then another ranging rod is to be set at such a point that the two
images coincide with each other. This point is perpendicular to the
initial line.
• The optical square uses a pentaprism to reflect and refract a beam
or sighting 90 degrees, it is used in pairs in surveying and in a
singular block in metrology.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Prism Square
• The principle of the prism square is similar to that of the optical
square. However, it is more precise as compared to the optical
square. It can be used in a similar manner as an optical square.
Unlike the optical square, adjustment is not required, as the angle
between the reflecting surfaces does not vary.

• Site Square
• It has a cylindrical metal case and two telescopes fixed at 90°. It is
used to set out offset lines at right angles.
Note: When the direction is established with respect to each other, it is called an
angle. If the direction is established with respect to a meridian, it is called bearing.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Compass
• It comprises a magnetic needle attached to a
graduated circular ring made up of aluminum.
The needle orients itself to the magnetic
meridian if it is on the pivot. Object vane and
eye slit are attached to the compass box and
help in locating the line of sight.
• It is a magnetic compass that measures the
magnetic meridian. It is portable and hence
convenient too. It can be either used in the
Prism Square
palm or fixed on a tripod.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Compass
• The object vane has thin vertical hair while the eye slit
has a vertical slit. A triangular prism is also attached
below the eye slit to suit different sighting requirements
with both horizontal and vertical faces convex. The south
end corresponds to 0° while the west end corresponds to
90° and so on. Thus, the north end is at 180° while the
east end is at 270°.
• Temporary or permanent adjustments are to be carried
out for the compass as required. Centering, leveling, and
focusing of the prism are temporary adjustments. The
temporary adjustments are to be made every time the
Prism Square instrument is set.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Surveyor’s Compass
• The graduated ring is directly attached to the
box instead of the needle in the surveyor’s • The object vane and eye vane are similar to that of the prismatic
compass. The needle is allowed to float compass, however, no prism is provided. The instrument is to be
freely over the pivot, but it does not orient fixed on a tripod.
itself to the magnetic meridian as in the case
• The readings through this compass are taken against the north
of a prismatic compass.
end of the needle by looking through the top glass vertically.
When the line of sight coincides magnetic meridian, the north
and south ends are at 0°. While the east and west end
corresponds to 90°.

• Temporary or permanent adjustments are to be carried out for

the compass as required. Centering and leveling are temporary
adjustments. The temporary adjustments are to be made every
time the instrument is set.

Surveyor’s Square

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Theodolite
• Basic surveying instrument of unknown origin but going back to the 16th-
century English mathematician Leonard Digges; it is used to measure
horizontal and vertical angles. In its modern form, it consists of a telescope
mounted to swivel both horizontally and vertically.
• A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal
and vertical planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications
and have been adapted for specialized purposes in fields like metrology and
rocket launch technology. A modern theodolite consists of a movable
telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes, the horizontal or trunnion
and vertical axes. When the telescope is pointed at a target object, the angle
of each of these axes can be measured with great precision.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Theodolite
• It is the most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and
vertical angles. It is popular in various surveying applications. There are
two types of theodolite- transit, and non-transit. non-transit theodolites
have become obsolete these days.
• Transit theodolite is theodolite in which the telescope can be revolved by
180° in the vertical plane.
• Temporary adjustments of a theodolite include setting over the station,
leveling, and elimination of parallax. Setting up includes centering with a
plumb bob and approximate leveling. Leveling up is done by the screw
head- it is either a three-screw head or four screw head. Parallax is
eliminated by focusing on the eyepiece as well as the objective.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_9zLkUd2Yc&ab_channel=3DMExperiment

Types of Surveying Instruments

Parts of Theodolite 7. Lower/Scale Plate

1. Telescope 8. Upper/Vernier Plate

2. Vertical circle 9. Plate levels

3. Index/Vernier frame 10.Tripod

4. Standards/A frame 11.Plumb bob

5. Leveling head 12.Compass

6. Two Spindles 13.Striding level

Note: Repetition methods or Reiteration methods can be

employed for setting out horizontal angles to obtain more precise
results.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

A Theodolite can be used to intersection between two
1. Measure the magnetic bearing straight lines
of a line 7. Setting out a horizontal angle
2. Measure direct angles 8. Setting out an angle by
3. Measure deflection angles repetition

4. Extend a straight line 9. Establish grade

5. Establish a straight line 10.Measure the difference in

between two points elevation

6. Locating the point of 11.Setting out curves

Note: Repetition methods or Reiteration methods can be

employed for setting out horizontal angles to obtain more
precise results.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Total Station point and reduced level of point.

• A total station is an electronic/optical • Data collected from total station can be

instrument used in modern surveying downloaded into computer/laptops for

and building construction that uses further processing of information.

electronic transit theodolite in • Total stations are mainly used by land

conjunction with electronic distance surveyors and civil engineers, either to
meter (EDM).It is also integrated with record features as in topographic
microprocessor, electronic data surveying or to set oust features (such
collector and storage system. as roads, houses or boundaries). They

• The instrument is used to measure are also used by archaeologists to

sloping distance of object to the record excavations and by police, crime

instrument, horizontal angles and scene investigators, private accident

vertical angles. This Microprocessor Reconstructionist and insurance

unit enables for computation of data companies to take measurements of

collected to further calculate the scenes.

horizontal distance, coordinates of a

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Total Station
It is used to take the measurement of-
• Horizontal angles: The rotation of the optical axis
of TS from the instrument north in a horizontal
plane gives the horizontal angle.
• Vertical angle: The inclination of the optical axis of
TS from the local vertical gives a vertical angle.
• Slope distance: The distance between TS and the
target gives the slope distance.
TS can store data too as some have inbuilt internal
electronic data storage, which can be uploaded to
the computer, and the data analysis can be done with
the help of various applications.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Level
• It is used to provide a horizontal line of sight. A
horizontal line can be established with the help of a
level. It is the line perpendicular to the plumb line.
• The telescope, level tube, leveling head, and tripod
are the main parts present on every level.
• Differential leveling, profile leveling, cross-
sectioning, reciprocal leveling, and precise leveling
are some of the methods of leveling that can be
• At this level, a telescope is firmly attached to two collars,
which can be fixed by adjusting screws carried by a vertical carried out by a level.
spindle. • Temporary adjustments of station adjustments are to
• The movement of the spindle about the vertical axis is be made each time the level is set up including
regulated by a clamp screw. A tangent screw is used for precise setting up the level, leveling up, and eliminating
movements. Two parallel plates are fixed on either three or
parallax.
four-foot screws in leveling head.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Dumpy Level
• A dumpy level, builder’s auto level, leveling instrument, or
automatic level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify
points in the same horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and
building with a vertical staff to measure height differences and to
transfer, measure and set heights.

• Tripod
• A tripod is a portable three-legged frame or stand, used as a
platform for supporting the weight and maintaining the stability of
some other object. It is used to give stability to other survey
instruments as Total Station, Auto Level, etc.

Types of Surveying Instruments

GPS (Global Positioning System)
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system
that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere
on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil and
commercial users around the world. It is maintained by the United States
government and is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
• The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24
satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was originally
intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the
system available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere
in the world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to
use GPS.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Leveling Staff
• It is a straight rod with graduation marks with a zero from the bottom. It helps in
determining how much above or below the station from the line of sight.

There are two types of leveling staff- self-reading staff and target staff.
• Self-reading staff: It can be read directly by the instrument man. The readings are always
taken from the telescope and hence appear inverted. Therefore, readings are taken
downwards.
• Solid Staff- The smallest division is 5 mm. its length is about 3 meters.
• Folding Staff- Its length is 10 feet and it is hinged in the middle. It can be folded about the
hinge when not in use for convenience.
• Telescopic Staff- It has three telescopic lengths of 1.5, 1.5, and 2 meters when stretched
out fully. Normally, its total length is 5 meters. A circular bubble is also installed at the
back in a suitable case.
• Target staff: It has a moving target against which readings are taken by the staff man. The
sliding target comes along with the vernier.

Types of Surveying Instruments

Photogrammetry/Drone

Photogrammetry is the art and science of making accurate

measurements by means of aerial photography:
• Analog photogrammetry (using films: hard-copy photos)

• Digital photogrammetry (digital images)

• Aerial photographs were the first form of remote sensing imagery.

 Types of vantage points to acquire photographs?

• Vertical vantage points

• Low-oblique vantage points

• High-oblique vantage points

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• LDM (Laser Distance Meter)
• Laser measurement tools are based on the principle of reflection of a laser
beam.
• To measure a distance, the device emits a pulse of laser in the direction of an
object, for example a wall.
• The time necessary for the laser beam to get to the object and go back
determines the measurement of the distance.
• In consideration of the speed of light, distances can be defined precisely
with this kind of laser.
• Laser distance meters can also accumulate independently to calculate
surfaces and volumes..

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Measuring Wheel
• The measuring wheel – also known as a surveyor’s wheel, click
wheel, perambulator, odometer, way wiser or trundle wheel – is a
tool used to measure distances. Measuring wheels have a
counting mechanism that counts the number of rotations and
uses the circumference of the wheel to calculate the distance
covered.

• Bipods
• Find a collection of aluminum survey bipods, carbon fiber bipods,
quick-release bipods, and more. Easy level adjustment for better
precision & accuracy.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Plumb Bob Laser
• Dot-plumb lasers are a type of laser level that projects a small dot
onto a surface. These dots are used for transferring points from
wall to wall or ceiling to floor. It’s a handy tool for making sure a
wall is plumb or even installing wall-to-wall

• Prism Pole
• A prism pole can be used to measure the elevation of a specific
ground point by using a sight level, which is important if you want
to get accurate results. You can find a survey pole in a variety of
materials — from metal and fiberglass to a variety of composites.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Plane Table
• A tripod with a device for leveling and
• Traverse Table: It consists of a small drawing board mounted
controlling its orientation is used in
on a light tripod so that the board can be rotated about the
plane table surveying.
vertical axis and then clamped in the desired position. The
table is leveled via tripod legs by eye estimation.
• Johnson Table: It consists of a drawing board of size 45 * 60 cm
or 60 * 75 cm. The head has a ball and socket joint while on its
underside, a vertical spindle with thumbscrews is present.
• Coast Survey Table: This survey table is used for high-precision
works and is more accurate than the previous two. There are
three-foot screws for accurate leveling. A clamp and tangent
screw is also provided for moving the table about the vertical
axis.
Plane Table

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Plumbing Fork
• It is used for centering in large-scale works at the
station point. It is composed of a hairpin-shaped light
metal frame with arms of equal length. A plumb bob is
suspended from the lower arm.
• It is also used for transforming the ground point on the
sheet at the beginning of the survey so that the
plotted point and ground station are in the same
vertical line.
• The upper arm is set on the table while the plumb bob
Plane Table Accessories
on the lower arm corresponds to the ground point.

Types of Surveying Instruments

• Spirit Level
• It is used to ensure that the table is leveled properly. The spirit
level is placed at two perpendicular positions to ascertain that it
is leveled.
• It is either of tubular or circular type. Its base is flat so that it can
be easily placed on the table. The table is leveled if the bubble is
at the center

• Trough Compass
• It is used for the orientation of the plane table towards the
magnetic north.
• In plane table surveying, a trough compass is used in which the
longer sides of the compass are flat and parallel. The sides can
Plane Table Accessories be used as rulers or can be used to coincide with a line already
drawn on the paper.

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Types of Surveying Instruments

• Alidate
• The alidade is used for determining the directions
of objects and is commonly deployed in detailed
survey (q.v.). especially plane table, mapping (q.v.)

• Drawing Paper
• A superior quality drawing paper is used that has a
minimum effect on the humidity of the
atmosphere. Otherwise, the scale is disturbed.
Plane Table Accessories • Fiberglass sheets or paper with a backing of
aluminum are used for high-precision works.

Surveying Instruments Names and their Uses

Sr. No. Instrument Uses
1. Measuring tape To measure linear distances
2. Chain To measure linear distances with precision
3. Arrow To mark a single chain distance
4. Peg To fix points on the ground To mark the terminal points of survey lines on the ground
5. Ranging rods To mark the position of stations To sight the stations To range straight lines
6. Plumb bob To establish a vertical line
7. Cross Staff To set out a right angle from a survey line
8. Optical Staff To set out a right angle from a survey line
9. Prism Square To set out a right angle from a survey line
10. Site Square To set out a right angle from a survey line
11. Prismatic Compass To find the bearing of traversing To find included angles
12. Surveyor’s Compass To find a bearing and angles between two survey lines in a traverse
13. Level To establish relative heights of points with the help of leveling staff
To determine the height difference between two points To measure the height or depth of a point
14. Leveling Staff
with respect to the datum
To measure the angle between two pre-decided visible points in either a horizontal or vertical
15. Theodolite
plane.
16. Total Station To measure horizontal angle To measure vertical angle To measure slope distance
17. Tripod To support surveying instruments like a compass, level, theodolite, or total station
18. Plane table To provide a solid and level surface to make field drawings
19. Alidade To sight a distant object and establish a line of sight in a plane table surveying
20. Plumbing fork For centering of alidade in plane table surveying
21. Spirit Level To level the table in plane table surveying
22. Trough Compass To set the orientation towards magnetic north in plane table surveying
23. Drawing Paper To note field points on paper in a plane table surveying

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References

• “Surveying and Levelling” Vol I

Kanetkar and kulkarni (2011) Pune Vidhyarthi Griha,Pune

• “ Surveying and Levelling”

N.N.Basak (2010) Tata Mcgraw Hill

• “ Surveying Vol- I II & III‟

Dr. B.C. Punamia Laxmi Publication

1/16/2024 41

Thank you !!

If you have any queries, then please contact me at : [email protected]

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