Chapter 7: Power and Politics

I. What is Power?

Definition

- Power can be defined as a manager's ability to influence others.

- refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s
wishes.

- Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency.

- Power should not be considered a bad thing, however. Professor Patricia Bradshaw of the Schulich
School of Business at York University says “Power, if used appropriately, should actually be a positive
influence in your organization,”.

II. How does on get power?

John French and Bertrand Raven- who first presented a five-category classification scheme of

sources or bases of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent.

Measuring Bases of power

Power Base Statement

Coercive- The person can make things difficult for people, and you want to avoid getting him or her
angry.

Reward- The person is able to give special benefits or rewards to people, and you find it advantageous to
trade favours with him or her.

Legitimate-The person has the right, considering his or her position and your job responsibilities, to
expect you to comply with legitimate requests.

Expert-The person has the experience and knowledge to earn your respect, and you defer to his or her
judgment in some matters.

Referent-You like the person and enjoy doing things for him or her.

Information- The person has data or knowledge that you need.

coercive power- Power that is based on fear.

example:

The state relies on its military and legal resources to intimidate nations.
businesses rely upon the control of economic resources to request tax reductions.

At the personal level, individuals use coercive power through a reliance on physical strength, words, or
the ability to grant or withhold emotional support from others.

Reward Power- the opposite of coercive

- People will go along with the wishes or directives of another if doing so produces
positive benefits. therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power
over those others.

example: In an organizational context, we think of money, favourable performance appraisals,

promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, important information, and preferred
work shifts or sales territories.

Legitimate Power- It represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the
formal hierarchy of an organization.

- it includes acceptance by members of an organization of the authority of a position.

ex. When school principals, bank presidents, or generals speak, teachers, tellers, and privates listen and
usually comply.

Expert Power- influence based on expertise, special skills, or knowledge. Relies on trust that all relevant
information is given out honestly and completely. Of course, since knowledge is power, the more that
information is shared, the less expert power a person has. Thus, some individuals try to protect their
power by withholding information. This tactic can result in poor-quality performance by those who need
the information.

ex. Young people may find they have increased power in the workplace these days because of the
technical knowledge and expertise that their Baby-Boomer managers may not have.

Referent Power- Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits.

- If you admire someone to the point of modelling your behaviour and attitudes after him or her, that
person possesses referent power over you.

ex. teachers and celebrities

Information Power- comes from access to and control over information. People in an organization who
have data or knowledge that others need can make those others dependent on them.

ex. Managers, for instance, because of their access to privileged sales, cost, salary, profit, and similar
data, can use this information to control and shape subordinates’ behaviour.

Evaluating the Bases of Power

Commitment. The person is enthusiastic about the request and shows initiative and persistence in
carrying it out.

Compliance. The person goes along with the request grudgingly, puts in minimal effort, and takes little
initiative in carrying out the request.

Resistance. The person is opposed to the request and tries to avoid it with such tactics as refusing,
stalling, or arguing about it.

Coercive power leads to resistance from individuals, decreased satisfaction, and increased mistrust.

Reward power results in compliance if the rewards are consistent with what individuals want as rewards.

Legitimate power also results in compliance, but it does not generally result in increased commitment. In
other words, legitimate power does not inspire individuals to act beyond the basic level.

Expert and referent powers are the most likely to lead to commitment from individuals.
III. How does Dependency affect power?

What is dependency in management?

- It refers to a series of tasks that are interrelated.

Examples of Dependency in Project Management

●Finish to Start: task A must finish before task B can begin. This is the most common example of a
project dependency and is generally the most straightforward. For example, a fabrication team cannot
begin building until the final design has been approved.

●Start to Finish: task A cannot finish until task B has started. These are less common but are prevalent in
retail and shift work environments. For example, the morning shift in a restaurant’s kitchen cannot finish
their day until the evening shift has arrived and started their own.

●Start to Start: requires task A to start before task B can begin. For example, a writer cannot begin to
revise an article draft until the editor has started to edit it.

●Finish to Finish: task B cannot finish until task A has finished. Start-to-start and finish-to-finish
dependencies are often related to one another. For example, a server cannot finish serving everyone at a
table until the kitchen has finished cooking and plating each dish that was ordered.

The General Dependency Postulate

"The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B."

When you have something that other people want but that you alone have, you turn them into your
dependents and therefore acquire authority/power over them. Thinking about a relationship in terms of
"who needs whom? " is another method to conceptualize dependency. The individual most in need is
also the one who depends on the partnership the most. Dependency and alternate supply sources are
inversely correlated. Possession of something that is abundant won't give you more power. If everyone is
intelligent, intelligence gives no special advantage. Similarly, in the circles of the super rich, money does
not result in power. However, if you can establish a monopoly by holding sway over knowledge, status,
or any other desirable resource, others will come to rely on you. Alternatively, the more options you
have, the less power you place in the hands of others. This explains, for example, why most organizations
develop multiple suppliers rather than give their business to only one.

What Creates Dependency?

Dependency is increased when the resource you control is important, scarce, and cannot be
substituted.
Importance

-refers to the value of the resource. If nobody wants what you have, there is no dependency. To create
dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as important. If the resources or skills you
control are vital to the organization, you will gain some power. The more vital the resources that you
control are, the more power you will have.

Scarcity

-A resource must be perceived as scarce to create dependency. The more difficult something is to
obtain, the more valuable it tends to be. Scarcity can help explain how low-ranking employees gain
power if they have important knowledge not available to high-ranking employees. Possession of a scarce
resource—in this case, important knowledge—makes those who don’t have it dependent on those who
do. Thus, an individual might refuse to show others how to do a job, or might refuse to share
information, thereby increasing his or her importance.

Non-Substitutability

-The harder it is to find a substitute, the more dependent the person becomes and the more power
someone else has over them. If you are the only person who knows how to make a piece of equipment
work, you will be very powerful in the organization. For example, countries with large supplies of crude
oil have traditionally had power to the extent that other countries need oil to function. As the price of oil
climbs, alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower become more attractive to
investors and governments. For example, in response to soaring fuel costs and environmental concerns,
in 2009 Japan Airlines successfully tested a blend of aircraft fuel made from a mix of camelina, jatropha,
and algae on the engine of a Boeing 747-300 aircraft (Krauss, 2009).

In conclusion, dependency is directly related to power. The more that a person or unit is dependent on
you, the more power you have.

IV. What tactics can be used to increased power?

Tactics, or strategies, that managers and employees use to increase their power:

1. Rational persuasion – Using facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas.

2. Inspirational appeals – Appealing to values, ideals, and goals when making a request.

3. Consultation – Getting others involved to support one’s objectives.

4. Ingratiation – Using flattery, creating goodwill, and being friendly prior to making a request.

5. Personal appeals. Appealing to loyalty and friendship when asking for something.

6. Exchange – Offering favours or benefits in exchange for support.

7. Coalition tactics – Getting the support of other people to provide backing when making a request.
8. Pressure – Using demands, threats, and reminders to get someone to do something.

9. Legitimating tactics – Claiming the authority or right to make a request, or showing that it supports
organizational goals or policies.

V. What does it mean to be empowered?

Empowerment

- refers to the freedom and the ability of employees to make decisions and commitments.
- Robert E. Quinn and Gretchen M. Spreitzer, in their consulting work with a Fortune 500
manufacturing company, found that executives were split about 50-50 in their definition.
o One group of executives “believed that empowerment was about delegating decision-
making within a set of clear boundaries.” Empowerment would start at the top, specific
goals and tasks would be assigned, responsibility would be delegated, and people would
be held accountable for their results.
o The other group believed that empowerment was “a process of risk-taking and personal
growth.” This type of empowerment starts at the bottom, with considering the
employees’ needs, showing them what empowered behavior looks like, building teams,
encouraging risk-taking, and demonstrating trust in employees’ ability to perform.

Empowerment in the workplace

- managers worry that empowered employees may decide to work on goals and jobs that are not
as closely aligned to organizational goals.
- In some cases, employees do not want to be empowered, and having more power can even
make them ill.
- when people are put in charge at work but don’t have the confidence to handle their
responsibilities, they can become ill. Specifically, people who blame themselves when things go
wrong are more likely to suffer colds and infections if they have high levels of control at work.
(Professor Jia Lin Xie, of the University of Toronto’s Joseph L. Rotman School of Management,
and colleagues)
- Empowerment will be positive if a person has high growth-needs strengths but those with low
growth-needs strengths may be more likely to experience stress when empowered.
Having an Ownership Mentality
o There must be a clear definition of the values and mission of the company.
o The company must help employees gain the relevant skills.
o Employees need to be supported in their decision-making and not criticized when they
try to do something extraordinary.
o Employees need to be recognized for their efforts.

Effects of Empowerment (Research made by Robert E. Quinn & M. Spreitzer)

 o Empowered people have a sense of self-determination (this means that they are free to
choose how to do their work; they are not micromanaged).
o Empowered people have a sense of meaning (they feel that their work is important to
them; they care about what they are doing).
o Empowered people have a sense of competence (this means that they are confident
about their ability to do their work well; they know they can perform).
o Empowered people have a sense of impact (this means that people believe they can
have influence on their work unit; others listen to their ideas).

VI. How are power and harassment related?

Abuse of Power: Harassment in the workplace

Harassment- illegal behaviour towards a person that causes mental or emotional suffering, which
includes repeated unwanted contacts without a reasonable purpose, insults, threats, touching, or
offensive language: The company investigated claims of workplace harassment and racial discrimination.

Abuse of power or power harassment is the misuse of authority to take actions in personal interest that
negatively impacts the company and its employees.

For example:

a. manager-employee relationship: the manager constantly reminds an employee that they can be
fired or replaced. Forcing an employee to work overtime multiple times a week without
additional pay. Humiliating an employee in front of his colleagues.
b. Peer Relationship: Withholding critical information from a colleague that he/she needs to
know.Putting personal interests before the company. Enforcing companies policies and rules on
others without following them.

Workplace Bullying- refers to verbal, physical, social or psychological abuse by your employer (or
manager), another person or group of people at work.

What does bullying in the workplace look like?

●repeated hurtful remarks or attacks, or making fun of your work or you as a person (including your
family, sex, sexuality, gender identity, race or culture, education or economic background)

●sexual harassment, particularly stuff like unwelcome touching and sexually explicit comments and
requests that make you uncomfortable

●excluding you or stopping you from working with people or taking part in activities that relates to your
work

●playing mind games, ganging up on you, or other types of psychological harassment

●intimidation (making you feel less important and undervalued) etc.

How bullying can affect your work?

If you are being bullied at work you might:

●be less active or successful

●be less confident in your work

●feel scared, stressed, anxious or depressed

●have your life outside of work affected, e.g. study, relationships

●want to stay away from work

●feel like you can’t trust your employer or the people who you work with

●lack confidence and happiness about yourself and your work

●have physical signs of stress like headaches, backaches, sleep problems

In conclusion, people who have more power in an organization tend to exhibit harassment towards
his/her employees. In an organization, individuals who occupy high-status roles (such as management
positions) sometimes believe that harassing employees is merely an extension of their right to make
demands on lower-status individuals. Bullying victims in the workplace may have a variety of negative
effects on their physical and emotional health. In addition to physical symptoms like headaches,
sleeplessness, and stomach issues, they could suffer from anxiety, sadness, and other mental health
issues which lead to employees not performing effectively and efficiently in the workplace.

VII. Why do people engage in politics? Are teams always the answer?

- People use politics to influence others to help them achieve their personal objectives.

- People use impression management to influence people. It is the process by which individuals attempt
to control the impression others form of them. Though politics is a natural occurrence in organizations,
when it is carried to an extreme—it can damage relationships among individuals.

Types of Political Activity :

1. Attacking or blaming others – Used when trying to avoid responsibility for failure.

2. Using information – Withholding or distorting information, particularly to hide negative information.

3. Managing impressions – Bringing positive attention to one’s self or taking credit for the positive
accomplishments of others.

4. Building support for ideas – Making sure that others will support one’s ideas before they are
presented.

5. Praising others – Making important people feel good.

6. Building coalitions – Joining with other people to create a powerful group.

7. Associating with influential people – Building support networks.

8. Creating obligations – Doing favours for others so they will owe you favours later.

Conclusion

I. What is Power?

- Power is a manager's ability to influence others.

- It's a function of dependency, not inherently bad.

- Appropriately used power can be a positive influence in an organization.

Implication: it can be used to influence others to act in accordance with one's wishes.

Application: can be seen in various aspects of organizational life, such as decision-

making, resource allocation, and conflict resolution.

II. How does one get power?

- Bases of power: Coercive, Reward, Legitimate, Expert, Referent, Information.

- Expert and referent powers are more likely to lead to commitment from individuals.

Implication: is that it allows individuals to identify and develop their sources of power.
By recognizing the different bases of power, individuals can leverage their strengths and build
relationships with others to increase their influence.

Application: The application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of

organizational life, such as negotiations, team building, and leadership development. For
example, a manager who understands the different sources of power can use expert power to
influence team members by sharing their knowledge and experience.

III. How does Dependency affect power?

- The greater B's dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B.
- Importance, scarcity, and non-substitutability create dependency.

- Dependency is directly related to power.

Implication: is that it allows individuals to recognize the factors that create dependency
and how they can be used to increase one's power. By understanding the relationship between
dependency and power, individuals can identify areas where they have power and leverage
them to achieve their goals.

Application: The application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of

organizational life, such as negotiations, resource allocation, and conflict resolution. For
example, a manager who understands the importance of non-substitutability can use their
unique skills or knowledge to create a sense of dependency among team members and increase
their power.

IV. What tactics can be used to increase power?

- Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, personal appeals,

exchange, coalition tactics, pressure, legitimating tactics.

Implication: can be used to increase power is that it allows individuals to develop strategies
to increase their influence and achieve their goals. By recognizing the different tactics that can be
used to increase power, individuals can choose the most appropriate approach for a given situation.

Application: the application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of

organizational life, such as negotiations, team building, and leadership development. For example, a
manager who wants to increase their power can use rational persuasion to present a logical
argument for their position, or they can use inspirational appeals to appeal to the values and goals of
team members.

V. What does it mean to be empowered?

- Empowerment refers to the freedom and ability of employees to make decisions and
commitments.

- Empowerment can have positive effects when implemented effectively.

Implication: it allows individuals to recognize the benefits of empowering employees

and how it can positively impact the organization. By understanding the effects of
empowerment, individuals can create a work environment that fosters employee autonomy,
decision-making, and commitment.
 Application: The application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of
organizational life, such as leadership development, team building, and organizational culture.
For example, a manager who wants to empower their team can provide them with the
necessary resources, skills, and support to make decisions and take ownership of their work.

VI. How are power and harassment related?

- Abuse of power or power harassment is the misuse of authority to negatively impact

employees and the organization.

- Workplace bullying is a form of harassment and can have various negative effects on the
victim.

Implication: it allows individuals to recognize the negative consequences of power

abuse and how it can lead to harassment in the workplace. By understanding the link between
power and harassment, individuals can identify situations where power is being misused and
take steps to prevent harassment.

Application: the application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of

organizational life, such as leadership development, training, and policy development. For
example, a manager who understands the relationship between power and harassment can
create a work environment that values respect, fairness, and equality.

VII. Why do people engage in politics? Are teams always the answer?

- People engage in politics to influence others and achieve personal objectives.

- Types of political activities include attacking or blaming others, using information, managing
impressions, building support for ideas, praising others, building coalitions, associating with
influential people, and creating obligations.

Implication: it allows individuals to recognize the different tactics that can be used to
influence others and achieve personal objectives. By understanding the motives behind political
behavior, individuals can develop strategies to navigate political situations and achieve their
goals.

Application: The application of this knowledge can be seen in various aspects of

organizational life, such as negotiations, team building, and leadership development. For
example, a manager who understands the motives behind political behavior can use this
knowledge to build coalitions and gain support for their ideas.
Journal

Title: Journal of Power, Politics & Governance

Editor in Chief: Dr. Jackson de Carvaloh

All about the journal: The journal is a primary outlet

for those doing empirical work on relations of power
and powerlessness.

Reference:

Stephen Robins, Organizational Behavior, Ch 7, p 221-241