ConEn 442:

Transportation Engineering
Wael M. ElDessouki, Ph.D.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

  Module 1: Traffic Engineering:
 Basic Characteristics,
 Speed Study, Volume Study

2 CONEN 442  Quiz 1 (14/12/2022)

 Capacity and LOS Analysis

Transportation  Traffic Control Devices and MUTCD

 Quiz 2 (28/12/2022)
Engineering:  Module 2: Highway Design:

Course Layout  Highway Classification

 Design Criteria,

(Tentative)  Horizontal Alignment

 MIDTERM EXAM (9/1/2023)
 Vertical Alignment
 Module 3: Pavement Design & Construction
 Flexible Pavement
 Quiz 3 (25/1/2023
 Design &Construction
 Rigid Pavement
 Field Compaction Tests
 Quantity Surveying & QC Issues
 Quiz 4 (8/2/2023)
ElDessouki CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
 Course Assessment:
 2 Mid-term Exams 40%
 2 Quizzes *7.5% 20%
 Extras: HW, participation,,, etc. +3%
 Final Exam 40%

3 Grading, Textbooks & References:

Exams..etc*  Roess, R. P., Prassas, E. S., and McShane, W. R., “Traffic
Engineering”, Fourth Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2011.
 Garber Hole “Traffic and Highway Engineering” 2nd Edition
 HCM 2000 (SI Units)
 Selected AASHTO design Tables and Handouts

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Timetable for Assessment
CONEN442 Transportation Engineering
4 Wk# Date Sun Mon Tue Wed Thr
1 14-Jan-24
2 21-Jan-24
 Quiz1: Jan 31st, 2024
3 28-Jan-24 Q1
 MID 1: Feb 19th, 2024 4 4-Feb-24
5 11-Feb-24
 Quiz2: March 20th, 2024 6 18-Feb-24 MID1
 MID 2: May 6th, 2024 7 25-Feb-24 Term Break
8 3-Mar-24
9 10-Mar-24
10 17-Mar-24 Q2
11 24-Mar-24
12 31-Mar-24
EID BREAK
13 7-Apr-24
14 14-Apr-24
15 21-Apr-24
16 28-Apr-24
17 5-May-24 MID2
19 12-May-24
20 19-May-24
21 26-May-24
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 Final Exams ElDessouki
22 2-Jun-24
23 9-Jun-24
 Module 1:
Traffic Engineering
Wael M. ElDessouki, Ph.D.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

5
6 Introduction

Q: What is Traffic Engineering?

A: Definition from the Institute of Traffic Engineers(ITE):

“The phase of transportation engineering that deals
with the planning, geometric design and traffic
operations of roads, streets, and highways, their
networks, terminals, abutting lands and relationship
with other modes of transportation”

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

7 Introduction
Objectives of Traffic Engineering:

Primary Objective:
 SAFETY

Secondary Objectives:
 Speed
 Comfort
 Convenience
 Economy
 Environmental compatibility

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

8
Elements of Traffic System
 Road Users
Drivers, Passengers, Pedestrians, and Bicyclists
 Vehicles:
Private Autos, Trucks, and Busses
 Infrastructure:
Highways, Streets, Intersections, Roundabouts, Bridges, Tunnels,
Railways…..etc
 Traffic Control Devices:
Signs & Traffic Signals
 Environment:
Weather , Lighting Conditions, …etc

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Road Users:
Characteristics
• Drivers
9
of Traffic System
• Pedestrians
Elements:
10
Road User Characteristics:
Drivers & Pedestrians Limits
 Road users are diverse population and have different
characteristics.
 However, their characteristics follow a normal distribution, and,
in our analysis, we will focus on 85% & 15%
 85th % represents the maximum
 15th % represents the minimum

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

11
Drivers’ Field of Vision

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

12
1- Road Users Visual Characteristics
Vision is the most important sensory system
for the task of driving a vehicle.
Q: Why?
A: Because drivers rely on their vision to:
1- Detect hazards
2- Make turn decisions
3- Selecting Acceleration/Deceleration Rates
4- Selecting safe Speed
…
Simply all driving decisions are based on their vision

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

13 Vertical Field of Vision

60 Deg.

Line of Sight

75 Deg. 3-10 Deg.

10 - 12 Deg.Acute vision cone
Clear vision cone

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Field of Vision: Examples
14

5 Deg. (Diameter)

10 Deg.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

15 Horizontal Field of Vision

60 Deg.
90-100 Deg.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

16 Horizontal Field of Vision
Binocular Vision
~ 120 Deg.

Monocular Monocular
Vision 60 Deg. Vision
~ 35 Deg. ~ 35 Deg.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

17
Field of Vision Characteristics
Impact of Speed on Visual Field:
As speed increases, the visual field decrease significantly, especially
the peripheral vision.
Example:
at 20 mph it becomes 100 deg.
at 60 mph it becomes 40 deg.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

Field of Vision: Impact of Speed (24 km/hr)

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 18
Field of Vision: Impact of Speed (35 km/hr)

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 19
Field of Vision: Impact of Speed (40 km/hr)

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 20
Field of Vision: Impact of Speed (48 km/hr)

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 21
22
Field of Vision: “Importance”

Traffic Engineers Use Field of Vision for:

1. Traffic signs placement on highways
2. Traffic signs size
3. Safety analysis

Note: peripheral vision has the most important role in driver’s

speed perception

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Drivers’ Perception
23
Reaction Time

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

24
Perception- Reaction Time (PRT)
Perception Time:
Can be defined as the time it takes a driver to sense, perceive,
and understand the existence and nature of a stimulus

Reaction Time:
Can be defined as the time it takes a driver to make a
response decision based on the nature of the existing stimulus
and his own state, and to execute that decision.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

25
Perception- Reaction Time (PRT)
Design Values:

2.5 seconds for most computations involving braking reactions. (90th %) (AASHTO)

1.0 second for signal timing purposes (85th %)(ITE)

NOTE: Higher values of PRT for more complex situations might be used (AASHTO)

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

ITE – Institute of Traffic Engineers

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Perception- Reaction Time (PRT)
26

Factors Affecting Driver’s PRT :

1 – Age
2- Fatigue
3- Complexity of the situation
4 – Presence of Alcohol or Drugs in the driver’s
body

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Pedestrians Characteristics:
Walking Speed
27
Gap Acceptance

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Pedestrian Characteristics
28
Walking Speed:
1.22 m/s (4 ft/s) Recommended for Intersection Design (15 % Percentile )
accommodates 85%
1.5 m/s ( 5 ft /s) 50Th Percentile (Median)
Gap Acceptance:
Gap acceptance is defined as the acceptable distance gap between two
successive vehicles in a traffic stream the pedestrian is trying to cross.
Depends on:
 perception of approaching vehicle speed
 number of lanes & lane width
 age & gender of pedestrian.
Recommended Design Value:
37.5 m (125 ft ) 85th percentile
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Vehicles:
Characteristics • Classification
29
of Traffic System • Turning
Elements: • Stopping
• Climbing
 Vehicles Size Characteristics:
ASSHTO Categories:
Passenger Cars
Buses
Trucks
30
Recreational Vehicles (RV)
AASHTO also defined 20 design vehicles under these categories

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

31
Vehicle Categories (AASHTO):
 Passenger cars:
all passenger cars, SUVs, minivans, vans, and pickup trucks.

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32
Vehicle Categories (AASHTO):
 Buses:
intercity motor coaches, transit buses, school buses, and articulated buses

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

Van/Small Bus Articulated Bus

33
Vehicle Categories (AASHTO):
 Trucks:
single-unit trucks, tractor-trailer, and tractor-semi-trailer combination vehicles

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 34
Vehicle Categories (AASHTO):
 Recreational vehicles
motor homes, cars with various types of trailers (boat, campers, motorcycles, etc.)

Boat Trailer

Camper Trailer
Motor Homes

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

JetSki Trailer
 Low Speed Turning Characteristics
35

Low Speed Turning is governed by vehicle geometry.

Each design vehicle has the following critical attributes:
1. The minimum inner turning radius
2. Wheelbase width
3. The minimum outer turning radius
4. Path of front overhang

These attributed must be taken into consideration in the

geometric design of traffic facilities

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

36
Low Speed Turning Characteristics
 Example: W40 (Semi-trailer truck)

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

37
Low Speed Turning Characteristics
 Application Example for Low Speed Turning Characteristics:
Accommodation of Bus at Signalized Intersection

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

38
Low Speed Turning Characteristics
 Application Example for Low Speed Turning Characteristics:
Accommodation of Truck at Signalized Intersection

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 High-Speed Turning Characteristics
39
Relationship between Turning Speed, Radius of Curve, Superelevation, and Side
Friction:

0.01 + =
Where ,
C.G.
V – Vehicle Speed (m/s), R

R- Curve Radius (m), e

100
- Side Friction Coefficient

- Superelevationon ,

– Gravitational Acceleration(m/s2)

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 High-Speed Turning Characteristics
40
Side Friction:
Side friction is affected by surface condition and vehicle speed.
For design purpose, wet condition is usually assumed. The following
table shows recommended values:

Note: 1 mile = 1.61 Km

Super elevation:
Typical range 0.5-12 % , but in most cases it does not exceed 8%
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 High-Speed Turning Characteristics
41

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 High-Speed Turning Characteristics
42
Example:
Given the design speed for a highway , to be 120 km/hr. Please determine
the minimum radius for a horizontal curve, if the super elevation was
limited to be 3% & 8%.
Answer: e+f = v2/gR 120kph  120/3.6=33.33 m/s

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Vehicles Stopping Characteristics:

43

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Vehicle Stopping Characteristics
44
When a driver sees a hazard, he will press the brake to stop the
vehicle and avoid collision:
Vi Vi Vf

Friction F = W*f= mg*f Driver

The driver Driver
Starts Crash
sees the
Brake Here
hazard

Decision Making Distance (d1) Braking Distance (d2)

Perception/Reaction Distance
d1 = * d2 =

Total Stopping Distance: ds = d1 + d2

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Vehicle Stopping Characteristics
45
Total Stopping Sight Distance (Generic Units):
= +

= +

−
= ∗ +
2 ( ± 0.01 )

Where,
ds : Total Stopping Distance (m)
Vi : Initial Vehicle Speed (m/s)
Vf : Final Vehicle Speed (m/s)
g : Gravitational Acceleration (m/s2)
f : Pavement Longitudinal Friction Coefficient (0.348)
G : Vertical Grade %
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
Vehicle Characteristics:
Traffic Light Application (General)
Yellow Time (Y):
Stopping Sight Distance
Y
 Approach Speed  Passing Speed 
 
 2 

All Red Time (AR) (Clearance Time):

Passing Distance  Vehicle Length
AR 
Passing Speed

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 46
Vehicle Characteristics:
Traffic Light Application

V V

Stopping Sight Distance Width L

(SSD)
For Through Movement (TH) case:
The passing speed is the same as the approach speed, hence:
Stopping Sight Distance SSD
Y 
Approach Speed V
Passing Distance  Vehicle Length Width  L
AR  
Approach Speed V

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 47
Vehicle Characteristics:
Traffic Light Application R L

V LArc

Stopping Sight Distance

(SSD)
For Left Turn Movement (LT) case:
The passing speed for the vehicle is the safe turning speed (Vt), hence:
Stopping Sight Distance SSD
Y  Vt  g * R * f l
 Approach Speed  Turning Speed   V  Vt 
    R  TurnRaduis
 2   2 
f l  SideFriction
Passing Distance  Vehicle Length LArc  L
AR  CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024  g  gravity ElDessouki
Passing Speed Vt 48
 Vehicle Characteristics: Applications
Example:
For the shown intersection, please do the following:
For Through Movement (TH) Determine the Yellow time (Y) & Clearing time (AR)
For Left Turn Movement (LT) Determine the Yellow time (Y) & Clearing time (AR)
Given:
Longitudinal skid friction coefficient = 0.348
Turning Radius (R) = 50 m
Lane width = 3.60 m, Median Width = 4 m
Approach Speed (V)= 60 km/hr ,
LArc
Assume Arc length for LT (LArc) =35 meters.

q 45

R
ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 49
 Example : Chapter 2
50
2.2
A driver traveling at 100 km/h rounds a curve on a
level grade to see a truck overturned across the
roadway at a distance of 120 m. If the driver is able to
decelerate at a rate of 0.31g, at what speed will the
vehicle hit the truck? Plot the result for reaction times
ranging from 0.50 to 5.00 s in increments of 0.5 s.
Comment on the results.
2.7
What minimum radius of curvature may be designed
for the safe operation of vehicles at 110 km/h if the
maximum rate of superelevation (e) is 6% and the
maximum coefficient of side friction (f) is 0.10?
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
51

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Characteristics
Traffic Stream
52
of Traffic System Characteristics
Elements:
 Types of Traffic Streams:
53

Uninterrupted:
Uninterrupted flow facilities have no external
interruptions to the traffic stream. Pure uninterrupted
flow exists primarily on freeways, where there are no
intersections at grade, traffic signals, STOP or YIELD
signs, or other interruptions external to the traffic
stream itself.

Interrupted:
Interrupted flow facilities are those that incorporate
fixed external interruptions into their design and
operation. The most frequent and operationally
significant external interruption is the traffic signal.
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Traffic Stream Parameters
54

Macroscopic Parameters:
1. Volume or Flow Rate
2. Speed
3. Density

Microscopic Parameters:
1. Headway
2. Spacing
3. Speed of individual vehicles

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Traffic Stream Characteristics:
Macroscopic Parameters:
 Volume or Flow Rate
55
 Speed
 Density
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Macroscopic Parameters: Volume
56

Traffic Volume or Flow Rate:

Defined as the number of vehicles passing a point
on a highway, or a given lane or direction of a
highway, during a specified time interval.

Units: Vehicle / Time (hr, day, week , or year )

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Macroscopic Parameters: Daily Volumes
57 Average annual daily traffic (AADT):
The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a full 365-day year;
the number of vehicles passing a site in a year divided by 365 days.
Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT):
The average 24-hour volume occurring on weekdays over a full 365-day
year; the number of vehicles passing a site on weekdays in a year
divided by the number of weekdays (usually 260).
Average daily traffic (ADT):
The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a defined time
period less than one year; a common application is to measure an ADT
for each month of the year.
Average weekday traffic ( AWT):
The average 24-hour weekday volume at a given location over a defined
time period less than one year; a common application is to measure an
AWT for each month of the year.
NOTE:
Usually these values are in (veh./day) and non-directional
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Macroscopic Parameters: Daily Volumes
58

Typical Usage for Daily Volumes are:

 Network Planning & Design.
 Feasibility assessment for major projects.
 Prioritization of maintenance projects.
 Assessment of current Demand
 Estimating Transportation trends and forecasting
future demand.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Macroscopic Parameters: Daily
59 Volumes Example

 Calculate: AADT & AAWT

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

60 Macroscopic Parameters: Hourly
Volumes
Daily traffic volumes ( ADT, AADT, ..etc) , are useful
for planning purposes but it can not be used for
design and operation of traffic facilities.
Why?
Because traffic volume varies significantly over the
24 hrs of the day, and the direction. Traffic facilities
must be designed to accommodate peak traffic
volume in the peak direction.

Therefore, for design:

We use the DDHV (Directional Design Hourly Volume)
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Macroscopic Parameters: DDHV
61 Estimation of DDHV
DDHV = AADT * K * D
Where,
AADT : Annual Average Daly Traffic Volume
K : Proportion of the traffic volume occurring during peak hour
D : Direction Proportion

Remember:
AADT is not directional, i.e. traffic flow on both direction of the road is counted
Question:
Why we don’t just count hourly volume and do our design?
Answer:
We usually
CONEN do our design
442 Transportation for future
Engineering S2024 forecast volume. Most future demand forecasting is ElDessouki

carried out in terms of AADT

62 Macroscopic Parameters: Peak Hour
Factor
Example showing a synthetic hourly traffic volume pattern for a weekday
in Jazan city
Morning Peak Hour Afternoon Peak Hour
900
800
700
Traffic Volume ( veh/hr)

600
500
Average Daily Volume
400
300
200
100
0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 Time of Day (hrs) ElDessouki
63
Macroscopic Parameters: Peak Hour
Factor
Peak Hour:
Is defined as the single hour of the day that has the highest traffic flow
rate.
Estimating Peak Hour Factor (PHF):
1- Traffic volume is counted during the peak hour time frame in 15
minutes increments for a period of 2 hrs.
2- Identify the maximum consecutive 15 min intervals where the traffic
volume is the highest, this would be the Peak Hour
3- Add the traffic volume for the four intervals to get the hourly rate,
then ( )
=
4∗
Where,
V – Hourly volume observed during peak hour
Vmax15 – The maximum volume counted during the 15 minutes intervals
of the peak hour
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
64
Macroscopic Parameters: Peak Hour
Factor
Example for Calculating PHF:
Time Interval Traffic Volume
6:30 – 6:45 423
6:45 – 7:00 563
7:00 – 7:15 635
7:15 – 7:30 745
7:30 – 7:45 865
7:45– 8:00 825
8:00 – 8:15 725
8:15 – 8:30 710

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Macroscopic Parameters: Speed
65
Time Mean Speed (TMS):
The average speed of all vehicles passing a point on a highway
or lane over some specified time period.
Space Mean Speed (SMS):
The average speed of all vehicles occupying a given section of
highway or lane over some specified time period.
n n
d  d nd
  t 
i 1  i 
v i SMS  
TMS   i 1  n   n 
n n   ti    ti 
 i 1   i 1 
Where, n
n – number of observed vehicles
vi - Speed of vehicle i passing the observation station
d - length of traversed highway section
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Macroscopic Parameters: Speed
66
Example
Observations: Veh. d (m) time(sec) Speed (m/sec)
1 500 10.4 48.08
SMS are usually less than the TMS 2 500 6.6 75.76
SMS accounts for slower vehicle more than 3 500 8.2 60.98
4 500 9.4 53.19
the TMS
5 500 10.3 48.54
SMS considers the time vehicles occupy 6 500 6.1 81.97
the road 7 500 11.8 42.37
8 500 6.1 81.97

Sum= 68.9 492.85

TMS = 61.61
SMS = 58.06

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Macroscopic Parameters: Density
67
Traffic Density (D):
Defined as the number of vehicles occupying a
given length of highway or lane, generally expressed
as vehicles per km or vehicles per km per lane.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Traffic Stream Characteristics:
Microscopic Parameters:
 Headway
68
 Spacing
 Speed of individual vehicles
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
69
Microscopic Parameters: Spacing &
Headway
Spacing (da):
Is defined as the distance between successive vehicles in a
traffic lane, measured from some common reference point on
the vehicles, such as the front bumper or front wheels.
 Then density (D) would be: 1000
D ( veh / km ) 
da

Headway (ha):
Is defined as the time interval between successive vehicles as
they pass a point along the lane, also measured between
common reference points on the vehicles.
3600
 Then , flow rate (q) would be: q ( veh / hr ) 
ha
q
v ( km / hr )   3 .6 * ( d a / h a )
D
 Average Speed (v ) would be:
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
70
Relationship Between:
Flow Rate, Speed &Density
Flow Rate Q (veh/lane/hr)

Saturation Flow Rate

Q  vS * D
Where ,
Free Flow
Speed
Q  FlowRate
Stable Congested v s  Speed
Flow Flow
D  Density
0 Density
D (veh/lane/km)
0
Critical Jam
Density Density

ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

71
Relationship Between:
Flow Rate, Speed &Density
Speed Free Flow
v (km/hr) Speed

vs  Q / D
Stable
Flow Where ,
Q  FlowRate
Congested v s  Speed
Flow
D  Density
0 Flow Rate
Q (veh/lane/hr)
0
Saturation Flow Rate

ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

72
Relationship Between:
Flow Rate, Speed &Density
Speed Free Flow
Speed/Density Models: Speed
v (km/hr)

Greenshield’s Model(1934):
 D 
v  v f * 1  
 D 
 jam 

v f  free flow speed

Greenberg’s Model(1959):
 D  0 Density
v  C * ln 
D  0 D (veh/lane/km)
 jam  Jam
C  Model Constant vs  Q / D Density
Where ,
Underwood’s Model(1961): Q  FlowRate
 D 
 

v  vf *e
 D jam


 v s  Speed
v f  FreeFlowSpeed D  Density
ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Characteristics
Traffic Control
73
of Traffic System Devices
Elements:
74 Traffic Control Devices:
Traffic control devices are the media by which traffic engineers
(communicate with drivers. Virtually every traffic law, regulation, or
operating instruction must be communicated through the use of
devices that fall into three broad categories:
 Traffic markings
 Traffic signs
 Traffic signals

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Traffic Control Devices: MUTCD
75

Manual on Uniform Traffic

Control Devices (MUTCD)

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

76
Traffic Control Devices: MUTCD
MUTCD define the Purpose of Traffic Control Devices:
“to promote highway safety and efficiency by providing
for orderly movement of all road users on streets and
highways, throughout the Nation.”

MUTCD define also the five requirements for a traffic

control device to be effective in fulfilling that mission:
1. Fulfill a need
2. Command attention
3. Convey a clear, simple message
4. Command respect of road users
5. Give adequate time for a proper response
ElDessouki

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77
MUTCD Core Contents
1. Detailed standards for the physical design of the device,
specifying shape, size, colors, legend types and sizes, and
specific legend.
2. Detailed standards and guidelines on where devices should be
located with respect to the traveled way.
3. Warrants, or conditions, that justify the use of a particular
device.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

78
MUTCD Core Contents: Examples
1. Detailed standards for the
physical design of the
device, specifying shape,
size, colors, legend types
and sizes, and specific
legend.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 MUTCD Core Contents: Examples
79
2. Detailed standards and guidelines on where
devices should be located

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

80
MUTCD Core Contents: Examples
3. Warrants, or conditions, that justify the use of a
particular device.:
STOP control Warrants (MUTCD 2009) :
Guidance: At intersections where a full stop is not necessary at all
times, consideration should first be given to using less restrictive
measures such as YIELD signs
The use of STOP signs on the minor-street approaches should be
considered if engineering judgment indicates that a stop is always
required because of one or more of the following conditions:
I. The vehicular traffic volumes on the through street or highway exceed 6,000
vehicles per day;
II. A restricted view exists that requires road users to stop in order to adequately
observe conflicting traffic on the through street or highway; and/or
III. Crash records indicate that three or more crashes that are susceptible to
correction by the installation of a STOP sign have been reported within a 12-
month period, or that five or more such crashes have been reported within a 2-
year period. Such crashes include right-angle collisions involving road users on the
minor-street approach failing to yield the right-of-way to traffic on the through
street or highway.

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81
MUTCD : Traffic Signs
Types of Traffic Signs:
 Regulatory signs. Regulatory signs convey
information concerning specific traffic regulations.
Regulations may relate to right-of-way, speed limits,
lane usage, parking, or a variety of other functions.
 Warning signs. Warning signs are used to inform
drivers about upcoming hazards that they might not
see or otherwise discern in time to safely react.
 Guide signs. Guide signs provide information on
routes, destinations, and services that drivers may
be seeking.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 MUTCD : Traffic Signs
82  Regulatory signs. Regulatory signs convey information
concerning specific traffic regulations.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 MUTCD : Traffic Signs
83  Regulatory signs. Regulatory signs convey information
concerning specific traffic regulations.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 MUTCD : Traffic Signs
84
 Warning signs. Warning signs are used to inform
drivers about upcoming hazards that they might not
see or otherwise discern in time to safely react.

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85
MUTCD : Traffic Signs
 Warning signs. Warning signs are used to inform
drivers about upcoming hazards that they might not
see or otherwise discern in time to safely react.

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86
MUTCD : Traffic Signs
 Guide signs. Guide signs provide information on
routes, destinations, and services that drivers may
be seeking.

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 MUTCD : Traffic Signs
87
 Guide signs. Guide signs provide information on routes,
destinations, and services that drivers may be seeking.

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
88
Types of Pavement Markings:
Longitudinal markings
Transverse markings
Object markers and delineators

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
89
Longitudinal
markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
90
Longitudinal
markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
91
Longitudinal
markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
92
Longitudinal
markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
93
Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
94 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
95 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
96 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
97 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
98 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
99 Transverse markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
100 Roundabout Markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
101 Roundabout
Markings:

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 MUTCD : Pavement Markings
102 Roundabout
Markings:

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103 : MUTCD : Traffic Signals
MUTCD Warrants for Signalized Intersection:
Warrant 1, Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume
Warrant 2, Four-Hour Vehicular Volume
Warrant 3, Peak Hour
Warrant 4, Pedestrian Volume
Warrant 5, School Crossing
Warrant 6, Coordinated Signal System
Warrant 7, Crash Experience
Warrant 8, Roadway Network
Warrant 9, Intersection Near a Grade Crossing

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 A- Review for Statistics
B- Volume Studies
Traffic Studies
104
C- Speed Studies
105 Basic Statistics: Review
 What are Statistics?
 The art of abstracting Real World via
sampling and deriving general
“estimates” that describes the Real
World at a certain degree of
confidence.
Real World
Descriptive
Decision
Sample Date Measures for
&
Math. Making
Real World
Data Reduction Model &
(@ deg. Of
sample Design
confidence)
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
106 Basic Statistics: Review
 When do we need Statistics?
When we can not measure all the data values for the
population.
 Before starting: What do we need to address?
 Sample Size (how many measurements are
sufficient?)
 What Confidence should I have in the results?
 What statistical model distribution (math model) that
better describes the observed data?
 Did a traffic engineering solution affected the status
of the Real World significantly?(before & after
analysis)

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107
Basic Statistics:
Sample Reduction & Visualization
Frequency Histogram Cumulative Frequency
Percentile %
35 100%

90%
30

Cumulative Frequency%
80%
25 70%
Frequency

60%
20
50%
15
40%

10 30%
20%
5
10%

0 0%
55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135
Observations Observations

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108
Basic Statistics:
Common Statistical Estimators
 Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean: Median:
N
- Is the middle value of
x
i 1
i all the sample data (
x i.e. 50% of the data are
N
above this value)
where :
Mode:
x  sample mean
Is the value that occurs
xi  observation (i ) most frequently
N  number of Observations
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109
Basic Statistics:
Common Statistical Estimators
 Measures of Dispersion:
Variance: Standard Deviation:
N N
2
 ( x  x)
i  ( x  x)
i
2

S2  i 1
S  S2  i 1
( N  1) ( N  1)
where :
where :
2
S  sample Variance
S  S tan dard Deviation
x  sample mean
S 2  sample Variance
xi  observation (i )
N  number of Observations

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110
Basic Statistics:
Common Statistical Estimators
 Measures of Dispersion:
Coefficient of Variation: Skewness:
The ratio between the Describes the asymmetry in
standard deviation and the
the data sample.
mean.
STD
C var 
x (mean  mode)
where : Skewness 
STD
C var  Coefficient of Variation
STD  Standard deviation
x  sample mean

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111
Basic Statistics:
Common Statistical Estimators
 MS Excel Functions:
 Mean  = average(range array)
 Mode  = mode(range array)
 Median  = median(range array)
 Variance  = var(range array)
 Standard Deviation  = stdev( range array)
 Skewness  = skew( range array)

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112 Basic Statistics: Useful MS Excel “Tricks” 1
 For Plotting Frequency Diagram:
For a sample of speed observations do the following:
 Delete the lowest value and the highest value from the sample because those are called
“outliers”
 Define the range of the data using the functions: =min(data range) & = max(data range)
 Divide that range into equal intervals
 Estimate the frequency of values grater than the lower limit of each interval , use the following
functions: = freq(data range, “> value”)
 Subtract the values from the previous interval, then you get the frequency for that interval.
 The sum of all values should be the number of observations (N)
 Define the mid of the interval as (x) and the freq. of interval as (y)
 PLOT using column chart type

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113 Basic Statistics: Useful MS Excel “Tricks” 2
 Plotting Cumulative Frequency% Diagram:
For the same sample do the following:
 Define a percentile sequence (y) starting from 0% to 100% in 5% increments.
 For each percentile value (y) in the sequence determine the corresponding
observation value (x):
= Percentile(data range, percentile value (y))
 Plot using XY- line chart type

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114 Basic Statistics:
Standard Error, True Mean & Sample Size
 Standard Error:
The standard error (E) in the sample mean ( X ) is function in the
sample size and the standard deviation of the population ( the
sample SD can be used instead):

E
N
where
 - is the standard deviation for the population
The SD for the sample can be used instead
N - is the sample size
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
115
Basic Statistics:
Standard Error, True Mean & Sample Size
 True Mean: 
The standard error (E) for the sample mean ( X ) is assumed to follow a
normal distribution around the true mean ( .
Hence:
  X  1.00 E (at Degree of Confidence 67%)
  X  1.96 E (at Degree of Confidence 95%)
  X  3.00 E (at Degre of Confidence 99.5%)
where
E - is the standard error of the sample
X - is the sample mean
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
116
Basic Statistics:
Standard Error, True Mean & Sample Size
 Sample Size:
For a given allowable error ( err ) and a specific degree of
confidence , the sample size ( N ) can be determined as following:
2
 SD 
N   (at Degre of Confidence 67%)
 err 
2
 SD 
N   (1.96)   (at Degre of Confidence 95%)
 err 
2
 SD 
N   (3.00)   (at Degre of Confidence 99.5%)
 err 
where
SD - is the standard deviation of the sample
err - maximum allwable  error in the true mean
ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Speed Studies

117

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

118
Speed Studies: Spot Speed Studies
Spot Speed Studies:
 Is defined as the average speed of vehicles passing a point on a
highway. This is also known as the time mean speed.
 Usually conducted in free flow condition and not during congestion,
where the flow rate is:
750-1000 veh/hr/ln  for freeway
<500 veh/hr/ln  for other types
Speed Definition of Interest:
- Average or time mean speed
- Standard Deviation
- 85th % speed
- Median speed

ElDessouki

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119
Speed Studies: Spot Speed Studies
Uses of Spot Speed Data:
 To determine speed limit for applications
 To assess speed limit enforcement
 Specific Applications:
 For Level of Service (LOS) Assessment
 For Signal timing: Estimation of Yellow/All Red times.
 To determine appropriate sight distance
 For safety and accidents analysis

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 Speed Studies: Measurement
120
Techniques
Manual Method: The Simple Stopwatch Method :
By using stopwatch and defining two reference points
with known distance (d) between the two points.
Then, Speed = d / t (m/s)

Advantages: Simple
Disadvantages:
40 m
High error due to stopwatch
depressing time variations.

Class Example
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121
Speed Studies: Spot Speed Studies
Doppler Radar (Speed Gun):
It uses Doppler’s effect for speed measurements.
How Does it work?
 The radar transmits a pack of waves with initial frequency fini and initial
wavelength ini ,
 Due to the motion of the target vehicle, the wavelength of the reflected waves
ref will be longer or shorter than the initial wavelength ini
1
ref  ini  *Vtarget  depnding on the target' s direction
f ini
Transmitted wave
Radar
ini Target

ref ElDessouki

Reflected wave
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
122
Speed Studies: Spot Speed Studies
Doppler Radar (Speed Gun):
Advantages:
High Accuracy, but the readings must be corrected for aiming
angle.

Disadvantages:
Difficult to conceal, drivers associate Radar
with police which may cause them to
slow their speeds down and yielding
inaccurate results.

ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

123
Speed Studies: Spot Speed Studies
Doppler Radar (Speed Gun): Readings Correction

Speed
TrueSpeed 
cos 

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 Spot Speed Studies:
124
Data Reduction & Analysis
The speed data is analyzed and reported as following:
A- Graphical: Frequency Histogram & Accumulative %
35
The shown speed data
30 has
a Bimodal Distribution
25
Frequencey

20

15

10

0
50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110-120 120-130 130-140 140-150 150-160
Speed (km/hr)
MODE = 105 km/hr ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Spot Speed Studies:
125 Data Reduction & Analysis
The speed data is analyzed and reported as following:
A- Graphical: Accumulative %
100%

90%
85
% 80%

70%
Accumulative %

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%
15 Median
10%
%
0%
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 ElDessouki
15th% Speed Speed (km/hr) 85th% Speed
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
 Spot Speed Studies:
126
Data Reduction & Analysis
The speed data is analyzed and reported as following:
B- Quantitative:
1- Mode
2- Median
3- Mean
4- Standard Deviation (SD)
5-85th% & 15th% Speeds
6- Pace(15 km/hr band)

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Spot Speed Studies:
127
Data Reduction & Analysis
The speed data is analyzed and reported as following:
C- Precision and Confidence Intervals:
Note: Most spot speed data tend to be normally distributed (however, this might
not applicable in the shown example histogram), then:
Standard Error: SD
E
N
where
SD - is the standard deviation for the sample
N - is the sample size

True Mean:   X  1.96 E (at Degree of Confidence 95%)

where
E - is the standard error of the sample
ElDessouki
X - is the sample mean
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
 Spot Speed Studies:
128
Data Reduction & Analysis
The speed data is analyzed and reported as following:
D- Sample Size for Prescribed Precision with Confidence Intervals:
If the Prescribed precision was set to be +/- e, the needed
sample should not be less than the following number of
observations N @ a degree of confidence 95%:
2
 SD 
N   (1.96)  
 e 
where
SD - is the standard deviation of the sample
e - the needed precision i.e. the  error in the true mean

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 Speed Studies: Before and After Analysis
129

Before and After Analysis:

 Usually carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of applying a specific
measure on the prevailing speed in an area or a segment.
 The before and after is basically a comparison testing between two samples
, with the objective of finding that the difference between the two samples is
significant or not.
 Hypothesis Testing
Any hypothesis test, has 4 possible outcomes: True/True False/False
1- Test Result: True, and Reality: True
2- Test Result: False, and Reality: False
False/True True/False
3- Test Result: False, and Reality: True Error Type II
4- Test Result: True, and Reality: False Error Type I
Error Type I - must be avoided at all expenses
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 Speed Studies: Before and After Analysis
130
The Statistical Testing (Z-test):
First, calculate the Pooled Standard Deviation for before & after
samples: S12 S 22
S  
N1 N2
where
S  Pooled Standard Deviation
S1 & S 2  Standard Deviation before & after resp.
N 1 & N 2  Sample size before & after resp.

Second: Calculate Zd the Standard Normal distribution approximation for

the Observed difference between the before & after samples:

Zd 
X 1  X 2  d o
S
Z d  Normalized Diffirence between before & after
X 1 & X 2  Mean speed before & after resp.
S   pooled Standard Deviation
d o  hypothesiz ed population mean difference ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Speed Studies: Before and After Analysis
131
The Statistical Testing (Z-test) cont.:
Third, we use the normal distribution curve to find the probability
that a value equal to or less than Zd , assuming that both
samples are normally distributed , then:
A) If Prob.( Z<= Zd ) > 0.95 , that means the observed reduction in
speed is statistically significant.
B) If Prob.( Z<= Zd ) < 0.95 , that means the observed reduction in
speed is statistically insignificant.
For case A, that implies also that there is a 5% chance that
the observed difference in mean speed will be exceeded.

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Speed Studies: Before and After Analysis
132 Example:
The following is the before and after summary for speed
enforcement project that was deployed with a target of
reducing average speed to 60 mph.
Before After
Mean Speed: 65.3 63 (mph)
SD: 5 6 (mph)
N: 50 60 observation
Solution
S12 S 22 52 6 2 65 .3  63   0  2 .19
S      1.05mph Zd 
N1 N 2 50 60 1 .05

P(Z<2.19) = 0.9857 = 98.57 % >95%

Then: The observed reduction in speed was statistically significant
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 Speed Studies: Before and After Analysis
133

Example (cont.):
Now, the question did we reach the target?
6
  X  1.96 E  63.0  1.96 *  63.0  1.52mph
60

That means the true mean is between: (61.48 - 64.52) mph

The Answer is NO, the reduction is not sufficient, and we did not
achieve the 60 mph target

ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

134

Volume Studies
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
135
Traffic Volume Studies:
Volume studies:
 Traffic counts are the most basic of traffic studies
and are the primary measure of demand; virtually
all aspects of traffic engineering require volume as
an input, including highway planning and design,
decisions on traffic control and operations, detailed
signal timing, and others.

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136
Traffic Volume Studies:
Automated and Manual counting techniques are used to produce
estimates of the following:
1. Volume: is the number of vehicles (or persons) passing a point during
a specified time period, which is usually one hour, but need not be it
can be a day, month, year…etc.
2. Rate of flow: is the rate at which vehicles (or persons) pass a point
during a specified time period less than one hour, expressed as
an equivalent hourly rate.
3. Demand is the number of vehicles (or persons) that desire to travel
past a point during a specified period (also usually one hour).
Demand is frequently higher than actual volumes where congestion
exists. Some trips divert to alternative routes, while other trips are
simply not made.
4. Capacity is the maximum rate at which vehicles can traverse a
point or short segment during a specified time period. It is a
characteristic of the roadway.

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137
Traffic Volume Studies:
Example for Volume, Demand & Capacity:

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138
Traffic Volume Studies:
Example: When demand exceeds capacity. What happens?

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 Traffic Volume Studies: Manual Counting 1
139
Manual counting is typically used at intersections, however, it can
be used for highways for 1-2 hours, for LOS assessment.

Tally Sheets:
Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means of
conducting manual counts. The data can be recorded with a
tick mark on a pre-prepared field form. A watch or stopwatch is
necessary to measure the desired count interval. A blank traffic
volume count intersection tally sheet is provided in Appendix B.

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Manual Counting 2
140
Mechanical Counter:

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Manual Counting 2
141
Mechanical Counting Board (for Intersections):

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Manual Counting 3
142
Electronic Manual Counting Board (for Intersections):

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 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 1
143
Portable Counters:
 Portable counters serve the same purpose as manual counts
but with automatic counting equipment.
 The period of data collection using this method is usually
longer than when using manual counts.
 The portable counter method is mainly used for 24-hour
counts. Pneumatic road tubes are used to conduct this
method of automatic counts

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 1
144
Portable Counters: Pneumatic Tube Counters

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 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 2
145
Permanent Counters:
 Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to be
conducted. The counts could be
 performed every day for a year or more. The data collected
may be used to monitor and evaluate
 traffic volumes and trends over a long period of time.
Permanent counters are not a cost-effective
 option in most situations. Few jurisdictions have access to this
equipment

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 2
146
Permanent Counters: Inductive Loop Detectors

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 2
147
Permanent Counters: Inductive Loop Detectors

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 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 3
148
Video Imaging:
 Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic.
 Traffic volumes can be counted by viewing videotapes
recorded with a camera at a collection site.
 A digital clock in the video image can prove useful in noting
time intervals.
 Videotaping is not a cost-effective option in most situations.

ElDessouki

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 Traffic Volume Studies: Automated Counting 3
149
Video Imaging:

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024

 A- Capcity Concept
Capacity Analysis &
150
B- Level of Service
C- Multilane Highway
Level of Service LOS
 Background:
 The first edition of the HCM was published by the then Bureau of Public Roads in
1950.
 The second edition was published in 1965. It introduced significant new material
on limited access facilities, as well as the level-of-service concept(LOS).
 The third edition was published in 1985, providing refinements to the level-of-
service (LOS) concept and adding material on pedestrian and transit facilities.
 The fourth edition referred to as HCM 2000, which the current material is based
on:

HCM primary objectives were:

I. To provide uniform guidelines for the nation’s rapidly growing highway
construction program.
II. To assure Efficiency and Equity in among transportation infrastructure users in
the states.

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 151
The Capacity Concept:
The Highway Capcity Manual (HCM 2000) defines
Capacity as following:
“The capacity of a facility is the maximum hourly
rate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be
expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of
a lane or roadway during a given time period under
prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions.”
HCM2000 , pp. 2-2

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 152
Concept #1 in HCM Capacity Definition
Capacity is defined as a maximum hourly rate.
For most cases, the rate used is for the peak 15
minutes of the peak hour, although HCM 2000 allows
for some discretion in selecting the length of the
analysis period. In any analysis, care must be taken to
express both the demand and the capacity in terms
of the same analysis period.

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CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 153
Concept #2 in HCM Capacity Definition
Capacity may be expressed in terms of
persons or vehicles:
 This is critical when transit and pedestrian issues are
considered, as well as in the consideration of high-
occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes and facilities, where the
person-capacity is clearly more important than the vehicle-
capacity.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 154
 Concept #3 in HCM Capacity Definition
Capacity is defined for prevailing roadway, traffic, and control
conditions.
 Roadway conditions refer to the geometric characteristics of the
facility, such as the number of lanes, lane widths, shoulder widths,
and free-flow speeds.
 Traffic conditions refer primarily to the composition of the traffic
stream, particularly the presence of trucks and other heavy
vehicles.
 Control conditions refer primarily to interrupted flow facilities, where
such controls as STOP and YIELD signs and traffic signals have a
significant impact on capacity.
 The important concept is that a change in any of the prevailing
conditions causes a change in the capacity of the facility.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 155
 Concept #4 in HCM Capacity Definition
Capacity is defined for a point or uniform section of a
facility:
This correlates to the “prevailing conditions” discussed
above. A “uniform section” must have consistent
prevailing conditions. At any point where these
conditions change, the capacity also changes.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 156
 Concept #5 in HCM Capacity Definition
Capacity refers to maximum flows that can “reasonably” be
expected to traverse a section:
 This recognizes that capacity is subject to variation in both time
and space. Thus, capacity is not defined as the single highest
flow level ever expected to occur on a facility. Rather it is a value
that represents a flow level that can be reasonably achieved
repeatedly at a given location and at similar locations
throughout the United States. Thus, isolated observations of
actual flows in excess of stated capacities is not a contradiction
and is, in fact, an expected condition.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 157
Level of Service (LOS) Concept:
 The level-of-service concept was introduced in the 1965 HCM as a
convenient way to describe the general quality of operations on a
facility with defined traffic, roadway, and control conditions.
 Using a letter scale from A to F, a terminology for operational quality
was created that has become an important tool in communicating
complex issues to decision-makers and the general public.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 158
 Level of Service (LOS) Concept:
 The Highway Capcity Manual (HCM 2000) defines Level Of Service
(LOS) as following:
“Level of service (LOS) is a quality measure describing operational
conditions within a traffic stream, generally in terms of such service
measures as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic
interruptions, and comfort and convenience.”
(HCM 2000, pg. 2-2).

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 159
 Critical Issues with LOS Concept:
 When originally defined, models did not exist for the prediction of
precise quality measures for many types of facilities. This is no longer
true. Every facility type now has levels of service defined in terms of
a specific measure of effectiveness.
 Levels of service are basically step-functions, each representing a
range of operating conditions. Levels of service B and C, for
example, may represent very similar conditions if they are both
close to the defined boundary between the two levels.
 Example:
 Site S1 LOS=B
A B C D E F
 Site S2 LOS=B
 Site S3 LOS=C
 But S2 &S3 almost S1 S2 S3
the same
ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 160
 Critical Issues with LOS Concept (Cont.):
 Another critical concept is that level of service is to be defined in
terms of parameters that can be perceived by drivers and
passengers and that the definitions should reflect that perception.
 Thus, volume or flow is never used as a measure of
effectiveness, as it is a point measure that cannot be perceived
by drivers or passengers from within the traffic stream.
 On the other hand, it is very difficult to measure driver or
passenger perceptions regarding specific threshold values.
 Thus, most level-of-service criteria are based on the collective
judgment of professionals, exercised through the Highway
Capacity and Quality of Service Committee and its
subcommittees.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 161
Measures for Level of Service (LOS):
Common Service Measures used in LOS:
1. Speed,
2. Travel Time /delay
3. Freedom to maneuver / traffic density
4. Traffic interruptions
5. Comfort & Convince

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 162
Measures of Effectiveness for (LOS):
 LOS is usually defined in terms of parameters that can be
perceived by drivers and passengers:

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 163
 LOS & Service Flow Rate Concept:
Service Flow Rate:
 A service flow rate is similar to capacity, except that it represents
the maximum flow rate that can be accommodated while
maintaining a designated level of service.
 Service flow rates may be defined for levels of service A-E, but are
never defined for level of service F, which represents unstable flow
or unacceptably poor service quality.
 Due to the complexity of some capacity and level-of-service
models, service flow rates are difficult to determine for some types
of facilities.
 Like capacity, service flow rates are defined for prevailing
conditions on uniform sections of a facility, and they relate to flow
levels that can be reasonably expected to occur at the various
levels of service.
ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 164
 Problems of Level of Service(LOS)
The MOST significant problem with LOS, is the ability to misinterpret changes in level
of service due to the step-function nature of the concept, has already been
noted.

Other Key Problems:

 A single set of LOS criteria different levels of perception
What might be acceptable delay at an intersection in Dammam City, for
example, might not be acceptable at a similar intersection in a small community.

 Some state and local governments have incorporated level-of-service criteria into
development legislation. Thus, when revisions to the HCM are made, legal
standards are being altered. This is clearly not the intent of the HCQSC, and it is
not generally recognized by the legislators enacting these laws.

 In 1985, the adoption of delay as a level-of-service measure for signalized

intersections introduced new complexity to the interpretation of level of service F.
For some types of facilities, this designation indicates a situation in which demand
exceeds capacity. For other types of facilities, it indicates unacceptable service
quality. ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 165
Other Performance Measures:
The v/c Ratio &its Use in Capacity
Analysis
The v/c ratio:
Is defined as the ratio between current or
projected traffic demand flow to the
capacity of the facility.

This ratio is used as a measure of capacity

sufficiency for existing or proposed facilities.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 166
 Level of Service
for Multilane Highway
167

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Highway Capacity
168 Levels of Service (LOS)

Source: CONEN
Maryland DOT
442 Transportation http://www.mdta.maryland.gov/
Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Highway Capacity
169

Source: Maryland DOT http://www.mdta.maryland.gov/

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

170 Cross Sectional Elements (Ch. 4)

 AASHTO Defines two main Elements:

 Roadway: The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
A divided highway has two or more roadways .

 Traveled Way: The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles,
exclusive of shoulders.

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

171

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
172

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
173

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024
 Highway Capacity
174
HCM Standard Conditions (Multilane Rural Highway):
 3.6-m minimum lane widths;
 Only passenger cars in the traffic stream;
 No direct access points along the roadway;
 A divided highway; and
 Free-flow speed (FFS) higher than 100 km/h.
 3.6-m minimum total lateral clearance in the direction of travel --
( this represents the total lateral clearances from the edge of the
traveled lanes to obstructions along the edge of the road and in
the median (in computations, lateral clearances greater than 1.8
m are considered in computations to be equal to 1.8 m);
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Highway Capacity Analysis
175
HCM Methodology:


CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Highway Capacity Analysis
176

HCM Methodology (cont.):

 Volume Adjustment :
( converting traffic volume into passenger cars equivalent)

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki

 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS)
Base FFS
When it is not possible to use data from a similar roadway, an
estimate might be necessary, based on available data,
experience, and consideration of the variety of factors that
have an identified effect on FFS. The speed limit is one factor
that affects FFS. Recent research suggests that FFS on
multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11
km/h higher than the speed limit for 65 and 70 km/h speed
limits, and it is 8 km/h higher for 80 and 90 km/h speed limits.
Chapter 12 (HCM2000) provides default values for base BFFS.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 177
Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS)
(Cont.)
fLW -Adjustment for Lane Width

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 178
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS) (Cont.)
fLC – Total Lateral Clearance Adjustment
Fixed obstructions with lateral clearance effects include light standards, signs, trees,
abutments, bridge rails, traffic barriers, and retaining walls.
Standard raised curbs are not considered obstructions.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 179
Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS) (Cont.)
fLC – Adjustment for Lateral Clearance

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 180
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS) (Cont.)
fLC – Adjustment for Lateral Clearance

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 181
Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS) (Cont.)
fM – Adjustment for Median Type

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 182
Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Estimating Free Flow Speed (FFS) (Cont.)
fA – Adjustment for Access-Points Density

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 183
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology : Volume Adjustment
Converting traffic volume into passenger cars
equivalent

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 184
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology : Volume Adjustment
fHV – Heavy Vehicles Adjustment factor

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 185
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Heavy Vehicle Passenger-Car
Equivalents (ET & ER)
For general segment with no specific Grade%, use Exhibit 21-8

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 186
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology: Heavy Vehicle Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET & ER)
For specific & composite segment Grade%, use Exhibits 21-9, 10 & 11
See Handout for design forms & charts
To Determine the Equivalent Grade % use the truck performance
curves. (Exhibit A23-2)

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 187
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
(LOS)
HCM Methodology : Volume Adjustment
fP – Drivers Population Adjustment factor:
 The adjustment factor fp reflects the effect weekend
recreational and perhaps even midday drivers have on the
facility. The values for fp range from 0.85 to 1.00.
 Typically, the analyst should select 1.00, which reflects
weekday commuter traffic i.e., users familiar with the
highway), unless there is sufficient evidence that a lesser value,
reflecting more recreational or weekend traffic characteristics,
should be applied. When greater accuracy is needed,
comparative field studies of weekday and weekend traffic
flow and speeds are recommended.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 188
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service
HCM
(LOS)
Methodology : DETERMINING LOS (Calculation)
(Only for Vp< 1400 pc/hr/ln)

D < 7 pc/ln/km  LOS = A

D 7 – 11 pc/ln/km  LOS = B
D 11 – 16 pc/ln/km  LOS = C
D 16 – 22 pc/ln/km  LOS = D
D 22 – 28 pc/ln/km  LOS = E
D > 28 pc/ln/km  LOS = F

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 189
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service (LOS)
HCM Methodology (cont.): DETERMINING LOS (Graphical)
Example: FFS= 75km/hr & Vp= 1300pc/hr/ln

LOS = D

FFS

Vp
ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 190
 Highway Capacity Analysis &Level of Service (LOS)
HCM Methodology:  Limitations
The methodology in this chapter does not take into account the following
conditions:
 Transitory blockages caused by construction, accidents, or railroad crossings;
 Interference caused by parking on the shoulders (such as in the vicinity of a
country store, flea market, or tourist attraction);
 Three-lane cross sections;
 The effect of lane drops and additions at beginning or end of segments;
 Possible queuing delays when transitions from a multilane segment into a two-
lane segment are neglected;
 Differences between median barriers and two-way left-turn lanes; and FFS
below 70 km/h or above 100 km/h.

ElDessouki
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 191
 Highway Capacity Analysis Cases
192
Operational Case: Existing Facility
Design Input:
Number of Lanes
Lane Width
Median
Shoulders
Traffic Volume
Topography (i.e. Terrain: Level /Rolling/ Mountainous)
HV%, PHF ,
Design Objective:
Current Level Of Service (LOS)
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
 Highway Capacity Analysis Cases
193 Design Case 1: New Construction
Design Input:
Design Volume
Target LOS
Topography (i.e. Terrain: Level /Rolling/ Mountainous)
Right of Way (ROW)

Design Objective:
Number of Lanes (N)
Lane Width
Median
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
Shoulders
 Highway Capacity Analysis Cases
194
Design Case 2: New Construction
Design Input:
Number of Lanes
Lane Width
Median
Shoulders
Design LOS
Topography (i.e. Terrain: Level /Rolling/ Mountainous)
Projected HV%, PHF ,
Design Objective:
Maximum Service Volume for the given design LOS (Vp)
CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki
195
End of Module 1

CONEN 442 Transportation Engineering S2024 ElDessouki