1

DATA COMMUNICATION
(CC-2103)

By: Dr. Deepak Sinwar

 Data Link Layer
2

 Flow Control:
 It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can
transmit before the data overwhelms the receiver.
 The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to
store the data. Therefore, the receiving device must be able to
inform the sending device to stop the transmission temporarily
before the limits are reached.
 It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information
until they are processed.
 Data Link Layer
3

 Flow Control:
 Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:
 Stop-and-wait

 Sliding window
 Data Link Layer
4

 Stop-and-wait
 In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgment after
every frame it sends.
 When an acknowledgment is received, then only the next frame is sent. The
process of alternately sending and waiting of a frame continues until the
sender transmits the EOT (End of transmission) frame.
 Advantage of Stop-and-wait
 The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
 Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait
 Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the
way to the receiver acknowledgment travels all the way before the next frame is sent.
Each frame sent and received uses the entire time needed to traverse the link.
 Data Link Layer
5
 Data Link Layer
6

 Stop-and-wait ARQ
 Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of
damaged or lost frames.
 This technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit
the next frame until it receives the acknowledgement of the last
transmitted frame.
 Data Link Layer
7

 Four features are required for the retransmission:

• The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the
acknowledgement is received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to retransmit the
data if the frame is not received correctly.
• Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so that
they can be identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the data 0
frame means that the data 0 frame has been arrived correctly and expects to receive
data 1 frame.
• If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK
frame which is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits the
data.
• It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the allotted
time, then the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the transmission, so it
will retransmit the frame.
 Data Link Layer
8

 Stop-and-wait
 Data Link Layer
9

 Stop-and-wait ARQ
 Two possibilities of retransmission:
• Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the
frame contains an error, then it returns the NAK frame.
• Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame
is transmitted.
 Data Link Layer
10

 Sliding Window ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)

 The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can
transmit the several frames before getting an acknowledgement.
 In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the
another due to which capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized efficiently.
 A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
 Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver
end.
 Data Link Layer
11

 Sliding Window ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)

 The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit
on the number of frames that can be transmitted before the acknowledgment.
 Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.
 The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means
that they are numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are
numbered from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
 The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames
can be sent before acknowledgment.
 When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame
that it wants to receive.
 Data Link Layer
12

 Sender Window
• At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1
frames, and when they are sent out, the left boundary moves inward
shrinking the size of the window.
• Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the
number which will be equal to the number of frames acknowledged by
ACK.
 Data Link Layer
13

 Receiver Window
• At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n
frames, but it contains n-1 spaces for frames.
• When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
• The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received,
but it represents the number of frames that can be received before an
ACK is sent.
• Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the
number equal to the number of frames acknowledged.
 Data Link Layer
14

 Receiver Window
 Data Link Layer
15

 Sliding Window ARQ

 In this case, the sender keeps copies of all the transmitted frames until
they have been acknowledged.
 The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions.
The NAK frame tells the sender that the data have been received
damaged.
 The ACK frame consists of a number that represents the next frame that
the receiver expects to receive.
 The NAK frame consists of a number that represents the damaged frame.
 The sliding window ARQ is equipped with a timer to handle the lost
acknowledgments.
 Data Link Layer
16

• Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ

protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged,
then it retransmits all the frames after
which it does not receive the positive
ACK.
 Data Link Layer
17

 Selective Repeat ARQ

• Selective Repeat ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.
• In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative
acknowledgment (NAK) has been received.
• The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until
the frame in error is correctly received.
• The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in
the correct order.
• The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the
requested frame for retransmission.
 Data Link Layer
18

 Selective Repeat ARQ

 Data Link Layer
19

 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of

communication protocols of the data link layer for transmitting
data between network points or nodes.
 Since it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames.
 A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that
verifies its successful arrival.
 It is applicable for both point-to-point and multipoint
communications.
 Data Link Layer
20

 Transfer Modes
 HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response
mode, and asynchronous balanced mode.
 Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are
there, a primary station that send commands and a secondary
station that can respond to received commands. It is used for both
point-to-point and multipoint communications.
 Data Link Layer
21

 Transfer Modes
 Data Link Layer
22

 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration

is balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and
respond to commands. It is used for only point-to-point
communications.
 Data Link Layer
23

 HDLC Frame
 HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol where each frame contains up to
six fields. The structure varies according to the type of frame. The
fields of an HDLC frame are −
 Data Link Layer
24

 HDLC Frame
 Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the
frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
 Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the
primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is
sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station.
The address field may be from 1 byte to several bytes.
 Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.
 Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary
from one network to another.
 FCS − It is a 2-byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The
standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
 Data Link Layer
25

 Multiplexing:
 Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send multiple data
streams over a single medium.
 The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and the hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)
that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.
 Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer
(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal
into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we
can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
 Data Link Layer
26

 Concept of Multiplexing:
 Data Link Layer
27

 Multiplexing Techniques:
 Data Link Layer
28

 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM):

 It is an analog technique.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the
available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is
subdivided into several channels.
 Data Link Layer
29

 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM):

 In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices.
Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite
signal.
 The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
 The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-
carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
 FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
 Data Link Layer
30

 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM):

 Data Link Layer
31

 Advantages Of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy to modulation.

 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.

 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

 Disadvantages Of FDM:
 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
 It suffers from the problem of crosstalk.

 A Large number of modulators are required.

 It requires a high bandwidth channel.

 Data Link Layer
32

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is the same as FDM except that the
optical signals are transmitted through the fiber optic cable.
 WDM is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from the the different sources are combined to form a
wider band of light with the help of a multiplexer.
 Data Link Layer
33

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit
them to their respective destinations.
• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical
signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is
transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
 Data Link Layer
34

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Data Link Layer
35

 Time Division Multiplexing

• It is a digital technique.
• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the
same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with
different time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the
channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is
allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data
is to be transmitted by the sender.
 Data Link Layer
36

 Time Division Multiplexing

 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a
cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots
dedicated to each user.
 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly
used to multiplex digital signals.
 Data Link Layer
37

 There are two types of TDM:

 SynchronousTDM
 Asynchronous TDM
 Data Link Layer
38

 Synchronous TDM
• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every
device.
• In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the
fact that the device contains the data or not.
• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
• In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
• The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.
• If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
 Data Link Layer
39

 Synchronous TDM
 Data Link Layer
40

 Asynchronous TDM
 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as
in the case of Synchronous TDM.
 Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to
send.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to
the devices.
 In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies
the source of the data.
 Data Link Layer
41

 Asynchronous TDM
 Data Link Layer
42

 Spread Spectrum
 Spread spectrum is a technique used for wireless communications in
telecommunication and radio communication.
 Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the transmitted signals of
specific frequencies are varied slightly to obtain greater bandwidth as
compared to initial bandwidth.
 Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio signal
transmission because it can easily reduce noise and other signal issues.
 Data Link Layer
43

 Example of Spread Spectrum

 We know that a conventional wireless signal frequency is usually
specified in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It does not change with
time.
 Suppose you want to listen to FM stereo at frequency 104.8 MHz on your
radio, and then once you set the frequency, the signal stays at 104.8
MHz. It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 101.1 MHz. You see
that your set digits on the radio's frequency dial stay the same at all
times. The frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept as constant
to keep bandwidth within certain limits, and the signal can be easily
located by someone who wants to retrieve the information.
 Data Link Layer
44

 Usage of Spread Spectrum

 There are many reasons to use this spread spectrum technique for
wireless communications. The following are some reasons:
 It can successfully establish a secure medium of communication.
 It can increase the resistance to natural interference, such as noise and
jamming, to prevent detection.
 It can enable multiple-access communications.
 Data Link Layer
45

 Types of Spread Spectrum

 Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:
 Data Link Layer
46

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize
bandwidth properly and maximum.
 In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided into many
channels and spread between channels, arranged continuously.
 The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are
transmitted according to their occupancy.
 The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for
a particular amount of time in milliseconds.
 So, it implements the frequency division multiplexing and time-division
multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.
 Data Link Layer
47

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum
modulation technique primarily used to reduce overall signal
interference in telecommunication.
 The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum modulation makes the
transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than the information bandwidth.
 In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit sequencing process
known as a spreading sequence.
 This spreading-sequence bit is known as a chip. It has a much shorter
duration (larger bandwidth) than the original message bits.
 Data Link Layer
48

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 Following are the features of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS.
 In the DSSS technique, the data that needs to be transmitted is split into smaller
blocks.
 After that, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence and is
transmitted from the sender end to the receiver end.
 Data blocks are recombined again to generate the original data at the receiver's end,
which was sent by the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.
 If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be recovered with those data rate
bits.
 The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller blocks is that it reduces the
noise and unintentional inference.
 Data Link Layer
49

 Multiple Access
 When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data
packets, the data link control is enough to handle the channel.
 Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data
between two devices. In that case, multiple stations access the channel
and simultaneously transmit the data over the channel.
 It may create collision and cross-talk.
 Hence, the multiple access protocols is required to reduce the collision
and avoid crosstalk between the channels.
 Data Link Layer
50

 Multiple Access
 Data Link Layer
51

 Random Access Protocol

 In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data
over a channel.
 In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on
another station nor any station control another station.
 Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits
the data frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a
channel, there may be a collision or data conflict.
 Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And
hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
 Data Link Layer
52

 Random Access Protocol

 Following are the different methods of random-access protocols :
 Aloha

 CSMA

 CSMA/CD

 CSMA/CA
 Data Link Layer
53

 ALOHA Random Access Protocol

 It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a
shared medium to transmit data.
 By using this method, any station can transmit data across a network
simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.
 Aloha Rules
1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through
multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.
 Data Link Layer
54

 ALOHA Random Access Protocol

 Data Link Layer
55

 Pure Aloha
 In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the
data frame can be lost.
 When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits
for the receiver's acknowledgment.
 If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the
station waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb).
 And the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore,
it retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully transmitted to the
receiver.
 Data Link Layer
56

 Pure Aloha
 Data Link Layer
57

 Slotted Aloha
 The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because
pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting.
 In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval
called slots.
 So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can
only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be
sent to each slot.
 And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the
station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
 The possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the
beginning of two or more station time slot.
 Data Link Layer
58

 Slotted Aloha
 Data Link Layer
59

 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

 It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to
sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data.
 It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
 Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.
 Data Link Layer
60

 CSMA Access Modes

 1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node,
first sense the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately
sends the data.
 Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle
and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
 Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before
transmitting the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the
channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station
must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is
found to be idle, it transmits the frames.
 Data Link Layer
61

 CSMA Access Modes

 P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent
modes.
 The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if
the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is
not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and
resumes the frame with the next time slot.
 O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of
the station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel.
If it is found that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to
retransmit the data.
 Data Link Layer
62

 CSMA Access Modes

 Data Link Layer
63

 CSMA/ CD
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network
protocol to transmit data frames.
 The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer.
 Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the
frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether
the transmission was successful.
 If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If
any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop
signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it
waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
 Data Link Layer
64

 CSMA/ CA
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for
carrier transmission of data frames.
 It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer. When a data
frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether
the channel is clear.
 If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgment, that means the
data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver.
 But if it gets two signals, a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel.
 It detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.
 Data Link Layer
65

 Channelization Protocols
 It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a
shared channel to be shared across multiple stations based on their
time, distance and codes.
 It can access all the stations at the same time to send the data frames to
the channel.
 Data Link Layer
66

 CDMA
 The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method.
 In CDMA, all stations can simultaneously send the data over the same
channel.
 It means that it allows each station to always transmit the data frames
with full frequency on the shared channel.
 Data Link Layer
67

 CDMA
 Data Link Layer
68

 CDMA
1. Let us assume that we have four stations 1, 2, 3 and 4 that are connected to
same channel. The data from station 1 are d1, from station 2 are d2 and so on.
2. The code assigned to the first station is C1, to the second is C2 and so on.
3. These assigned codes have two properties:
(a) If we multiply each code by another, we get O.
(b) If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4. (No. of stations).
4. When these four stations are sending data on the same channel, station 1
multiplies its data by its code i.e. d1.c1}, station 2 multiplies its data by its code
i.e. d2 .C2 and so on.
 Data Link Layer
69

 CDMA
5.Any station that wants to receive data from one of the other three
stations multiplies the data on a channel by the code of the sender.
Example: Suppose station 1 and 2 are talking to each other. Station 2
wants to hear what station 1 is saying. It multiples the data on the
channel by CI (the code of station 1).
6. Because (C1. C1) is 4, but (C2. C1), (C3. C1), and (C4. C1) are all
zeroes, station 2 divides the result by 4 to get the data from station 1.
data = (dl . C1+ d2 . C2+ d3. C3+ d4. C4) • C1
= d1. C1 . C1+ d2 . C2. C1+ d3 . C3. C1 + d4 . C4. C1= 4 x d1
 Data Link Layer
70

 CDMA
 It does not require the division of bandwidth on a shared channel based on
time slots.
 If multiple stations send data to a channel simultaneously, their data frames
are separated by a unique code sequence.
 Each station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over a
shared channel.
 For example, there are multiple users in a room that are continuously
speaking. Data is received by the users if only two-person interact with each
other using the same language. Similarly, in the network, if different stations
communicate with each other simultaneously with different code languages.
 Data Link Layer
71

 What is Ethernet?
 Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created in 1973 by
Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects computers on a network
over a wired connection.
 It is a widely used LAN protocol.
 It connects computers within the local area network and wide area
network.
 Numerous devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN
and WAN within buildings, homes, and even small neighborhoods.
 Data Link Layer
72

 What is Ethernet?
 It offers a simple user interface that helps to connect various devices
easily, such as switches, routers, and computers.
 A local area network (LAN) can be created with the help of a single
router and a few Ethernet cables, which enable communication between
all linked devices.
 This is because an Ethernet port is included in your laptop in which one
end of a cable is plugged in and connect the other to a router.
 Data Link Layer
73

 Ethernet Frame format description

• Preamble: 7bytes (56 bits); Alternating 0s and 1s, used for synchronizing
• Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): 10101011 indicates the start of the frame. Last two
bits (11) alerts that the next field is destination address.
• preamble and SFD are added at the physical layer and is not formally part of the
frame
• Destination Address (DA): Destination address
• Source Address (SA): Source Address
• Type: Define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. OR define the
number of bytes in the data filed.
• Data: minumum: 46 and maximum : 1500 bytes
• CRC: error detection information:CRC-32
 Data Link Layer
74

Ethernet Frame Format

• Minimum data length: 46 bytes

• Maximum data length : 1500 bytes
 Data Link Layer
75
 Data Link Layer
76

 For instance, the computer will only have the potential to forward and
receive data at 10 Mbps if you attach a computer with a 10BASE-T NIC
to a 100BASE-T network.
 Also, the maximum data transfer rate will be 100 Mbps if you have
a Gigabit Ethernet router and use it to connect the device.
 Data Link Layer
77

 Different Types of Ethernet Networks

 An Ethernet device with CAT5/CAT6 copper cables is connected to a fiber optic cable
through fiber optic media converters.
 The distance covered by the network is significantly increased by this extension for
fiber optic cable.
 There are some kinds of Ethernet networks, which are discussed below:
 Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet is usually supported by a twisted pair or CAT5
cable, which has the potential to transfer or receive data at around100 Mbps.
 They function at 100Base and 10/100Base Ethernet on the fiber side of the link if
any device such as a camera, laptop, or other is connected to a network.
 The fiber optic cable and twisted pair cable are used by fast Ethernet to create
communication. The 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4 are the three
categories of Fast Ethernet.
 Data Link Layer
78

 Different Types of Ethernet Networks

 Gigabit Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network is an upgrade from Fast
Ethernet, which uses fiber optic cable and twisted pair cable to create
communication.
 It can transfer data at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps.
 In modern times, gigabit Ethernet is more common.
 This network type also uses CAT5e or other advanced cables.
 Data Link Layer
79

 Different Types of Ethernet Networks

 10-Gigabit Ethernet: This type of network can transmit data at a rate of
10 Gigabit/second, considered a more advanced and high-speed
network.
 It makes use of CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables and fiber optic cables
as well.
 This network can be expended up to nearly 10,000 meters with the help
of using a fiber optic cable.
 Data Link Layer
80

 Different Types of Ethernet Networks

 Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves adding switches or hubs,
which helps to improve network throughput as each workstation in this
network can have its own dedicated 10 Mbps connection instead of
sharing the medium.
 Instead of using a crossover cable, a regular network cable is used when
a switch is used in a network. The latest Ethernet supports 1000Mbps to
10 Gbps and 10Mbps to 100Mbps for fast Ethernet.
81

References
 W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, (10e), Pearson Education, 2014.
 B. A. Forouzan, Data Communications & Networking, (5e), McGraw Hill, 2013.
 D. P. Bertsekas, R. G. Gallager, Data Networks, (2e), Prentice Hall of India, 2011.
 A. S. Tenenbaum, Computer Networks, (5e), Prentice Hall of India, 2008.
 L. L. Peterson, B. S. Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, (5e), Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, 2011.