Unit 9

Recognizing the Main Idea and Source Bias in a Complex Reading

Learning Objectives:

 Identify the main idea expressed in a complex reading with multiple viewpoints.
 Recognize bias within a reading.
 Identify opinions disguised as facts.

LESSON

College assignments often incorporate or are focused upon complex, multilayered texts. Breaking those texts down into manageable chunks is
helpful in developing a working understanding of the overall reading and figuring out the writer's central themes, opinions and thesis. This, in
turn, will allow you to develop effective summaries, responses, and analyses of the readings.

This lesson will help you develop strategies around unraveling a complex reading and identifying its main idea. You will also learn how to
recognize bias in a reading and identify opinions disguised as facts—two additional and valuable skills in being able to effectively respond to the
ideas and writings of others.

Identifying the Main Idea

One way to simplify a complex text with multiple perspectives, explanations, or justifications is to first identify the writer's main idea. Follow
these strategies to identify the main idea:

1. Remember that even when you are reading a text with multiple points of view, you are looking for the writer's main idea. While the
writer may present viewpoints that echo the main ideas of the contributing authors or other sources, do not mistake these viewpoints for the main
idea the writer of the text is trying to convey.
2. Look for repeated words and ideas that indicate the writer's topic and the point being made about it. Repeating keywords and ideas is a
common practice for many writers, and even if they are presented from different perspectives within the text, the repetition itself is a good
indicator of the writer's intended topic.

3. Weigh the amount of time given to each viewpoint. If equal time is given to each position, then the writer may be neutral on the subject. If
more time is given to one viewpoint over another, it may indicate that the writer agrees or strongly disagrees with that point of view.

4. Look for words that signal the writer's analysis of the situation. If the writer follows a particular viewpoint with "however," then you can
assume that the writer does not entirely agree with that viewpoint and is providing a counterpoint.

5. Identify the title and headings. In non-fiction writing, the title often repeats the main idea of the reading.

6. Look for the adjectives and adverbs that accompany each viewpoint. If a writer prefaces a source with the words, "successfully presents
his case," then it is clear that the author agrees with that point of view or believes that point has more merit than another point. If, instead, the
writer describes someone's claims as "dubious," it is clear that the writer does not believe that particular point has value.

7. Look for an introduction and conclusion. These are both areas where writers tend to briefly summarize the point of the text. The
introduction and conclusion of most readings are usually comparatively brief; however, they serve to drive home the main points of the writer.

8. Break down the paragraphs into the MEAL concept: main idea, evidence, analysis, and link. The varying viewpoints will be the writer's
evidence. The analysis, however, will be the writer's own thoughts and should point you to the writer's main idea.

MEAL concept:

Main Idea: the topic sentence, identifying one of the supporting claims for the thesis.

Evidence: facts, expert opinion, or anecdotal evidence proving the claim described in the topic sentence.

Analysis: explaining how the evidence supports the topic sentence.

Link: a transition from one paragraph to another, as well as back to the thesis.
Recognizing Bias

Once you have determined the main idea, you should take a closer look at the writer's argument. One particular concern is whether the author is
biased. Bias can be defined as a leaning toward or away from one side of an issue. In other words, the writer is either for or against an argument
or idea. Ask yourself these questions to determine whether a reading contains bias:

1. Is the source of the reading known for a particular bias? For example, some news stations tend to lean toward a more politically
conservative perspective while others tend to lean toward a more liberal perspective.

2. Is the reading funded by a particular organization? For example, a study on toothpaste that is funded by Superwhite brand toothpaste
might be biased. The results of the study directly impact the very company that is paying for the research.

3. Do the graphics accurately represent the subject? If photographs are being used as evidence to support reasoning, it is essential to know
whether or not the photographs are authentic or staged, i.e., images altered by a computer program or distorted by a leading or misrepresentative
caption.

Photos are not the only images that you need to analyze. Also look at charts, graphs, and illustrations. Look closely at all parts of graphs and
charts because it is fairly easy to misrepresent data to portray circumstances that are more positive or more negative than they really are by
skewing details and data.

4. Does the reading include subjective language? Did the reading present ideas that are open to interpretation, perhaps influenced by cultural,
social, or political views? For example, an article about an oil pipeline running through a national forest that portrays the oil and gas industry as
"reasonable" and "cautious," yet describes environmental groups as "naïve" and "unrealistic," may show a bias toward the oil and gas industry.

5. Do the graphs and diagrams accurately represent the data? Read the graphs and diagrams carefully to make sure that they make sense and
that what they say is accurately represented in the reading. Graphs and diagrams can be misrepresented in biased readings.

6. Are there any facts that have been left out? A news article that presents only "one side" of an event will tell a different story than an article
that includes accounts by multiple parties.

7. Have quotes been edited in such a way that important words or ideas are left out? For example, look at quotes used in marketing films
and books. The marketing campaigns may use only the portions that reflect favorably on their product. Even worse is when a quote has been
altered in such a way that it implies the exact opposite of its original intended meaning. You may need to locate the original quote before you
know whether the writer used it correctly.

Identifying Opinions Disguised as Facts

When you read, you need to be able to separate what is actually being said from how it is being said. This task is made more difficult when
writers make their opinions seem like facts. Here are a few ways that you can distinguish between facts and opinions.

1. Recognize logical fallacies. A logical fallacy is faulty reasoning upon which an idea, theory, thesis, or hypothesis is based. There are many
different yet common logical fallacies. For example, the "cherry picking fallacy" relies upon choosing only that data or evidence that will lead to
your desired outcome rather than revealing the full picture.

Example:

The woman crossing the street was clearly in the right when she was struck by the moving vehicle because she was in a neighborhood
with many walkers, it was daylight, and the roads were not icy.

This cherry picking fallacy only presents one side of what could be a police report, a legal argument, or a journalistic account of an incident; it
fails to take into account all evidence, such as the state of mind of the walker, her location in relation to a crosswalk, the driver's story, and the
condition of the vehicle in question. The full story is not revealed.

2. Identify opinions attributed to unknown strangers. This is the use of language that implies a fact without stating it as a fact.

Example:

The neighborhood has seen a dramatic increase in theft and property crime, a phenomenon many people say is due to the rising
underage student population.

Knowing the identity of the "many people" in the above example is important to analyze this claim. If the "many people" are just the members of
the writer's circle of family and friends, this may be an unfounded claim. If, however, most members of the neighborhood association as well as
local authorities believe that students are to blame, then this allegation may have more weight.
3. Recognize the difference between imagined and actual motives. Guessing about others' motives is a practice often seen in controversial or
poorly crafted journalism. It is speculating as to the thoughts, ideas, opinions, and views of others rather than reporting just evidentiary facts or
statements.

Example:

One of the students running for council president is campaigning for a campus-wide curfew and ban of all tobacco and alcohol products.
Clearly he is pushing his own moral agenda to change the entire attitude of the school.

In the above example, the writer does not give readers any evidence to prove that the student in question based his platform on his own morals. It
is possible that there were several deaths on the campus due to drunk driving or that a beloved campus professor was diagnosed with lung cancer.

4. Look for adjectives and adverbs used outside of quotations. While the quotation may be an authentic statement made by another individual,
an adjective or adverb outside of the quotations is not. The writer is using that adjective or adverb to modify, enhance, or otherwise slant the
reading of the quotation.

Example:

The politician responded to the media's question regarding the economic stimulus plan with these hurried words: "I am certain we are all
eager to hear more about the plan. However, at this time, I am unable to elaborate."

In the above example, the writer claims that the politician spoke in a hurried manner, which could imply that his response was not well thought
out or dismissive. This may not be a correct assumption. First of all, perhaps the politician always tends to speak quickly and decisively, or
maybe his wife was in labor and he was in a rush to leave for the hospital.

Evaluating Credible Sources Used Within a Reading

Learning Objectives:

 Identify sources cited in a reading.

 Determine if credible sources were used in a reading.
LESSON
As you read through research looking for suitable evidence to support your own claims, you must be able to evaluate the sources writers use to
support their own claims. In this lesson, you will learn how to identify attributive phrases and in-text citations and recognize the writer's use of
credible sources.

Identifying Sources Cited in a Reading

Writers need to alert the reader that they have used source material to strengthen their claims. They do so with attributive phrases and in-text
citations; combined, these include all information necessary to locate a source in an essay's full list of sources. The form of the attributive phrases
and in-text citations depends upon the citation style being used. Many college professors require you to use either MLA or APA format to cite
sources. Although there are other citation styles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, Turabian, and CSE (Council of Science Editors), this
lesson will focus on MLA and APA. All citation styles share similar elements; if you understand the major citation elements, you will be able to
learn the requirements of any style.

Attributive phrases indicate that a source is about to be incorporated. The attributive phrases in the examples below have been underlined. These
examples provide the proper format for in-text citations in both MLA- and APA-style:

MLA: Thomas writes that Evans intended to "inspire a new generation of playwrights" (42).

APA: Thomas writes (2011) that Evans intended to "inspire a new generation of playwrights" (p. 42).

MLA: According to Thomas, Evans wrote best at his home in Florida, "rising early and finishing late" (31).

APA: According to Thomas (2011), Evans wrote best at his home in Florida, "rising early and finishing late" (p. 31).

MLA: In Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Baumeister et al. identify extensive research that demonstrates that increased self-
esteem has very few benefits and many disadvantages (2003).

APA: In Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, and Vohs (2003) present extensive research that
demonstrates that increased self-esteem has very few benefits and many disadvantages.

Note that in APA-style in-text citations, you need to include the year the source material was published or produced.
Also note the use of the term et al. in the MLA-style citation above. Et al. is a Latin expression that means and others. It is an abbreviation that is
used to indicate multiple writers of text; however, MLA and APA have different standards for its use. As you can see in the examples above, the
cited article has four writers. MLA style allows the use of et al. in both in-text cites and in the works cited page whenever there are four or more
writers. APA style does not allow use of et al. in the references page, but it does allow it in some in-text citations:

 for sources with three to five authors, in all citations subsequent to the first; and
 in all in-text citations of sources with six or more authors.

As noted above, attributive phrases and citations directly identify where to find more information about a source in the works cited or references
page. These pages come directly after your essay and must include full citations for all of the sources used in your work.

Example of an APA references page:

References

Carol, J.B., Sands, A., & Karotti, R. (2012). The quality of physical education in America. Journal of Middle School
Teachers, 220(1), 10-42.
Erickson, A., Winters, C.C., Smith, J., & Douglas, N. (2009). Parachutes, scooters, and kites: Examining the role of play
and group activities in middle-school physical education. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology, 10(3), 66-69.
Mumson, B., & Smith, J. (2011). Teacher-parent communications and the effect on evaluation and development of new
school athletic programs: Getting the kids moving. Journal of American Sports, 2(1), 50-62.
Utterly, H., & Finsem, G. (2012). The impact of television, Internet, and video games on the child’s growing reluctance to
play sports. Technology and Kids, 16(4), 111-123.

Example of an MLA works cited page:

Works Cited

Carol, John B., Andrea Sands, and Ruth Karotti. “The Quality of Physical Education in America.” Journal of Middle School
Teachers 220.1 (2012): 10-42. Print.
Erickson, Allen, Christina C. Winters, Josephine Smith and Neri Douglas. “Parachutes, Scooters, and Kites: Examining the
Role of Play and Group Activities in Middle-School Physical Education.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology 10.3
(2009): 66-9. Print.
Mumson, Benjamin, and Josephine Smith. “Teacher-Parent Communications and the Effect On Evaluation and
Development of New School Athletic Programs: Getting the Kids Moving.” Journal of American Sports. 2.1 (2011): 50-62.
Print.
Utterly, Henry and Graham Finsem. “The Impact of Television, Internet, and Video Games on the Child’s Growing
Reluctance to Play Sports.” Technology and Kids 16.4 (2012): 111-23. Print.

Identifying Credible Sources

Once you understand where the sources come from through attributive phrases and in-text citations, you can determine whether the source is
credible or not and determine whether it has been used effectively.

Ask yourself these questions of each source:

Was it published in a scholarly journal?

There is an important distinction between a magazine article and a scholarly journal article. Magazine articles are typically written by journalists
who write on a variety of topics, meaning that they do research on whatever topic they are writing about much like a student doing an
assignment. Scholarly journal articles are written by experts in a particular field of study, such as professors and PhD candidates at a university,
and the journals themselves are called "peer-reviewed journals." This means that all of the articles and contributions in the journal have been
read, assessed, and critiqued by other experts (professors) in the same field of study prior to being published. The process of peer-review is
actually quite competitive and rigorous; therefore, you can generally assume a higher degree of credibility from information gathered in peer-
review journals than popular magazines or newspaper articles. Typically, peer-reviewed journals can be trusted as reliable sources. The main way
peer-reviewed journal articles lose their credibility is if they become out of date, so studies and articles that are more than four years old should
be checked for relevance and accuracy.

Who wrote it? What are their credentials, reputations, and institutional affiliations?

Once you have determined where the source comes from and if it is peer-reviewed, take it a step further and look at the writer of the piece. Is this
an individual known among his or her academic or professional community? How long has she worked in the field? How many publications does
he have? Where does he do his research or studying? Is her work often cited or referenced by other academics, scholars, or practitioners?
Who is the intended audience?

Knowing for whom the author is writing is a good way to evaluate the source. Is it a piece intended for a very specific group of academics
studying a narrow topic? For example, an article in the Journal of Nanotechnology about the risks of using gold-coated nanomedicine in infant
trials might be appropriate for cancer researchers; however, it likely is not appropriate for a freshman-level English composition paper addressing
the general concerns about children being used in medical research.

Are the source's sources credible?

Be sure to read your source carefully and critically assess the writer's source material. You may ask yourself if the writer herself is relying upon
peer-reviewed articles or less reliable sources. You will want to look for potential biases and logical fallacies, as well.

How was the source funded?

How a source is funded can be a potential source of conflict of interest. For example, pharmaceutical companies often commission their own
research studies. The success of their product can hinge on the success of these studies and may develop biased interpretations or presentations of
research results.

When was the source written? Is it outdated?

As with scholarly journals, any source material that is over four years old begins to lose its credibility. However, in some instances, new research
and data is simply unavailable or the findings have not changed significantly. In these instances, it is acceptable for the source material to be over
four years old.

Creating a Thesis and an Outline for a Critical Analysis Essay

Learning Objectives:

 Write a thesis statement for a multi-page critical analysis essay that presents an opinion about a text's effectiveness.
 Outline a multi-page critical analysis essay that examines how successful a text is at conveying its message and
purpose using evidence from the readings as support.
LESSON
Many college courses, including psychology, literature, philosophy, microbiology, and history, require large amounts of reading. Your instructor
may assess your understanding and analysis of a text through an exam; however, you may also be required to write an essay that measures your
understanding and opinion of a chapter or article. Sometimes these are assignments that ask you to assess the effectiveness of an author's work,
or how well he or she has made a case.

Keep in mind that the idea of a work's "effectiveness" is subjective because it is based upon your opinion of the author's success. In other words,
it is possible that you and a classmate or colleague might disagree about the effectiveness of a specific text. This is not uncommon; sometimes
there is no "right" answer. For this reason, it is important that you thoroughly understand the text and then provide sound reasoning for your
opinions.

In this lesson, you will learn how to develop a thesis statement for a critical analysis essay and how to create a corresponding outline using
evidence to support your thesis.

Develop a Thesis Statement

Since the purpose of a critical analysis essay is to assess the effectiveness of a text at its most basic level, your thesis statement should refer to the
text that you are analyzing and express whether you think that text is effective or not.

Remember, you are looking at the extent to which a text successfully produces the outcome or result it was meant to produce. Therefore, the first
step in developing your thesis statement is to identify what the author wanted to accomplish. The second step is to assess the author's success in
doing so.

Here are two examples of critical analysis thesis statements covering the same text. This thesis statement affirms the effectiveness of the author's
work:

In Capitalism in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty successfully argues that without government intervention, the gap between the
rich and the poor will continue to grow because of an economic system that favors earnings on investments over earnings on labor.

Conversely, this thesis statement is critical of the author's effectiveness:

 Thomas Picketty's book, Capitalism in the Twenty-First Century, does an excellent job of demonstrating how wealth continues to grow
through investments, but fails to provide evidence that this favorable growth keeps people from moving from the lower class to the upper
class through determination and hard work.

Develop an Outline

The next step to writing a critical analysis essay is to develop an outline. In addition to outlining the body, or supporting paragraphs, you should
provide a brief summary of the text you are evaluating in the background portion of your introduction. This will give your readers the context
they need to assess your analysis, which is especially important if they have not read the text you are evaluating.

In the supporting paragraphs, you should use the MEAL concept to outline the main idea, evidence, analysis, and link.

MEAL

Main Idea: your topic sentence, identifying one of the supporting claims for the thesis.

Evidence: facts, expert opinion, or anecdotal evidence proving that the claim described in the topic sentence is true.

Analysis: explaining how the evidence supports the topic sentence.

Link: a transition from the paragraph, as well as back to the thesis.

In the essay, you need to use pieces of the original text as your evidence. If you think the text is effective, identify portions of the text that
demonstrate its effectiveness; likewise, if you think the text is ineffective, identify portions of the text that demonstrate its ineffectiveness. In
your analysis, you will explain why each portion supports your claim that the evidence contributes to the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the
entire text.

Keep in mind that you may have more than one piece of evidence or analysis for each of your main points, so your supporting paragraphs may
look like MEEAL or MEAAL, or other combinations of evidence and analysis.

Finally, you should outline your conclusion. In this paragraph, you need to bring all the parts of the essay together in the synthesis and create a
strong final impression for the reader.
Here is what an outline for a critical analysis essay might look like:

I. Introductory Paragraph
A. Hook
B. Background
C. Thesis
II. Body Paragraphs

A. Main Point I
i. Evidence
ii. Analysis
iii. Link
B. Main Point II

i. Evidence
ii. Analysis
iii. Link
C. Main Point III

i. Evidence
ii. Analysis
iii. Link
III. Concluding Paragraph

A. Synthesis
B. Final Impression

Using Effective Evidentiary Support

Learning Objectives:

 Identify the most effective portions of a text to use as evidence in an essay or written response.
  Use attributive phrases and in-text citations appropriately in an essay or written response.

LESSON
Part of developing an essay involves identifying sources that will strengthen your thesis. Equally important is recognizing the most effective
portions of those sources that you should present to your readers. Finding the right sources and the most effective portions of those sources is
crucial to building evidentiary support for your thesis.

It is wise to be selective about the type and amount of source material you use in your essays. Be cautious in using others' work; your readers
want to read your ideas—not a copy of someone else's. Using too much source material without enough of your own analysis demonstrating how
the evidence supports your own thesis can detract from your own authority on the topic.

Once you have identified the relevant source material, make sure you incorporate it properly using attributive phrases and in-text citations. In this
lesson, you will learn how to identify the most effective parts of source material to use as evidence in an essay, as well as how to cite them
appropriately with attributive phrases and in-text citations.

Identifying the Most Effective Portions of a Text

To identify the most important portions of a reading to use as support, you first need to have an idea of the claims that you are going to make so
that you can develop questions to select the best evidence. For this lesson, let's suppose that you are writing an analysis of the book Happier at
Home by Gretchen Rubin.

First, develop a thesis, such as: In Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin successfully argues that one's possessions greatly contribute to one's
happiness.

Next, develop the questions that this thesis prompts in both your mind and the mind of your intended audience.

 What specific details did Rubin share that made her argument?
 What specific examples illustrate that possessions can increase happiness?
 What sources does Rubin incorporate to strengthen her claim?
After creating these questions, read through the text and search for the answers to them. To begin with, skim the text for any quick signs of
identifying markers that an answer may be near. These could be headings, pictures, figures, and charts. Quotation marks are an indicator that
your source has incorporated its own source. Additionally, you may develop new questions as you read. Your research may turn up new evidence
that will cause you to adjust your thesis and analysis.

For example, in reading Happier at Home, one would find an answer to the last question, "What sources does Rubin incorporate to strengthen her
claim?"

On pages 21 and 22, Rubin quotes researchers who have found that in most cultures, people's possessions are central to their lives.

Continue to analyze the reading until you've found the answers to all your questions. Be sure to note where the words and ideas are coming from
because you will need that information to properly incorporate your source into your essay.

Finding the answers in the text to these types of questions shows you exactly which parts of the reading will work best as evidentiary support for
your essay. Although there may be many aspects of a text that are interesting and important, answering questions related to your thesis will help
you narrow your focus to what is absolutely necessary.

Citing Sources Using Attributive Phrases and In-text Citations

Once you have identified the information from your source that will best support your claims, you need to properly incorporate it into your own
essay or response. Whether you paraphrase or quote your source, it is always best to introduce your source with an attributive phrase. If
additional information is required to lead your readers to the correct entry in your list of works cited/references page, include that information in
an in-text citation. In MLA style, the attributive phrase and in-text citation must include the author's last name and the page number where the
particular quote or paraphrase comes from. In APA style, the required information is the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page
number.

MLA example:
APA example:

Sometimes, an attributive phrase does not include any of the necessary information, in which case it all needs to appear in the in-text citation.

MLA example:
APA example:

There are also instances when you may not utilize an attributive phrase at all—for example, when an idea or fact is present in several cited
sources, or when you wish to place the emphasis on the idea or fact rather than on its author. In these instances, you will need to include all the
required information in the in-text citation.

MLA example:

APA Example:
Paraphrasing vs. Direct Quotations

Learning Objective:

 Understand when to paraphrase and when to directly quote a source.

LESSON
As you write, it is important to provide evidence to support the claims that you make in both your thesis statement and topic sentence. Quoting
and paraphrasing source materials can be an excellent way to reinforce your claim. While quotations and paraphrases are similar, they should not
be used interchangeably. This lesson will help you understand when it is appropriate to use a direct quotation versus paraphrasing it.

When to Paraphrase

Paraphrase in these situations:

1. To use fewer words yet state the same thoughts as the original text.

Sometimes the choice to paraphrase a source instead of directly quoting it is a matter of being concise. Unless the quote is exceptionally
meaningful, always choose to paraphrase.

Here is an example of an original text and its paraphrase:

Original Text:
 "When my car was towed for the third time this winter, I went down to the police station and yelled, 'I've had it!' They told me to go to the
impound lot and tell them that, but I stood my ground and demanded to know, for the citizens of this community, why our cars keep
getting towed when there is no formal issuance of a snow emergency." Lisa Johnson, Renville Daily News, D4.

Paraphrase:

The writer expressed frustration and anger regarding the towing of her car; she even went to the police station and demanded to know
why cars were being towed when no snow emergency had been declared (Johnson, D4).

2. To emphasize your own authority.

When you quote a source, your audience's attention moves from you, the writer, to the author of your source material; however, when you
skillfully paraphrase material, the focus stays on you and your well-supported claims.

Example:

Original Text:

"Most cities are taking a more active role in developing and maintaining assistance programs for people who are homeless. Perhaps
unrelated, but it turns out that a large percentage of our urban homeless populations are returning combat veterans. It's hard to understand
how they can go from leading lives of total and complete structure and selflessness to drifting from street corner to bus stop in the cold.
It's also difficult to grasp why we are not kinder or more giving to these people. I am not sure I understand cities. Then again, I don't
know if homeless people in rural areas are treated any better." Steven Jones, Urban Development Now, page 37.

Paraphrase:

In an article in Urban Development Now magazine, a writer argues that cities have, essentially, a moral obligation to actively promote and
develop programs for homeless people, and that the obligation is particularly important when a large number of homeless people are
veterans who have sacrificed for their country and are now cast adrift (Jones, 37).

3. To share information and ideas from another source and not the original language.
Many sources that you will use may contain information and ideas that are relevant to your claim, but in language that is not particularly
powerful or meaningful. In these instances, paraphrase the information.

Example:

Original Text:

Everyone is up in arms about schools making changes to their physical activity programs. People are crying out for more recess time. It's
been said that the free time and movement actually helps kids think and concentrate. I happen to agree with the schools—cut the recess
time. I am more interested in my child understanding fractions and decimals than playing on the monkey bars. I want her to go to a good
college. No one gets into good colleges these days without high test scores. So that's what we, like most parents, want to see from our
schools. Helen Pierson, Daily News, page C5.

Paraphrase:

While there is a movement of parents and school personnel expressing grave concerns about the limited physical activity of children
during the school day, some agree with the school decision to focus on academics and raising test scores (Pierson, C5).

When to use Direct Quotations

Quote in these situations:

1. To emphasize the expertise of the original author.

When you quote people who are well-regarded in their fields, their authority translates to you and bolsters your claims; however, do not over-
quote, because then your audience will assume that you have no authority.

Example:

Original Text:
 "The journey to true personal happiness is an individual one. In all my decades of clinical work, when I ask patients to deeply consider
what brings them joy, no two answers have ever been alike. Just as our DNA is unique, so are our personalities and our preferences."
Psychologist Dr. Jerome Friend, Journey to Happiness, page 12.

Quote:

There is not one formula for achieving true happiness because happiness is different for everyone. As psychologist Dr. Jerome Friend
observes about how his patients describe their own happiness, "no two answers have ever been alike. Our DNA is unique, so are our
personalities and our preferences" (12).

2. To maintain especially moving or historically meaningful language.

While it is possible to rephrase Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech, it is probably unwise to do so. Particular lines
from Shakespeare, the Gettysburg address, and the Preamble to the Constitution of the United States are all similar. Sources like these have
language that is revered and will be more effective if quoted directly.

Example:

Original Text:

"So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself — nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror
which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance." First Inaugural Address, Franklin Delano Roosevelt.

Quote:

As Roosevelt said in his First Inaugural Address, "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

3. To preserve a statement that is exceptionally well-worded.

Sometimes an author says something in such a way that its meaning would be weakened if we were to put it into our own words.

Example:
 Original Text:

"I was glad my father was an eye-smiler. It meant he never gave me a fake smile because it's impossible to make your eyes twinkle if you
aren't feeling twinkly yourself. A mouth-smile is different." Roald Dahl, Danny the Champion of the World, page 9.

Quote:

Smiles are as unique as personalities, but some smiles are more genuine than others. As Roald Dahl describes in his famous children's
story, Danny Champion of the World: "I was glad my father was an eye-smiler. It meant he never gave me a fake smile because it's
impossible to make your eyes twinkle if you aren't feeling twinkly yourself. A mouth-smile is different" (9).

Note that outside sources should make up no more than thirty percent of your entire essay. Your readers are interested in your ideas, and the
sources that you use should not substitute for your claims and analysis. Additionally, be judicious in your use of quotes.

When you do choose to quote, rather than paraphrase, be mindful of transitions. An essay full of quotations and quotation marks will be very
choppy. It will help your reader if you introduce your quotation properly and take the time and effort to explain the quotation and how it adds to
your own reasoning and arguments. Quotations should never stand alone in an essay.

Also note that your use of quotations and paraphrases can be dictated by the discipline you are writing for. Humanities or social science papers
will tend to include several quotations, while most science and technology papers will not.

Logical Fallacies and Analysis

Learning Objective:

 Identify logical fallacies relating to analysis.

LESSON
A logical fallacy is faulty reasoning upon which an idea, theory, thesis, or hypothesis is based. This is especially important when analyzing other
people's writing. Should you rely upon an author's thoughts and arguments as evidence in an essay, an unidentified logical fallacy can weaken
your writing and undermine your entire thesis statement.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to eight common logical fallacies.

1. Circular reasoning: Supporting an argument by restating the argument.

I did not deserve a D on the paper because I have always been an A+ student.

2. Bandwagon appeal: Implies that because the majority of people believe that X is true then it must be valid because so many people
believe it.

You should use Clean and Fresh shampoo because it is the number one selling shampoo in the United States.

3. Ad hominem: An attack on a person's character and personal traits to weaken his or her argument.

That man is not competent to run for city council; he was arrested when he was a teenager for underage drinking and public intoxication.

4. Red herring: Claims that are misleading to distract from the argument at hand.

Can you believe that the cop pulled me over for going five miles over the speed limit? Police need to spend all their time getting the really
dangerous offenders off the street, like murderers.

5. Non sequitur: A conclusion that is disconnected from the premise that precedes it.

The moon landing must have been faked. There are "photos" of fairies and the Loch Ness monster.

6. False analogy: A claim that since A is like B, A has the same properties that B has.

I loved the Harry Potter series by JK Rowling so much that I am sure that I will love her newest book.

7. Hasty generalization: Coming to a conclusion with the briefest look at the evidence.

I just saw the inside of my accountant's car, and it was an absolute mess. I am not sure we should hire her to be our CPA; she would be as
careless with our finances.
 8. Moral equivalence: A claim that compares A with B to prove that A is as bad or good as B.

You might want to think twice before going out with Justin; his brother has a new girlfriend every two weeks.

Writing a Multi-page Critical Analysis Essay

Learning Objective:

 Write a multi-page critical analysis essay using at least one direct quote and one paraphrased citation.

LESSON
In your college courses, you will be asked to write many different kinds of essays. Some are more challenging than others. Analysis essays, in
particular, require close and careful reading of texts. There is more than one kind of analysis essay. The most in-depth is called a critical analysis
essay.

In a critical analysis essay, you not only analyze the content or ideas of an author's work, but also how the author presents them. You only
summarize the author's main points at the beginning of the essay; your analysis and evaluation of the author's argument make up the majority of
your writing. In this lesson, you will learn how to write a multi-page critical analysis essay using quotations and paraphrases to support your
claims.

Step 1: Understand the assignment.

Understanding your specific assignment is the first step in writing a critical analysis essay. Remember that what makes a critical analysis essay
unique is that you are evaluating the quality of someone else's work; you are offering your perspective on it. Since you should strengthen your
argument by including quotations and ideas from other authors, you will need to include in-text citations and a works cited page in your essay.

Step 2: Gather ideas for your essay.

The next step is to gather ideas for use in your essay. Generally, there are four categories to focus on when doing a critical analysis: the work's
message, the foundation (thesis, supporting claims, and evidence), structure (organization and cohesiveness), and purpose/impact. The following
are some specific questions you might ask yourself about an author's work or a topic to help you explore these categories further as you gather
ideas:

The Work's Message:

 What is the author's goal, and does he or she accomplish it?

 Is the author consistent, or does he or she shift positions?

Foundation:

 Are the author's claims sufficiently supported with information from credible sources, or does the author make assumptions?
 Is there other evidence of author bias or reason to question his or her claims?

Structure:

 Is the author's argument logical and clear?

 Does the author ignore or hide evidence that might weaken his or her argument?

Purpose/Impact

 Are there implications of the author's argument that he or she does not address?

Keeping these questions in mind will help you stay focused on evaluating the author's work, not just summarizing it or giving your opinion on
the topic.

Your answers to these questions may require you to do additional reading and research on the topic. You should consider this research to be
preliminary; more in-depth research will be needed after you have formulated your thesis and have a better idea of the structure of your analysis.

Step 3: Develop the thesis and rough outline of the essay.

At this point, you will be ready to develop a working or tentative thesis statement and create a rough or informal outline of your essay. You will
almost certainly adjust the thesis statement and outline as you work through your essay and think more deeply about your topic; they function as
a starting point. In a critical analysis essay, your thesis statement should include the topic, subject, or item that you are analyzing and the point
that you are making about it.

Your rough outline does not need to be comprehensive or carefully written; it is an informal plan of where you believe your argument will go. It
should include the main points you intend to make and any pieces of evidence that you may already have for each point. You will flesh out these
ideas later in the process.

Step 4: Research your topic.

The next step is to research your topic using the ideas you gathered and the thesis statement and rough outline you developed to guide you. For
example, imagine you are asked to respond to George Packer's 2013 book The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America. In it, he argues
that the foundation of the middle class in America began crumbling in the nineteen-seventies. In Step 2, when you gathered ideas, you might
have asked yourself if other authors would argue that this occurred earlier, later, or whether it has truly occurred at all. Initial research suggests
that Packer is politically liberal; your next step should be to seek out what reputable conservative writers or publications have published about
this book or topic. What you read there may lead to additional questions and research.

As you conduct your research, be sure to focus on reputable sources. Peer-reviewed journals and well-established magazines, authors, and
websites are generally reputable sources; many blogs, Wikipedia, research articles without citations, and materials that are over fifteen years old
or otherwise dated are not. Anything that someone self-publishes is suspect. Do not automatically trust any one source; you should always cross-
reference your facts to verify their validity.

Finally, as you research, be sure to take clear notes on the sources of the information that you incorporate into your essay and note any
particularly compelling ideas or writing that you encounter. You may want to incorporate some of these ideas as quotations or paraphrases.
Carefully noting where they come from will be important when you write your essay and create your works cited page.

Step 5: Write your body paragraphs.

After you have conducted your research, you are ready to begin writing the body paragraphs, which are the main part of your essay. At this stage,
do not concern yourself with the exact words you want to use; instead, spend your time getting your major ideas and their support down on paper.
Be sure to limit the scope of your writing to the most significant points; nobody wants to read everything you know and have discovered about a
topic. Restricting yourself to your strongest arguments will make your writing more effective.
Step 6: Formalize the outline.

Once your rough draft is complete, you should pause to review it to ensure that your direction is accurate and you have supported your ideas
sufficiently. To do this, create a formal outline of your rough draft. Identify any gaps in your argument and areas where readers might question
your claims. Be sure to fill in those gaps. This may require more research to find quotes and paraphrases to use to support claims. It also will
likely require fine-tuning your thesis.

Step 7: Rewrite your essay.

Use this new information to fill in the gaps in your essay. This is also the time to focus on crafting the language you use. Select your words and
ideas carefully and organize them logically to clearly and powerfully argue your position.

Step 8: Cite your sources.

Any ideas or quotations that come from other sources must be properly cited in your essay. You do this by providing in-text citations, attributive
phrases, and eventually, a works cited page. In-text citations give the readers the necessary information to find the original source and typically
include author's name, page number, and/or the year published within parentheses. Check to see whether your professor requires MLA- or APA-
style citations because the two styles differ.

An attributive phrase is where you indicate within your sentence where the quotation comes from. For example:

In her book Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin remarked, "the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly debated."

The underlined portion of the sentence above is an attributive phrase; these transitions help to smoothly incorporate direct quotations and indirect
quotations and paraphrases into your writing.

The importance of properly citing your sources cannot be emphasized enough. If you do not properly cite your sources, it will appear that you
have either deliberately or accidentally plagiarized someone else's work. This is a very serious offense in both career and academia. In some
cases, you risk expulsion from school or termination from a job for it.

Step 9: Write the introduction.

When the body of your essay is close to complete, it is time to write your introduction. It may seem strange to wait until the end to do this, but it
can be difficult to introduce your readers to an idea that has not been written. If you let a weak, preliminary introduction drive the writing of your
essay, you will end up with a weak essay.

A strong introduction hooks the reader's interest, provides your thesis statement, includes background information on your topic, and gives the
reader an indication of what to expect as he or she reads. It also establishes a tone that the reader will expect to be maintained throughout your
essay.

This is also the time to make sure that you have provided enough background information about the work that you are critically analyzing for the
reader to understand your argument. Remember, background information is just a summary, not a significant portion of your overall essay. Your
reader is interested in reading your ideas, not those in the source material.

Step 10: Write the conclusion.

Now you are ready to write your conclusion. The goal of the conclusion is to summarize and synthesize the important details of the essay.
Remember that a strong conclusion reflects the main idea of your essay but does not repeat it, nor does it introduce new ideas or facts that would
be more logically included in the body of your essay. Your conclusion is the last thing a reader sees, so it stands to reason that this is what he or
she will remember most clearly. Some powerful techniques include asking a question, proposing an action item, making a prediction, providing a
solution, or including an intriguing or provocative quotation.

Step 11: Create a works cited or references page.

The in-text citations do not necessarily include all the information to find the original source, but they do when combined with the works cited or
references page. MLA format uses a works cited page while APA uses a references page. Both types of citation pages come at the end of the
work and include information required to locate a source, including article title, journal/book title, year published, authors, publisher, and place
of publishing. Because you will potentially use a wide variety of sources, there are many specific rules for how to do this. Be sure to consult an
MLA or APA style guide, and use the exact process described.

Step 12: Revise your essay.

By now, you are probably so deeply engaged in your writing that you need a new perspective, which is why it can be helpful to enlist an outside
reviewer to give you feedback. You should both review the essay with the following questions in mind:
  Did I follow the assignment?
 Is this a critical analysis essay? Have I examined a work or topic and focused primarily on my own perspective on it?
 Does my body support my thesis?
 Is all of my support relevant?
 Do I need more or less support? Do I use quotations to complement my writing, or did I merely repeat other people's ideas?
 Have I included the transitions necessary to guide the reader from point to point?
 Does my introduction hook the reader and provide adequate background on my topic? Did I provide sufficient context for the reader?
 Does my conclusion summarize and synthesize the important details?
 Did I properly cite all of my sources, including those ideas that I paraphrased and any broad ideas that were not my own originally?

Creating Concise Sentences

Learning Objective:

 Employ editing techniques that lead to more concise and effective sentences.

LESSON
William Strunk, famous for his guidelines on effective writing, made being concise one of his central principles. "Omit needless words," he
wrote. "Vigorous writing is concise." Strunk did not want every sentence to be short, but he wanted every word to "tell." That is, every word
should have a purpose, and purposeless words should be cut.

It can be tempting to write more than necessary to ensure that your reader grasps your meaning or to bolster the appearance of expertise. But
sentences with unnecessary words or information can confuse, mislead, or distract your reader. Employing editing techniques to help you use
only the words you need will enliven and clarify your writing and help you hold your reader's attention, making your sentences more effective.

In this lesson, you will learn nine ways to make your writing more concise.

1. Avoid redundancy.

Phrases like "basic fundamentals" or "join together" are redundant; it is better to use one word or the other. For example, "The family planned to
meet at twelve noon for lunch" can be changed to "The family planned to meet at noon for lunch" without any change in meaning.
 2. Replace multiple words with a single word.

When possible, change a phrase to single word. For example, "People who are skilled at knitting should skip Knitting 101" can be changed to
"Skilled knitters should skip Knitting 101."

3. Examine and delete unnecessary prepositional phrases.

Too many prepositional phrases can make your writing confusing. Look for ways to eliminate prepositional phrases without altering your ideas.
For example: "The cause of the fire was because of the poor judgment of the owner" can be changed to "The owner's poor judgment caused the
fire."

4. Change passive voice to active voice.

Passive sentences (where the object comes first in the sentences) are always lengthier than active sentences (where the subject is performing the
action). For example, "The paper was written by the student" can be changed to "The student wrote the paper."

(Note that in scientific writing and in some report writing, the passive voice is actually preferred and sometimes required. In most other writing,
though, the active voice is best.)

5. Delete clichés.

Most clichés do not add much to a sentence, so delete or replace them with more specific language when you can. For example, "Sally has to get
up every morning at the crack of dawn," could be changed to "Sally has to get up early every morning."

6. Change nouns into verbs.

To make a sentence more concise, look for ways to change wordy nouns into verbs. For example, "The professor gave a criticism of the artist’s
work" can be changed to "The professor criticized the author’s work."

7. Reconsider beginning with "There is" and "There are."

Using these two phrases are weak ways to begin a sentence; you can often rearrange the sentence to be stronger. For example, you can change
"There are two children and a dog who live in that house" to "Two children and a dog live in that house."

8. Avoid qualifiers.

Watch out for qualifiers, which are adverbs that show degrees of moderation, like somewhat, probably, really, generally, basically, and very. The
difference between a sentence that uses them and that does not use them often is not great enough to warrant their use. For example, "It is a
somewhat gray day" is not much different than "It is a gray day."

9. Change negatives into affirmatives.

Changing cannot to can and other similar changes will reduce your wordiness. For example, "Students who have not taken the prerequisites for
the course cannot enroll in the course" could be changed to "Students who have taken the prerequisites can enroll in the course."

Blending Source Material into an Essay

Learning Objective:

 Develop sentences that effectively incorporate source material.

LESSON
Much of the writing that you do in school will require you to use your own ideas as well as those of others. When writing, you should work to
develop sentences that smoothly blend other people's work into your own. It is important to make it clear which ideas are yours and which are
not; otherwise you run the risk of plagiarizing.

Writers blend source material into their writing in one of three ways—quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

1. Quoting

When you choose to use the exact words of a source, it must be quoted. You can choose to use a full quotation or part of a quotation. To
understand how writers blend quotations into their own writing, take a look at two properly integrated quotations.
 Original:

From the 2012 book Happier at Home by Gretchen Rubin, page 21

"Within the larger subject of happiness, the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly debated. People often argue that
possessions don't—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do."

MLA Citation Style

Full quotation: In her book Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin discusses the connection between happiness and possessions: "Within the
larger subject of happiness, the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly debated. People often argue that possessions don't
—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do" (21).

Partial quotation: In her book Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin remarked, "the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly
debated. People often argue that possessions don't—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do" (21).

APA Citation Style

Full quotation: In her book Happier at Home (2012), Gretchen Rubin discusses the connection between happiness and possessions:
"Within the larger subject of happiness, the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly debated. People often argue that
possessions don't—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do" (p. 21).

Partial quotation: In her book Happier at Home (2012), Gretchen Rubin remarked, "the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is
hotly debated. People often argue that possessions don't—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do" (p. 21).

The above quotations include a number of elements needed to properly incorporate source material—an attributive phrase, punctuation
separating the attributive phrase from the quote, opening quotation marks, the quotation, closing quotation marks, in-text citation, and end
punctuation.

This diagram shows the different parts of the partial quotation in MLA format:
This diagram shows the different parts of the partial quotation in APA format:

The attributive phrase gives credit to the author of the original work. It also helps to provide context for source material and make it clear how
that material is relevant to the discussion. Attributive phrases may or may not mention the name of the original work.
There is usually punctuation between the attributive phrase and the quote—either a comma or colon. A comma is used when the quote is a full
sentence but continues as part of the sentence, like in the partial quotation above. A colon is used when the attributive phrase is already an entire
sentence, as in the full quotation above. No punctuation is used when a partial quote could not stand on its own as a sentence.

The quotation needs to be set off in quotation marks. In a full quotation, capitalize the first word after the opening quotation marks. In a partial
quotation, do not capitalize the word unless it is a proper noun.

Finally, always include an in-text citation. The MLA and APA guidelines for what information is required are different; make sure you know
which guide your professor requires for your course. MLA style requires the author's last name and the page number. APA style requires the
author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number. In both formats, if the author's name is included as part of the attributive phrase,
then it is left out of the in-text citation. Note that a sentence's end punctuation goes after the entire in-text citation and not before. Check your
citation guides for more information regarding in-text citations.

2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is borrowing the idea of another writer but putting it in your own words. It is usually similar in length to the original passage. Even
when another writer's idea is stated in your own words, it is still important to indicate where the information originally came from. To understand
how writers paraphrase others, take a look at the following example.

Original:

From the 2012 book Happier at Home by Gretchen Rubin, page 21

"Within the larger subject of happiness, the proper relationship of possessions to happiness is hotly debated. People often argue that
possessions don't—or shouldn't—matter much to happiness, but I think they do."

Paraphrase - MLA Style: In her book Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin argues that though some people claim that possessions do not
affect happiness, she believes that possessions do influence our happiness or lack thereof (21).

Paraphrase - APA Style: In her book Happier at Home (2012), Gretchen Rubin argues that though some people claim that possessions do
not affect happiness, she believes that possessions do influence our happiness or lack thereof (p. 21).
Like the quotations, paraphrases need attributive phrases and in-text citations.

3. Summarizing

A summary is similar to a paraphrase in that it also uses the writer's own words, but is much shorter than the original work as it only includes its
main idea and major details.

Original: The entire book: Happier at Home by Gretchen Rubin.

Summary - MLA Style: In her book Happier at Home, Gretchen Rubin continues the quest for increased happiness that she began in her
first book. She spent September through May researching how she could gain more happiness in her home life, focusing on areas such as
parenthood, marriage, neighbors, work life, and possessions. Rubin hopes that her journey will encourage others to make differences that
add to their happiness.

The above summary has an attributive phrase similar to the quotations and paraphrases above; however, it does not have a page number since the
entire book was covered.

If the summary were in APA, however, it would have an in-text citation including the date of publication. For example:

Summary - APA Style: In her book Happier at Home (2012), Gretchen Rubin continues the quest for increased happiness that she began
in her first book. She spent September through May researching how she could gain more happiness in her home life, focusing on areas
such as parenthood, marriage, neighbors, work life, and possessions. Rubin hopes that her journey will encourage others to make
differences that add to their happiness.

MLA Citation Styles

Learning Objective:

 Identify citation elements in MLA format.

LESSON
At some point in college, you will have to write a research paper in which you will need to include sources to support your own ideas. When you
do so, it is imperative that you do it correctly or you could be accused of plagiarism, which has sizeable consequences in the academic world.
Many college classes use either MLA or APA format to cite sources. MLA refers to the Modern Language Association, and APA refers to the
American Psychological Association. There are other citation styles, including The Chicago Manual of Style and Turabian, but this lesson will
focus on MLA style. All citation styles share similar elements, so if you understand the major elements of any style, you will easily be able to
adapt.

Major Citation Elements

Attributive Phrases

Whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting a source, it is important to provide context, so you should include an attributive phrase to
indicate to the reader that you are incorporating a source. An attributive phrase gives credit to the author of the original work. It is used in tandem
with an in-text citation, which is the information in parentheses.

MLA attributive phrases:

Thomas writes that Evans intended to "inspire a new generation of playwrights" (42).

According to Thomas, Evans wrote best at his home in Florida, "rising early and finishing late" (53).

In-text Citations

When you incorporate a source in your essay, you need to include in-text citations in addition to attributive phrases. Together, attributive phrases
and in-text citations give readers the necessary information to be able to find the original source listed in the works cited page.

MLA style in-text citation requires the author's name and a page number (if the source has page numbers and a specific page is referenced).

Example of an MLA in-text citation without an attributive phrase:

Evans' work has been characterized as "masterful, but distinctly odd" (Thomas 45).
In MLA style, if the author's name is mentioned in the attributive phrase, the in-text citation should include the page number only.

Example of an MLA in-text citation with an attributive phrase:

Thomas characterizes Evans' work as "masterful, but distinctly odd" (45).

Longer quotations are formatted and cited differently than shorter quotations. MLA style requires that you use block quotation format (also called
indented format) for quotations that run longer than four lines of prose text (or three of poetry).

You should indent every line of a block quotation from the left margin by one inch and maintain double-spacing. Quotation marks are not
required since indentation makes it clear that the material is quoted. Introduce the quote with an attributive phrase, and place an in-text citation
after the period at the end of the quotation.

Example of an MLA block quotation format:

Jarvis mentions George's extreme attention to detail:

George would spend hours combing through his work for mistakes, long before submitting it to his editors. Pride apparently
dictated that he present them with fully proofread copies. These hours of attention to minute discrepancies may have cost
him his eyesight in the end. (14)

Works Cited Page

In-text citations do not include all of the information to find the original source, so writers include a list of citations at the end of the paper with
all of the information needed to locate a source. MLA style refers to this list as a works cited page. The works cited page comes at the end of the
work and includes all available information about a source, including article title, journal/book title, year published, the author's full name (unless
there is more than one author; then first initials replace the first names), publisher, and place of publishing. These details vary by the type of
source used and because there are about eighty-six different types of sources for MLA, you should refer to an MLA style guide to confirm the
correct citation model to use. All sources on a works cited page should be listed in alphabetical order.

Comparing MLA and APA Styles

MLA style and APA style are two common systems of citation, that is, sets of rules for how to cite sources and how to format and punctuate the
various parts of a research paper. For most English and some humanities courses, you will be asked to use MLA style; for most social sciences
and some other courses, you will be asked to use APA style. See the chart below for the major differences between MLA style and APA style.

Major Differences between MLA and APA Styles

Style MLA APA

Use Used in humanities Used in social sciences
Last name and page number both on Title of paper on the left margin and
Header
the right-hand side of the page the page number is on the right
No media identified. URL preceded
Type of media identified (print, web,
by "Retrieved from" or "doi" (direct
Full citation email, etc.). URLs not required for
object identifier) required for online
online sources.
sources.
Author's last name, year published,
Author's last name and page number; and page number separated with a
In-text citation
no punctuation within the parentheses. comma; precede page number with
"p."
4+lines (prose)/3+ lines (poetry) 40+ words indented .5 inches from
Long quotes
indented 1-inch from margin margin
End list of cited sources Labeled "Works Cited" Labeled "References"

APA Citation Styles

Learning Objective:

 Identify citation elements in APA format.

LESSON
At some point in college, you will have to write a research paper in which you will need to include sources to support your own ideas. When you
do so, it is imperative that you do it correctly or you could be accused of plagiarism, which has sizeable consequences in the academic world.
Many college classes use either MLA or APA format to cite sources. MLA refers to the Modern Language Association, and APA refers to the
American Psychological Association. There are other citation styles, including The Chicago Manual of Style and Turabian, but this lesson will
focus on APA style. All citation styles share similar elements, so if you understand the major elements of any style, you will easily be able to
adapt.

Major Citation Elements

Attributive Phrases

Whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting a source, it is important to provide context, so you should include an attributive phrase to
indicate to the reader that you are incorporating a source. An attributive phrase gives credit to the author of the original work. It is used in tandem
with an in-text citation, which is the information in parentheses.

APA attributive phrases:

Thomas (2011) writes that Evans intended to "inspire a new generation of playwrights" (p. 42).

According to Thomas (2011), Evans wrote best at his home in Florida, "rising early and finishing late" (p. 53).

In-text Citations

When you incorporate a source in your essay, you need to include in-text citations in addition to attributive phrases. Together, attributive phrases
and in-text citations give readers the necessary information to be able to find the original source listed in the references page.

APA style in-text citation requires the author's last name, the year of publication, and a page number, preceded by "p." for "page" (if the source
has page numbers and a specific page is referenced).

Example of an APA in-text citation without an attributive phrase:

One study indicates that artists who live in the South are "more prolific" (Miller, 2004, p. 7).
In APA style, if the author's name is mentioned in the attributive phrase, the year of publication should follow it and the page number should be
included at the end of the sentence.

Example of an APA in-text citation with an attributive phrase:

Miller's (2004) study indicates that artists who live in the South are "more prolific" (p. 7).

Longer quotations are formatted and cited differently than shorter quotations. APA style requires that you use block quotation format (also called
indented format) for quotations that are longer than forty words.

You should indent every line of a block quotation from the left margin by one-half inch and maintain double-spacing. Quotation marks are not
required since indentation makes it clear that the material is quoted. Introduce the quote with an attributive phrase, and place an in-text citation
after the period at the end of the quotation.

Example of APA block quotation format:

Jarvis (2012) mentions George's extreme attention to detail:

George would spend hours combing through his work for mistakes, long before
submitting it to his editors. Pride apparently dictated that he present them with fully
proofread copies. These hours of attention to minute discrepancies may have cost him
his eyesight in the end. (p. 14)

References Page

In-text citations do not include all of the information to find the original source, so writers include a list of citations at the end of the paper with
all of the information needed to locate a source. APA style refers to this list as a references page. The references page comes at the end of the
work and includes all available information about a source, including article title, journal/book title, year published, the authors' first initials and
last names, publisher, and place of publishing. These details vary by the type of source used and since there are about seventy different types of
sources for APA, you should refer to an APA style guide to confirm the correct citation model to use. All sources on a references page should be
listed in alphabetical order.
Comparing MLA and APA Styles

MLA style and APA style are two common systems of citation, that is, sets of rules for how to cite sources and how to format and punctuate the
various parts of a research paper. For most English and some humanities courses, you will be asked to use MLA style; for most social sciences
and some other courses, you will be asked to use APA style. See the chart below for the major differences between MLA style and APA style.

Major Differences between MLA and APA Styles

Style MLA APA

Use Used in humanities Used in social sciences
Last name and page number both on Title of paper on the left margin and
Header
the right-hand side of the page the page number is on the right
No media identified. URL preceded
Type of media identified (print, web,
by "Retrieved from" or "doi" (direct
Full citation email, etc.). URLs not required for
object identifier) required for online
online sources.
sources.
Author's last name, year published,
Author's last name and page number; and page number separated with a
In-text citation
no punctuation within the parentheses. comma; precede page number with
"p."
4+lines (prose)/3+ lines (poetry) 40+ words indented .5 inches from
Long Quotes
indented 1-inch from margin margin
End list of cited sources Labeled "Works Cited" Labeled "References"

Essential College Skills: Using the Voice of Others – Information Literacy and Credible Sources

LESSON
College research papers combine credible sources and the writer's opinion. It can be tricky to balance the two voices, especially for new college
students still learning the mechanics of college-level writing. Develop an idea, create an outline, research sources, and write carefully. With
practice, blending your ideas with credible research will get easier. Here are three tips to get you started.
Think outside the Internet

Thanks to the internet, searching virtually any topic can be easy. Your favorite search engine can find pages (possibly hundreds of thousands) of
documents which contain your search terms. But, there's a catch. Differentiating between credible and non-credible research can be a challenge.
Bloggers with an opinion on a topic aren't always qualified experts worthy of a citation in your paper. You may find reports or studies with
statistics that aren't backed with proper authorization, are invalid, outdated, or are so biased the findings are useless. How can you be certain the
information is credible and safe to use in your paper? Look for research on credible websites, such as .edu or .gov sites. Academic reports,
studies featured in medical journals, trade journals, or other media, and published studies are probably OK. But be cautious of any content that
seems too one-sided or is presented anonymously. If possible, look for a second source that confirms the findings or the original study.

Don't be afraid to think beyond the Internet. Visit your campus library and use its books and databases for quick access to credible sources. The
library subscribes to databases specifically for access to credible journals and reports.

Cite your sources

Borrowing a source's ideas, reinterpreting the information, and putting it in your own words is great. It can be exciting to learn something new
and make discoveries about a topic. However, writers must be careful to properly credit sources when credit is due. It is dishonest to take
someone else's words and claim them as your own. Academic plagiarism can be grounds for expulsion at the collegiate level. Avoid confusion by
properly citing sources with direct quotations, by paraphrasing, and in your bibliography or list of sources. You do not need to cite universal
ideas or common knowledge information that is widely available and isn't disputed. (For example, you don't need to cite your math textbook
when stating that 2 + 2 = 4.)

Incorporate your own voice

The research you've found is credible and noteworthy, but those authors aren't writing your essay. You are. Make sure your written voice – the
tone of the paper – is uniquely yours. Your personal opinion should shine through, especially in a persuasive essay when the grade issued will
likely depend on how well your voice, supported by research, convinces the reader.