University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing

LENLY GRACE D. SAUL

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
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a) Synthesis of nucleotide from a nucleoside

9.1 Metabolism Overview and phosphate
b) Hydrolysis of a trisaccharide to form three
monosaccharides
c) Formation of triacylglycerol from glycerol
and fatty acids
d) Breaking down of pentasaccharide into
five monosaccharides

Answer:
a) Anabolic: Subunits are combined to form
a larger unit
Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical b) Catabolic. A complex unit is broken down
reactions that supports the biological to its simple units
functions of a living organism. In general, c) Anabolic. A larger unit is assembled from
the metabolic reactions can be classified its smaller subunits
into two broad categories: d) Catabolic. 5 simple compounds were
produced by breaking down a larger
■ Catabolism is the process of
compound
breaking down molecules to
produce energy.
Important molecules that are repeatedly
■ Anabolism is the process of
used in metabolism
synthesizing molecules and it
● Acetyl CoA. Its main function is to
consumes energy as the
deliver acetyl to the Krebs Cycle.
reaction proceeds.
Metabolic pathway is a series of ● ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). An
biochemical reactions that occur in the cell organic compound that serves as
in an organized manner. These pathways fuel for many biological processes.
can either be linear or cyclic. ● ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate).
■ Linear pathway is a series of The degraded form of ATP. It is
reactions that yields a final charged by adding another
product. phosphate group, converting it back
to ATP.
■ Cyclic pathway usually
generates by-products but the● Enzyme. A biological catalyst that
series of reactions will lead to increases the rate of a chemical
the regeneration of its starting reaction.
reactants. ● FAD (Flavin Adenin Dinucleotide).
Quick Test: A coenzyme and is required in many
Classify the following chemical reactions as redox metabolic reactions
catabolic or anabolic ● FADH2. The reduced form of FAD
and utilized during the Electron
Transport Chain.
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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
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● Kinase. An enzyme that facilitates

the transfer of phosphate group from
a high-energy source.
● Phosphate. It is a charged particle
ion and its chemical formula is
PO43- Inorganic Phosphate is
represented by Pi.
● NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide). A coenzyme and
important in the biosynthesis of fats
and sugars.
● NADH. The reduced form of NAD+ .
This is oxidized back to NAD+ in the
electron Transport Chain.

The food that we eat undergoes a series of

biochemical reactions in order for our body
to utilize them. These macromolecules are
largely converted into energy that fuels our
daily activities such as walking, breathing
and thinking. Even biological functions at
the molecular level, e.g. DNA replication,
protein synthesis, cell repair are energy
demanding processes. To generate energy
from the food, the body uses different
catabolic pathways for each type of
compound. All these pathways are
congregated to one common catabolic
pathway.

Common catabolic pathway consists of the

1) Tricarboxylic Acid cycle, also known as
the citric acid cycle or the Krebs cycle and
the 2) oxidative phosphorylation. The
conversion of food to energy can be
summarized into four steps:

It is common knowledge that the

mitochondrion is called the powerhouse of
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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

the cell. The common metabolic pathway

occurs in the mitochondrion and most ATPs
are produced. Key areas in energy
production:
1) Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol.
Pyruvates are generated in the cytosol.
They enter the matrix and are converted
into acetyl CoA so it can participate in the
Citric Acid Cycle.
2) Citric Acid Cycle takes place in the matrix
Once the pyruvates are oxidized into acetyl
coA, it enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
3) The protein complexes involved in the
oxidative phosphorylation are embedded in
the inner membrane.

9.2 Glycolysis

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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

For every molecule of glucose, 2 molecules ● Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes

of pyruvates, 2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2H and 2 H 2O the reaction
are produced ● The main purpose of this reaction is
● Because of the cleaving (step 4) and to produce NADH
the isomerization of the triose sugar ● Lactate reverts back to pyruvate
(****), the second phase of glycolysis when aerobic conditions are
is repeated. Hence, the amount of established. When doing strenuous
products is doubled. activity, muscles often produce
● Even though a total of 4 ADPs are lactate
used in phase 2 (step 6 & 9), 2ADPs C) Pyruvate is converted to ethanol
are produced in phase 1. There is a ● Common in some microorganisms
net usage of 2ADP ● Common in yeast and is the primary
mechanism behind bread leavening,
The Fate of Pyruvate beer and wine fermentation
Pyruvate has three common fatesafter it has
been generated by glycolysis. In the section
above, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle
after it is converted into Acteyl CoA. ● CoA – SH is the coenzyme A added
However, pyruvate is also converted into to the pyruvate
lactate and ethanol in certain conditions: ● The overall reaction of glucose to
acetyl CoA no longer reflects the
pyruvate as it has been converted to
acetyl CoA
● A total of 2 acetyl CoA will be
produced for each glucose molecule
A) Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA and (because 2 pyruvates are formed in
enters the citric acid cycle every molecule of glucose)
● Pyruvate undergoes oxidative ● Additional 2 NAD are used and 2
decarboxylation in the presence of NADH are produced during the
Coenzyme A (CoA-- SH) conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
● The enzyme involved is Pyruvate (1 NAD and 1 NADH for each
dehydrogenase molecule of pyruvate)
● Proceeds under aerobic conditions
(oxygen-rich) Regulation of Glycolysis
1) Hexokinase – When there is abundant
● Acetyl CoA and CO2 are produced
glucose-6-phosphate, the action of
in this process. Only Acetyl CoA
hexokinase is inhibited. High levels of
enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
glucose-6-phosphate signals that the cell no
B) Pyruvate is converted to lactate
longer requires the conversion of glucose to
● Proceeds under anaerobic
energy.
conditions

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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

2) Phosphofructokinase – High
concentration of ATP allosterically inhibits
phosphofructokinase. Allosterism is an
enzyme regulation wherein a regulator
binds to the enzyme and modifies the ability
of the enzyme to bind with its substrate.
ATP inhibitory action is elicited when it binds
to a specific regulatory site. Conversely,
AMP reverses the inhibitory action of ATP.
Therefore, the activity of the enzyme
increases when ATP/AMP ratio is lowered In order for the body to utilize the stored fats
(less ATP, more AMP). When in the adipose tissue, it mobilizes the TAGs
phosphofructokinase is repressed, the through a series of hydrolysis.
concentration of fructose-6-phosphate rises. ● The use of TAGs in energy
Consequently, glucose-6-phosphate also
production is triggered by several
rises because it is in equilibrium with
hormones including Epinephrine
fructose-6- phosphate. Therefore, the
● The interaction of hormones with the
suppression of phosphofructokinase also
adipocyte receptor triggers the
leads to the suppression of hexokinase.
production of cAMP, which
eventually stimulates the activation
3) Pyruvate kinase- High levels of ATP
of Hormone-Sensitive Lipase (HSL).
signals the inhibition of the enzyme
HSL is needed in the hydrolysis of
pyruvate kinase.
TAGs
● The hydrolysis of TAGs produces
Fatty acids and glycerol which are
9.3 β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids released into the bloodstream
● Glycerol, once released into the
Triacylglycerols (TAGs) are stored mainly bloodstream, travels to the kidney
in the adipose tissue by the cell adipocyte. and liver and is converted into
Dietary TAGs stored in the adipose tissue dihyroxyacetone phosphate.
need to undergo a series of hydrolysis in ● Dihyroxyacetone phosphate is an
order for the body to use it. The hydrolysis intermediate in both glycolysis and
of TAGs followed by its release into the gluconeogenesis (production of
bloodstream as fatty acids and glycerol is glucose)
called the Triacylglycerol mobilization. ● The Fatty Acids undergo the process
of β-oxidation which produces Acetyl
CoA, FADH2and NADH.

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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

Conversion of free fatty acids can be ● Acyl CoA attaches to Carnitine,

divided into three parts: 1) Activation of the forming Acyl Carnitine
fatty acid by coenzyme A, 2) Transportation ● Acyl Carnitine is transported into the
of the fatty acid into the matrix by a shuttle mitochondrial matrix and is
system and 3) β-oxidization of fatty acids to converted back as Acyl CoA
produce Acetyl CoA, FADH 2 and NADH. 3) β-oxidation of fatty acids
1) Activation of fatty acids ● Consists of four reactions that
● Activation of fatty acids takes place repeatedly cleave two-carbon units
in the outer mitochondrial membrane from the carboxyl end of the Acyl
● Fatty acids are converted into Acyl CoA molecule.
CoA (high-energy derivative of ● It is called the β-oxidation because
coenzyme A) the second carbon from the carboxyl
end (called the β-carbon) is oxidized.
● Β-oxidation repeats until the Acyl
CoA is converted into Acetyl CoA.
R is the representative of a hydrocarbon ● Each cycle generates an Acetyl CoA
chain and may vary according to the and an Acyl Coa that has two fewer
number of carbon present in the fatty acid. carbon atoms
● Acyl CoA is the activated fatty acid.
The difference between Acyl
CoAand Acetyl CoAis that Acyl CoA
can have a varied number of carbon
while Acetyl CoA is strictly a
two-carbon chain attached to
Coenzyme A.

2) Transportation of the Fatty acidAcyl CoA

is too large to pass through the inner

mitochondrial membrane.

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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

9.4 Citric Acid Cycle

Feedback system in the Citric Acid Cycle:

1) ATP, NADH, NAD and ADP regulate the
citric acid cycle. When ATP and NADH are
abundant, the citric acid cycle is slowed
down or shut down. ATP and NADH inhibit
the action of the enzymes that catalyzes the
citric acid cycle.
2) Conversely, ADP and NAD stimulate the
activity of the enzymes.

9.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation

Oxidative Phosphorylation
● In the electron transport chain,
electrons and hydrogen ions pass
through intermediate carriers in
order to react with molecular oxygen
and ultimately produce water. NADH
and FADH2 are oxidized in this
process. There are 4 protein
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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

complexes and 2 electron carriers

involved in this chain.

Complex I: NADH–coenzyme Q reductase

Complex II: Succinate–coenzyme Q
reductase
Complex III: Coenzyme Q–cytochrome c
reductase
Complex IV: Cytochrome c oxidase
Two electron carriers: coenzyme Q and
cytochrome c,
Chemiosmotic theory states that the
accumulation of protons in the
intermembrane space creates osmotic
pressure.
● There will be a spontaneous flow of
ions from a region of high
concentration to a region of low
Key notes in the electron transport chain: concentration.
● The electron transport chain does ● Because there is an accumulation of
not produce ATP. protons in the intermembrane space
● The main function of the electron and less concentration of protons
transport chain is to create a proton inside the matrix, the protons will
(H+) gradient wherein the inter flow back to the matrix
membrane space has higher ● The protons will pass through
concentration of H+than the matrix. ATPase in order to enter the matrix.
● Only complex I , III and IV pumps ● The protons passing through the
H+. Complex II does not directly ATPase will drive the “rotation” of the
pump H+to the intermembrane ATPase, allowing the conversion of
space. ADP to ATP.
● NADH enters the complex I and The action of ATPase can be related to a
FADH2enters the complex II water turbine. The flow of water makes the
turbine rotate which eventually creates
● Oxygen is the ultimate receiver of
energy.
electrons, not ATP.

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 University of San Agustin - Bachelor of Science in Nursing
LENLY GRACE D. SAUL
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING
__________________________________________________________________

9.6 ATP and Calorie Counting

6 grams fat x 9 calories = 54 calories
20 grams carbs x 4 calories = 80 calories
Note:
5 grams protein x 4 calories = 20 calories
NADH enters the ETC at complex I and
produces a total of 10 H+ ions through the
Total calories (54 + 80 + 20) = 154 calories
ETC (4 from complex I, 4 from complex III,
and 2 from complex IV). ATP-synthase
synthesizes 1 ATP for 4 H + ions. Therefore,
1 NADH = 10 H+, and 10/4 H+ per ATP = 2.5
ATP per NADH

FADH2 enters the ETC at complex II and

creates a total of 1.5 ATP (4 H + from
complex III, and 2 H+ from complex IV; 6/4
H+ per ATP = 1.5 ATP per FADH 2

Seatwork: How many ATPs are produced in

1 linolenic acid?

Calories
1 gram carbohydrates = 4 calories
1 gram protein = 4 calories
1 gram fat = 9 calories

How many calories will you get in a snack

that has 6 grams of fats, 20 grams of
carbohydrates and 5 grams of protein?
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