Unit 1 Analyzing Data

Lesson 1 Variables
1. Definition of Variable
2. Types of Variables and Data
3. Other types of Variables
Assessment

Overview
Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusions from data. You need to be able to read and comprehend the numerous statistical studies carried
out in your subjects, just like professionals do. You must be familiar with the terms, symbols, ideas, and
statistical techniques utilized in these investigations in order to comprehend this.

Definition of Variable

In data analysis, a variable is a characteristic or attribute of a unit or entity being observed,

measured, or analyzed. It is any factor that can change or vary and has potential to effect the outcome of an
experiment, study or analysis.

Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. a sets describe values
for each variable for unknown quantities such as height, weight, temperature, volume, etc., of an object or
values of random numbers. The values in this set are known as a datum. The data set consists of data of one
or more members corresponding to each row. Each value in the data set is called a data value or a datum.

Source: https://www.saedsayad.com/data_preparation.htm
Source: https://www.saedsayad.com/data_preparation.htm

There are two types of variables, numerical and categorical.

A numerical or continuous variable is one that can accept any value within a finite or infinite interval
(e.g., height, weight, temperature, blood glucose ...). There are two types of numerical
data, interval and ratio. Data on an interval scale can be added and subtracted but cannot be meaningfully
multiplied or divided because there is no true zero. For example, we cannot say that one day is twice as hot
as another day. On the other hand, data on a ratio scale has true zero and can be added, subtracted, multiplied
or divided (e.g., weight).

A categorical or discrete variable is one that can accept two or more values (categories). There are two
types of categorical data, nominal and ordinal. Nominal data does not have an intrinsic ordering in the
categories. For example, "gender" with two categories, male and female. In contrast, ordinal data does have
an intrinsic ordering in the categories. For example, "level of energy" with three orderly categories (low,
medium and high).

https://medium.com/@dharmanathpatil/types-of-random-variables-
Four common types of scales are used: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

1. Ratio
The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists
a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of
the population.
For example, some researchers classify IQ data as ratio data rather than interval. Also, data can be altered
so that they fit into a different category. For instance, if the incomes of all professors of a college are
classified into the three categories of low, average, and high, then a ratio variable becomes an ordinal
variable.

2. Interval

The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units
of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
For example, many standardized psychological tests yield values measured on an interval scale. IQ is an
example of such a variable. There is a meaningful difference of 1 point between an IQ
of 109 and an IQ of 110. Temperature is another example of interval measurement, since
there is a meaningful difference of 1F between each unit, such as 72 and 73F. One
property is lacking in the interval scale: There is no true zero. For example, IQ tests do
not measure people who have no intelligence. For temperature, 0F does not mean no
heat at all.
 3. Nominal
The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping),
exhausting categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
A sample of college instructors classified according to subject taught (e.g., English, history, psychology, or
mathematics) is an example of nominal-level measurement. Classifying survey subjects as male or female
is another example of nominal-level measurement. No ranking or order can be placed on the data.
Classifying residents according to zip codes is also an example of the nominal level of measurement. Even
though numbers are assigned as zip codes, there is no meaningful order or ranking.

4. Ordinal
The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
Data measured at this level can be placed into categories, and these categories can be ordered, or ranked.
For example, from student evaluations, guest speakers might be ranked as superior, average, or poor. Floats
in a homecoming parade might be ranked as first place, second place, etc. Note that precise measurement
of differences in the ordinal level of measurement does not exist. For instance, when people are classified
according to their build (small, medium, or large), a large variation exists among the individuals in each
class.

Other types of Variable

1. Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables.
Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that’s why they are hypothetical). For example,
there is an association between being poor and having a shorter life span. Just because someone is poor
doesn’t mean that will lead to an early death, so other hypothetical variables are used to explain the
phenomenon. These intervening variables could include: lack of access to healthcare or poor nutrition.
In psychology, the intervening variable is sometimes called a mediator variable. In statistics, an intervening
variable is usually considered to be a sub-type of mediating variable. However, the lines between the two
terms are somewhat fuzzy, and they are often used interchangeably.
Limitations
Intervening variables are hypothetical constructs like personality, intelligence or attitude. As they are not
“real” variables, one major limitation is that they cannot be measured. It is therefore impossible to quantify
how much of the experimental results are due to the independent variables, and how much are due to each
of the intervening variable.
Examples:
Examples of Intervening Variable
Here are some examples of intervening variables:
Stress: Suppose you are investigating the relationship between workload and productivity in the workplace.
However, you find that stress plays a mediating role in this relationship, meaning that as workload increases,
so does stress, and as stress increases, productivity decreases.
Education: Let’s say you are researching the effect of parental income on a child’s academic performance.
Education could be an intervening variable because it plays a role in how income affects academic
performance. Children from families with higher income levels may have access to better schools and
resources, which can lead to better academic performance.
Self-esteem: Suppose you are studying the relationship between bullying and mental health. Self-esteem
could be an intervening variable because bullying can lower one’s self-esteem, which in turn can lead to
depression and anxiety.
Motivation: Let’s say you are investigating the effect of rewards on performance in the workplace.
Motivation could be an intervening variable because rewards can increase motivation, which in turn can
lead to higher performance levels.
Social support: Suppose you are studying the effect of a new treatment for a chronic illness. Social support
could be an intervening variable because individuals who receive social support may be more likely to
adhere to the treatment regimen, which in turn can lead to better health outcomes.
When to use Intervening Variable
Here are some situations where intervening variables may be useful:
1. When the relationship between two variables is complex and difficult to understand: In such cases,
an intervening variable can help to clarify the relationship by identifying the underlying
mechanisms that link the two variables.
2. When there are multiple potential causes for the dependent variable: In such cases, an intervening
variable can help to identify the specific factor or factors that are responsible for the relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
3. When the independent variable has an indirect effect on the dependent variable: In such cases, an
intervening variable can help to identify the specific intermediate step or steps that link the
independent variable to the dependent variable.

2. Mediating Variable
Mediating variables help us understand the relationship between the independent variable, and
dependent variable when there is no such direct relationship between both. When independent variables
cannot influence the dependent variable, a mediating variable works as a referee between the two and help
us navigate the relationship between independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV). Mediating
variables are also called intervening variables.

3. Moderating Variable
A moderating variable is a variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between
two other variables. It is also referred to as an interactive variable or a moderator.In social science
research, a moderating variable is often used to understand how the relationship between two
variables changes depending on the level of a third variable.
Moderating Variable Examples
Here are a few examples of moderating variables:
 Age as a moderating variable: Suppose a study examines the relationship between exercise and heart
health. Age may act as a moderating variable, influencing the relationship between exercise and heart
health. For example, the relationship between exercise and heart health may be stronger for younger
adults compared to older adults.
 Gender as a moderating variable: Consider a study examining the relationship between salary and
job satisfaction. Gender may act as a moderating variable, influencing the relationship between salary
and job satisfaction. For example, the relationship between salary and job satisfaction may be stronger
for men than for women.
 Social support as a moderating variable: Suppose a study examines the relationship between stress
and mental health. Social support may act as a moderating variable, influencing the relationship
between stress and mental health. For example, the relationship between stress and mental health may
be stronger for individuals with low social support compared to those with high social support.
 Education level as a moderating variable: Consider a study examining the relationship between
technology use and academic performance. Education level may act as a moderating variable,
influencing the relationship between technology use and academic performance. For example, the
relationship between technology use and academic performance may be stronger for individuals with
higher education levels compared to those with lower education levels.

When to use Moderating Variable

Here are some scenarios where using a moderating variable can be helpful:
1. When there is a complex relationship: In situations where the relationship between two variables is
complex, a moderating variable can help to clarify the relationship. For example, the relationship between
stress and job performance may be influenced by a variety of factors such as job demands, social support,
and coping mechanisms.
2. When there is a subgroup effect: In situations where the effect of one variable on another is stronger
or weaker for certain subgroups of individuals, a moderating variable can be helpful. For example, the
relationship between exercise and weight loss may be stronger for individuals who are obese compared to
individuals who are not obese.
3. When there is a need for tailored interventions: In situations where the effect of one variable on
another is different for different individuals, a moderating variable can be useful for developing tailored
interventions. For example, the relationship between diet and weight loss may be influenced by individual
differences in genetics, metabolism, and lifestyle.
4. Extraneous variables
An extraneous variable is any variable not being investigated that has the potential to affect the
outcome of a research study. In other words, it is any factor not considered an independent variable
that can affect the dependent variables or controlled conditions. Extraneous variables are to be
controlled by you, the experimenter. But if they do not give in to your control, they become
confounding variables that can strongly influence your study.

Types of extraneous variables

Extraneous variables can be categorized into four distinct types. These categories help researchers
select a unique method of control. The four types of extraneous variables are:
1. Situational variables
Situational variables are environmental factors that could affect the way a test subject behaves in
an experiment. Examples include:

 Lighting
 Background noise
 Room temperature
 Visual distractions
2. Participant variables
Participant variables, or personal variables, occur when a participant’s personal feelings or
character traits affect the experiment. Examples include participants’:

 Natural intelligence
 Demographics
 Mood
 Physical capabilities
 Level of understanding of the study
3. Experimenter variables
This type of extraneous variable occurs when the researcher or experimenter unintentionally
influences how participants should behave. Examples include:
 The age, gender and mannerisms of the experimenter
 Using certain phrasing to hint at the way experimenters want participants to behave
 Speaking in a positive or negative tone when providing experiment instructions
4. Demand characteristic variables
These variables convey information or clues to the participant about the purpose of the study. They
can also let the participant know the outcome the researcher desires, which can affect the results of
the study. Examples include:

 The participant's surroundings

 The questions included in a survey
 The researcher’s behavior
 5. Confounding Variables is one that influences the dependent or outcome variable but was not
separated from the independent variable. Confounding variables (a.k.a. confounders or
confounding factors) are a type of extraneous variable that are related to a study’s independent and
dependent variables. A variable must meet two conditions to be a confounder:
 It must be correlated with the independent variable. This may be a causal relationship, but
it does not have to be.
 It must be causally related to the dependent variable.
(Causal relationship indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the
other event)
Example of a confounding variable
You collect data on sunburns and ice cream consumption. You find that higher ice cream
consumption is associated with a higher probability of sunburn. Does that mean ice cream
consumption causes sunburn?
Here, the confounding variable is temperature: high temperatures cause people to both eat more ice
cream and spend more time outdoors under the sun, resulting in more sunburns.

How to reduce the impact of confounding variables

There are several methods of accounting for confounding variables. You can use the following methods
when studying any type of subjects— humans, animals, plants, chemicals, etc. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
1. Restriction
In this method, you restrict your treatment group by only including subjects with the same values of
potential confounding factors.
Since these values do not differ among the subjects of your study, they cannot correlate with your
independent variable and thus cannot confound the cause-and-effect relationship you are studying.

Restriction example
You want to study whether a low-carb diet can cause weight loss. Since you know that age, sex, level of
education and exercise intensity are all factors that may be associated with weight loss, as well as with the
diet your subjects choose to follow, you choose to restrict your subject pool to 45-year-old women with
bachelor’s degrees who exercise at moderate levels of intensity between 100–150 minutes per week.
2. Matching
In this method, you select a comparison group that matches with the treatment group. Each member of the
comparison group should have a counterpart in the treatment group with the same values of potential
confounders, but different independent variable values.

This allows you to eliminate the possibility that differences in confounding variables cause the variation in
outcomes between the treatment and comparison group. If you have accounted for any potential
confounders, you can thus conclude that the difference in the independent variable must be the cause of the
variation in the dependent variable.
Matching example
In your study on low-carb diet and weight loss, you match up your subjects on age, sex, level of education
and exercise intensity. This allows you to include a wider range of subjects: your treatment group includes
men and women of different ages with a variety of education levels.

3.Statistical control
If you have already collected the data, you can include the possible confounders as control variables in your
regression models; in this way, you will control for the impact of the confounding variable.
Any effect that the potential confounding variable has on the dependent variable will show up in the results
of the regression and allow you to separate the impact of the independent variable.

Statistical control example

After collecting data about weight loss and low-carb diets from a range of participants, in your regression
model, you include exercise levels, education, age, and sex as control variables, along with the type of diet
each subjects follows as the independent variable. This allows you to separate the impact of diet chosen
from the influence of these other four variables on weight loss in your regression.
4. Randomization
Another way to minimize the impact of confounding variables is to randomize the values of your
independent variable. For instance, if some of your participants are assigned to a treatment group while
others are in a control group, you can randomly assign participants to each group.
Randomization example
You gather a large group of subjects to participate in your study on weight loss. You randomly select half
of them to follow a low-carb diet and the other half to continue their normal eating habits.
ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Write legibly. You can encode or write in a clean paper.
1. Create your own examples at least 3 of each variables and draw a conceptual framework or
illustration of each examples.
2. Write five examples for nominal, ordinal, ratio and interval.