LESSON $ perform bend test along other important

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE laboratory tests.

● Shortly after the end of the Civil War (April
9,1865), with industrialization gaining
Introduction
momentum in the United States and new
construction sprouting up everywhere, there
A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is a
was an increasing need for better ways to
versatile piece of equipment that is used to test the test the materials used in machinery, in
mechanical properties of materials such as tensile buildings, and elsewhere.
strength, compression strength, and bending ● While many versions of testing systems were
strength. It can be used to test a wide range of developed from 1850-1880, the design was
materials including metals, plastics, composites, and not standardized (not consistent) and most
manufacturing companies were tasked with
ceramics. The UTM applies a controlled force to a
building their own tester.
specimen and measures the response, allowing ● From the 1850’s on, various devices for testing
researchers and engineers to accurately determine materials had been developed, but the goal
the mechanical properties of the material being of a truly universal testing machine proved
tested. This information is crucial in the development elusive until 1880, when an unemployed
of new materials, the design of products and Norwegian immigrant, Tinius Olsen, devised
structures, and in ensuring the quality and safety of and patented the now famous Little Giant.
● Galdabini (est. 1890) entered the market in
manufactured products. The UTM is an essential tool
the early 1900s with a series of deadweight
in material science and engineering, and is used testing machines and developed their own
extensively in industries such as aerospace, universal testing machine in 1934.
automotive, construction, and manufacturing.
TINIUS OLSEN
There are generally two types of Universal Testing ● An unemployed Norwegian immigrant who
Machines (UTMs), electromechanical and hydraulic. devised and patented the now famous Little
Giant.
Electromechanical UTMs use an electric ● Olsen met the Riehlés brothers, proprietors of
a small workshop. The Riehlés had received
motor to drive a lead screw, which moves the
an urgent request for a machine to test the
crosshead up and down. The load is applied using a strength of boiler-plate. Weak plate materials
load cell and the extension is measured using an caused frequent boiler explosions, especially
encoder. These machines typically have a lower on steam boats that were traveling up and
load capacity than hydraulic machines but offer down the Mississippi. The brothers asked him
higher precision and accuracy. to produce engineering drawings for such an
instrument and in his spare time Olsen
designed and drew precise plans for the first
Hydraulic UTMs use hydraulic fluid to apply
boiler-plate tensile testing machine, with a
the load to the specimen, and the load is measured
capacity of 40,000 lbf.
by a load cell or pressure transducer. The movement ● The new device, manufactured by the Riehlé
of the crosshead is controlled by a servo valve, brothers, proved a success and Olsen was
which regulates the flow of hydraulic fluid. These invited to take over the workshop, becoming
machines can apply much higher loads than a director of the Riehlés plant in 1872.
electromechanical machines, making them suitable ● His pioneering contributions to the emerging
field of materials testing included vertical
for testing high-strength materials such as metals and
and horizontal machines for materials used in
concrete. bridge construction, locomotive boilers and
other industrial goods.
In addition to these two basic types, there ● Olsen won many awards for his work and he
are also hybrid UTMs that combine elements of both asked the Riehlés to make him a partner.
electromechanical and hydraulic systems. Hybrid They refused and in late 1879 he was
UTMs can offer the benefits of both types, such as informed that his position would terminate at
high accuracy and high load capacity. the end of the year.
● Olsen was full of ideas for a revolutionary
device: a universal testing machine.
● With the support of his wife Charlotta, one of
History of UTM the first Scandinavian-American women to
HISTORY OF UTM earn a degree in medicine, he set about
● Universal Testing Machines have existed in making the drawings for his new machine.
various forms since the 1800’s. One of the ● On February 2, 1880, Olsen submitted an
original applications was for testing the application for a patent for a “new and
strength of steel used in steam power boilers. useful improvement in testing machines” and
These boilers would encapsulate large patent no. 228,214 was granted on June 1,
amounts of steam pressure, and explosions 1880.
were both catastrophic and fairly common. ● He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of
● Universal Testing Machine – a machine used The Franklin Institute in 1891 for his
to test specimens for tensile strength, autographic testing machine.
compressive strength, shear strength and to
 ● Tinius Olsen (December 7, 1845 – October 20, - Where the actual loading and testing of the
1932) was a Norwegian-born American specimen takes place.
engineer and inventor. He was the founder Three Main Parts of Loading Unit
of the Tinius Olsen Material Testing Machine
1. Load Frame - A universal testing machine’s
Company, a maker of material testing
load frame may be designed with either a
machines.
● Olsen retired from the company in 1929 and single or double support.
died in 1933. The company that he started in 2. Upper and Lower Crosshead - The upper
1880 is still run by his descendants and crosshead in the machine is utilized to
continues to provide innovative solutions to clamp the one end of the test specimen.
testing problems. The lower crosshead of the load frame part
is the movable crosshead which its screws
LITTLE GIANT
● (1850S-1880S) In those days, most tests on can be loosen up with regard to the height
materials required separate machines, each adjustment as well as in terms of tightening.
MACHINE IS dedicated ONLY to a single 3. Elongation Scale - An elongation scale that
testing function. comes with a loading unit is used to assess
● The first material testing system to unite both overall relative displacement of the upper
compression and tensile testing. and lower tables.
● This machine could accurately perform
Control Unit
tensile, transverse and compression tests in
one instrument, housed in a single frame. - The variations in the application of the load
● The device was compact, simple to operate and the corresponding test result is
and not expensive. recorded by this unit.
● The Little Giant won gold medals at industrial
expositions in Cincinnati and Atlanta in 1881. Three Main Parts of Control Unit
● By the next year Olsen had an order for the
1. Hydraulic Power Unit - t is designed to
first 200,000lbf testing machine ever made
control the machine and processing of data
and, as an example of his diversity, he also
built a machine to test the tensile strength of from load-cell and displacement
feathers. Olsen continued to innovate in the transducers which are fitted to the machine.
testing machine field for decades thereafter. 2. Control Devices - These devices can be
● Olsen’s mechanism was to become the used in moving the crossheads, and
ancestor of all testing machines applying or releasing load, and turning
subsequently produced around the world.
on/off the machine. The control devices
● Tinius gained his inspiration after working as a
chief designer for the Riehle Brothers’ can be electric or hydraulic.
Philadelphia Scale and Testing Machine 3. Load Measuring Unit - The range of load
Works. application can be adjusted in this unit by
means of a knob. The accuracy of the
GALDABINI AND TENSILE TESTERS IN ITALY measuring unit controls the overall accuracy
● Galdabini (est. 1890) entered the market in
of the machine.
the early 1900s with a series of deadweight
testing machines and developed their own
universal testing machine in 1934. Function of Universal Testing Machine
● During this time Galdabini also developed 1. Tensile Test - The most basic and popular
some of the largest metal straightening types of mechanical testing are performed
machines and hydraulic presses in the world. by a tensile testing machine.
● The company is the 2nd oldest continuously 2. Compression Test - Along with tensile and
operating manufacturer of these types of
flexion tests, compression testing is one of
UTM materials testing systems.
● The company was founded by Emilia Crespi the most fundamental types of mechanical
and Cesare Galdabini in Gallarate, Italy testing.
which is near Milan in the northern part of the 3. Adhesion Test - It's a sort of test that
country. The town of Gallarate was vital to encompasses a wide range of tension and
Italy's textile industry during the early 1900's. compression testing for a variety of materials
● The picture above shows the historical in a variety of industries.
Galdabini manufacturing plant during the
4. Pull - Out Test - A pullout test determines the
second world war in the 1940's.
● The Galdabini factory originally supported strength of a particular specimen by
this textile manufacturing and quickly injecting dedicated tension jacks into the
expanded into building machine tools such specimen being tested.
as hydraulic stamping machines and metal 5. Bending Test - A bend test is a technique for
tube bending machines. determining a material's stiffness and yield
qualities.
Parts and Functions of UTM 6. Hysteresis Testing - Hysteresis tests are
There are two parts of the UTM, it is the Loading Unit
compression tests that measure the firmness
and the Control Unit. and homogeneity of a material.
Loading Unit
 of a material such as film, rubber or
Uses of UTM membrane.
USES OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
● to assess the strength of materials Tests Conducted
● to provide enhanced control and stability
during a materials’ testing process 1. Tensile Test
● to help ensure accuracy and repeatability. 2. Compression Test
3. Adhesion Test
There are different terms which are used for 4. Bending Test
mentioning the UTM which can be commonly heard 5. Seal Strength Test
in the industries. Nevertheless, among all these, the
most popular tests done by the Universal Testing Tensile testing
Machine are a tensile testing machine, bend testing
Tensile testing is an electromechanical test
machine and compression testing machine.
system that applies a tensile (or pull) force to a
material to determine the tensile strength and
UTM can be used to test a wide variety of
deformation behavior until break.
materials like concrete, steel, cables, springs, steel
wires and chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel
Why is the tensile test important?
ropes, etc.
It is important to know how a material will
Materials testing conducted with the help of a behave in certain conditions, or under certain
universal testing machine should be carried out in stressors. The results of a tensile test help engineers
compliance with standards established by entities decide how and when to use a material when they
such as DIN, ISO and ASTM. In addition, proper safety are designing a project.
precautions should be taken to prevent accident
and injury. The data produced in a tensile test can be used in
many ways including:
COMMON TESTS IN UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
● TENSILE STRENGTH TEST - Tensile strength refers 1. To determine batch quality
to the ability of a structure to resist loads 2. To determine consistency in manufacture
without failure because of excessive stress or 3. To aid in the design process
deformation. Tensile strength is often referred 4. To reduce material costs and achieve lean
to as ultimate tensile strength and is manufacturing goals
calculated by dividing the peak tension 5. To ensure compliance with international and
force the sample withstands by its cross industry standards
sectional area.
● COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST - Compressive Compression test
strength test, mechanical test measuring the
maximum amount of compressive load a Compressive testing shows how the material
material can bear before fracturing. The will react when it is being compressed. Compression
material is compressed between the platens testing is able to determine the material's behavior
of a compression-testing machine by a or response under crushing loads and to measure
gradually applied load. the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits
● BENDING TEST - A bending test is a method of of a material.
testing materials for their bending strength
What Is the Purpose of a Compression Test?
and other important properties.
● PEELING TEST - Peel strength testing The goal of compression testing is to
determines the adhesive strength of
determine the behavior or response of a material
materials that have been bonded together. while it experiences a compressive load by
The materials are peeled apart at a constant
measuring fundamental variables, such as strain,
speed and the strength of the force needed
stress, and deformation.
to separate the materials is calculated along
with the width of the bond surface to By testing a material in compression, the
determine the peel strength. compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate
● PUNCTURE TEST - This is generally a strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus
compressive test where a material is among other parameters may all be determined.
compressed by a probe or other type of With the understanding of these different
device until the material ruptures or until an parameters and the values associated with a
elongation limit is achieved. Puncture testing specific material, it may be determined whether or
is commonly used to determine the strength not the material is suited for specific applications or
if it will fail under the specified stresses.
Types of Compression Testing adhesion testing for paints, adhesives, thermal
sprays, varnishes and lacquers. Coating systems are
1. Flexure/Bend tested on a variety of substrates, such as metals,
polymers, ceramics, and concrete.
Flexural testing measures the force required
to bend a beam of plastic material and determines Bend Testing
the resistance to flexing or stiffness of a material.
Bending tests are conducted by placing a
2. Spring testing length of material across a span and pushing down
along the span to bend the material until failure.
The testing method helps to categorize the Bend testing (also flex or flexural testing) is commonly
quality of the springs on the basis of its performance. performed to measure the flexural strength and
This test is performed on the specimens to enhance modulus of all types of materials and products. This
the performance of the product. test is performed on a universal testing machine
(tensile testing machine or tensile tester) with a 3
3. Top Load Crush
point or 4 point bend fixture.
Also known as column-crush, vertical load
In bending tests, standardized, mostly cylindrical
resistance, and axial force resistance, top-load
specimens are placed in the center of the checking
testing involves applying a downwards compressive
fixture. The rounded support rollers (bearings) are
force to a packaging container and measuring its
arranged parallel to each other at a certain
resistance to deformation.
distance (support width). The diameter of the
cylindrical specimen is proportional to the support
The data produced in a tensile test can be used in
width of the bearings. The test punch, which moves
many ways including:
down slowly and at a constant speed, loads the
1. To determine batch quality sample with increasing force until it breaks or
2. To determine consistency in manufacture reaches the previously determined deformation. The
3. To aid in the design process maximum load exerted during the bending test is
4. To reduce material costs and achieve lean called breaking force.Slide 15: What is the Purpose
manufacturing goals of Bend Testing?
5. To ensure compliance with international and
Bend testing a material allows for the
industry standards
determination of that material's ductility, bend
Adhesion test strength, fracture strength, and resistance to
fracture. These characteristics can be used to
Adhesion is the force that resists the determine whether a material will fail under pressure
separation of two bodies in contact. An adhesion and are especially important in any construction
test measures the adhesive characteristics of a process involving ductile materials loaded with
product by measuring the forces to separate the bending forces. If a material begins to fracture or
product from the test surface which it comes into completely fractures during a three- or four-point
contact with. bend test it is valid to assume that the material will
fail under a similar in any application, which may
Why perform an adhesion test? lead to catastrophic failure.

Adhesive properties can be the most Types of Bending Tests

desirable characteristic of a product e.g. adhesive
pastes or tapes, confectionery products and 1. 3-point bending test
thereby their salient feature or can be a major issue
for a product, and can cause production stoppages The 3-point bending test bears this name
and product failures. The ability to measure this because there are three pressure points in this test
property will allow manufacturers to control the setup: Two supports and a centrally loaded test
quality of a product or assess stages in production so punch. The specimen lies crosswise on the supports
as to avoid downtime. and protrudes at the sides. The 3-point bending test
is the most frequently performed bending test.
Adhesion Testing in the Field of Engineering
2. 4-point bending test
It is a requirement that coating systems
adhere well to their substrates. Determination of the In the 4-point bending test, the checking
failure point can be critical for the final use of a fixture differs from the 3-point bending test only in its
coating system or adhesive. Adhesion testing test punch. Instead of the single punch applying
provides insight into the quality of the bond and the force in the center, a double punch is used. There is
force required to cause fracture. UTM provides
a constant bending moment in the area between LESSON 5
the two upper pressure points. Definition and Distinction

Seal Strength Testing WOOD

● Wood is an organic substance derived from
Tests for seal strength are basically tensile the living tree and has a fibrous,
tests performed by a universal testing machine. A heterogeneous, and anisotropic texture.
section of the package seal is gripped between jaws ● Wood has been one of the most used
(one movable and one fixed) and pulled apart at a building materials since the beginning of
controlled rate. The force or energy required to history.
separate the two sealed surfaces gives an indication ● In addition to being utilized as a load-bearing
of the seal strength. or aesthetic material in models and scaffolds,
wood is also employed as roof fittings,
woodwork, and coating material.
Furthermore, man-made construction
materials made from by-products of the
wood industry, such as woodchips, sawdust,
and dust, include chipboard, MDF, and
plywood.

TIMBER
● produced from the trees that have already
been cut down but not yet processed into
planks and other forms to build with.
● Timber is a great insulating material. This
means it helps to maintain a more constant
temperature
● The word Timber derived from Timberian
which mean to build
● Despite being one of the oldest and most
basic construction materials available,
architects continue to favor timber as their
preferred building material worldwide.

LUMBER
● lumber, collective term for harvested wood,
whether cut into logs, heavy timbers, or
members used in light-frame construction.
● Conversion of logs to sawed lumber involves
debarking, sawing into boards or slabs,
resawing into thinner boards of varying sizes,
edging, crosscutting to square the ends and
remove defects, grading according to
strength and appearance, and drying in the
open air or in kilns.
● Lumber is mainly used for construction
framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall
panels, window frames).
● may be either rough sawn or finished,

DIFFERENCE OF TIMBER AND LUMBER

Timber refers to sawn wood as well as processed
wood products used for purposes such as home
construction, cladding, decking and furniture
making. It’s available in a range of softwoods and
hardwood species, each with their own aesthetic
and technical properties.
The word timber is also commonly used to describe without having to do as much cutting when they get
timber-frame construction — the use of wooden it to the construction site.
beams and posts to create buildings.
Lumber is used to describe felled trees. It’s something SHOP AND FACTORY LUMBER
much more crude than timber; usually, lumber will still
have its bark. An easy way to understand the broad This is a lumber that is selected for “remanufacturing
difference between timber and lumber is that purposes and intended for non-structural
lumber is less processed than timber. applications.” This is used primarily for building
cabinets and interior finish work.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LUMBER CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF GROWTH

Based on Finish
Based on Use ENDOGENOUS
Based on Mode of Growth - These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass can be
Based on Modulus of Elasticity seen in the longitudinal sections. These trees are too
Based on Durability flexible & has very limited engineering applications.
Based on Grading EXOGENOUS
Based on Availability - These trees grow outward and have distinct
consecutive annular rings in their horizontal section.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FINISHING It is possible to determine the age of the timber
through counting the annual rings. Timber which is
ROUGH LUMBER - refers to lumber that has been used for building engineering
sawn, edged, and trimmed but with unfinished or works.
rough surface
CATEGORIES OF EXOGENOUS TREES:
DRESSED LUMBER - refers to lumber that has been CONIFERS
planed on one or more sides to attain smoothness - are evergreen trees having needle-like or scale-like
and uniformity. leaves which do not fall till new ones are grown.
- They have cone shaped leaves
SEASONED LUMBER - refers to lumber that has gone and fruits.
into seasoning to remove and regulate its moisture - The leaves do not fall till new
content. ones are grown.
- Yield softwood
TYPES OF FINISHES IN LUMBER
DECIDUOUS
AESTHETIC FINISHES - this type of finishes make - are trees having broad leaves which falls in autumn
change or modify the appearance of the lumber or and new ones appear in springs
the properties of the lumber. - They are commonly used in building construction as
they yield strong and close grained wood.
FUNCTIONAL FINISHES - this type of finish changes the - They are heavy and dark in color.
internal performance properties of the lumber. - They are useful for important engineering works.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE STRUCTURE OF EXOGENOUS TREE

• Outer Bark - outer skin of the tree and consists of
YARD LUMBER wood fibers
Lumber intended for ordinary construction and • Sap Wood - also known as alburnum. It denotes
building purposes. Yard lumber is broken down into recent growth and contains sap.
two further categories: • Medullary Rays - are thin radial fibers extending
● COMMON YARD LUMBER. Common lumber is from pith to cambium layer. They hold annular rings
suitable for construction and utility purposes. together.
● SELECT YARD LUMBER. Select yard lumber looks • Heart Wood - it is the dead part of wood and it is
much nicer than common lumber because it has no the portion that surrounds the pith.
or very few knots. • Pith - it is the most inner part of the tree and the
oldest part of the exogenous tree.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER • Growth rings - can tell us how old the tree is, and
Structural lumber follows a standard dimension for what the weather was like during each year of the
thickness and width. In America, the “two-bys” (2x4s, tree's life. The light-colored rings represent wood that
2x6s, 2x8s, 2x10s) and the 4×4 are the most common grew in the spring and early summer, while the dark
structural lumber sizes. The standard pre-cut sizes rings represent wood that grew in the late summer
allows carpenters and house framers to buy lumber and fall.
• Inner Bark - inner skin of tree protecting the CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AVAILABILITY
cambium layer.
Forest departments classify timbers based on the
availability as:
• X–Most common. 1415 m³ or more per year
• Y–Common. 355 m³ to 1415 m³ per year
• Z–Less common. Less than 355 m³ per year

PROPERTIES OF GOOD TIMBERS ARE:

Color: It should be uniform.

Cambium Layer - a thin layer of fresh sap lying Odor: It should be pleasant when cut freshly.
between sap wood and the inner bark.
Soundness: A clear ringing sound when struck
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODULUS OF ELASTICITY indicates the timber is good.

Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.

Youngs modulus is determined by conducting
bending test. On this basis timber is classified as:
Grains: In good timber grains are close.
• Group A: E = 12.5 kN/mm²
• Group B: E = 9.8 kN/mm² to 12.5 kN/mm² Density: Higher the density stronger is the timber.
• Group C: E = 5.6 kN/mm² to 9.8 kN/mm²
Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DURABILITY
Durability tests are conducted by the forest research Warping: Good timber does not warp under
establishment. They bury test specimen of size in the changing environmental conditions.
ground to half their length and observe their
conditions regularly over several years. Timbers are Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting
classified as: shock loads.
• High durability: If average life is more than 10 years.
• Moderate durability: Average life between 5 to 10 Abrasion: Good timber does not deteriorate due to
years. wear. This property should be looked into, if timber is
• Low durability: Average life less than 5 years. to be used for flooring.

Strength: Timber should have high strength in

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRADING
bending, shear and direct compression.
Grading is simple sorting a production run into groups
that have similar properties which can be any
Modulus of Elasticity: Timber with higher modulus of
mixture of appearance and structural properties, to elasticity are preferred in construction.
have uniformity across the industry. Lumber is graded
using a classification by letter or by number. Fire resistance: A good timber should have high
resistance to fire.
MAIN GRADING METHODS:
Permeability: Good timber has low water
• Visual Grading - An assessment of the piece's form permeability.
and straightness, as well as the quality of the wood
in the piece. Involves a trained grader inspecting Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It
each piece and evaluating its characteristics should not clog the saw.
against the criteria in the great definition.
Durability: Good timber is one which is capable of
• Machine Grading - A quick, reliable and more resisting the action of fungi and insects attack
consistent than visual grading, it uses test machines
Defects: Good timber is free from defects like dead
or sensors to assess several timber’s characteristics
knots, shakes and cracks.
against particular criteria in the grade definition.

Shrinkage and Swelling: Good quality timbers swell

• Proof Grading - used after material has been
less. Timbers having thicker walls swell more than a
graded by other methods. Mainly used for testing the
thinner one.
timber structurally and only assess the structural
strength and stiffness. PROCESSING OF TIMBER
Timber has played a key role in the construction
industry for many years. And while it’s always been a
popular material, the process of how and where it
arrives from is often overlooked.
In this guide, we’ll take you through the journey of Two types of rough sawing can be used in the
timber – how it travels from the forest and arrives in breaking down process – through sawn and quarter
your builders merchant, ready for you to embark on sawn.
your next project.
The ends of each log is trimmed to ensure they are
Stage One: Felling straight and cut into boards. Large circular saws are
then used to further-process the boards, removing
The first stage of preparing the timber for the curved edges. Each processed piece of wood
commercial use is called ‘felling’ – the process of now looks like a board.
downing individual trees. In this case, the person
cutting the tree is called the ‘feller’ – while the Stage Four: Seasoning
harvesting machine is referred to as a ‘feller
buncher’. Seasoning of natural wood is the process of
removing excess water/moisture content. When a
A forestry worker will determine when and which tree is felled, it still contains a large proportion of
trees should be cut down, depending on when they water/moisture – usually between forty to fifty per
reach their economically ‘mature’ stages. Trees can cent water content.
range from 40 to 150 years old before they stop
growing vigorously and are ready to be cut down. Water is held inside a tree in two ways:
The differences in age at felling can depend on the
tree species. For example, conifers grow at a much Free Water: Water that is held in the vessels and cells
quicker rate than broad-leaved species. in order to distribute nutrients inside the tree.
Environmental factors, such as soil nutrients, can also Cell water: Also known as ‘bound’ water, is an
affect their growth. essential part of the tree’s cell walls.
During the seasoning process, a tree loses its free
Felling is normally carried out in winter, because the water and a high proportion of its cell water and as
trees usually have less moisture content in them, a result, is less likely to warp or deform.
compared to summer months, where they can have
more than fifty percent water content. Wood that has not been seasoned and still has a
high water content is called ‘green wood’ and can
Finally, felled trees should be replaced with saplings be more difficult to work with because it has a
so that the forest has a chance to grow once again, tendency to change shape.
providing a sustainable resource for future
generations. Stage Five: Preparing for Market

Stage Two: Storing/ Transporting After turning trees into timber through saw milling,
covered in stage three – also referred to as primary
Next, the logs are stored in a clearing or in the forest processing, the market value of timber can be
until they are needed at the sawmill. This also allows further increased through manufacturing sawn
some of the ‘free’ water content to evaporate, timber products – called secondary processing. This
reducing the weight of the tree/log, which will result involves the wood being made (either by man or
in lowering the cost of transporting and handling. machine) into a more refined product, such as a
door, window or furniture, made to the specific size
The trees are usually cut into smaller lengths on-site and dimensions
and then picked up by a timber lorry, which
transports the timber to a processing site, such as a At this stage any preferred treatments to timber such
sawmill, paper mill, pallet, fencing or construction as fire or rot resistance is added. Treated timber in
producer. sawn form is used either directly in construction or to
prepare construction components, such as timber
Stage Three: On Site frame panels. Planned joinery components, on the
other hand, are usually treated after assembly.
At the chosen site, the logs are debarked and
bucked, or cut to the required length. Then they are Finally, once all modifications are made, the timber
cut into boards, using equipment such as circular is ready to be shipped to market.
saws and bandsaws. This is called ‘conversion’. The
first stage of conversion is a process called ‘breaking DEFECTS IN TIMBER
down’ – which means rough sawing. The second Various defects which are likely to occur in timber
stage is called ‘re-sawing’ and refers to more precise may be grouped into the following three:
cutting and finishing, such as planing and further (i) Due to natural forces
machining. (ii) Due to defective seasoning and conversions.
(iii) Due to attacks by fungi and insects. (ii) Defects due to Defective Seasoning and
(i) Defects due to Natural Forces Conversion: If seasoning is not uniform, the
The following defects are caused by natural forces: converted timber may warp and twist in various
(a) Knots- When a tree grows, many of its branches directions. Sometimes honey combining and even
fall and the stump of these branches in the cracks appear. This type of defects are more
the trunk is covered. In the sawn pieces of timber the susceptible in case of kiln seasoning.
stump of fallen branches appear as knots. Knots are In the process of converting timber to commercial
dark and hard pieces. Grains are distorted in this sizes and shapes the following types of defects are
portion. Figure 1.9 shows some varieties of knots. If likely to airse: chip marks, torn grain etc.
the knot is intact with surrounding wood, it is called a (iii) Defects due to Fungi and Insects Attack: Fungi
live knot. If it is not held firmly it is a dead knot. are minute microscopic plant organism.
They grow in wood if moisture content is more than
20°C and exposed to air. Due to fungi attack rotting
of wood, takes place. Wood becomes weak and
stains appear on it. Beetles, marine borers and
termites (white ants) are the insects which eat wood
and weaken the timber. Some woods like teak have
chemicals in their compositions and resist such
attacks. Other woods
are to be protected by chemical treatment.

Preservation of Timber- Panganiban

Preservation of timber means protecting timber from
fungi and insects attack so that its life is increased.
Timber is to be seasoned well before application of
(b) Shakes-The shakes are cracks in the timber which preservatives. The following are the widely used
appear due to excessive heat, frost or twisting due preservatives:
to wind during the growth of a tree. Depending upon 1. Tar: Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The
the shape and the positions shakes can be classified coating of tar protects the timber from
as star shake, cup shake, ring shakes and heart the attack of fungi and insects. It is a cheapest way
shakes [Ref. Fig. 1.10] of protecting timber. Main disadvantage of this
method of preservation is that appearance is not
good after tar is applied it is not possible to apply
other attractive paints. Hence tarring is made only
for the unimportant structures like fence poles.

2. Paints: Two to three coats of oil paints are applied

on clean surface of wood. The paint
protects the timber from moisture. The paint is to be
(c) Wind cracks- These are the cracks on the outside
applied from time to time. Paint improves the
of a log due to the shrinkage of the exterior surface.
appearance of the timber. Solignum paint is a
They appear as shown in Fig. 1.11.
special paint which protects the timber from the
attack of termites.

3. Chemical salt: These are the preservatives made

by dissolving salts in water. The salts used
are copper sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc chloride
and sodium fluoride. After treating the timber with
these chemical salt paints and varnishes can be
applied to get good appearance.
(d) Upsets- Figure 1.12 shows a typical upset in a
timber. This type of defect is due to excessive
4. Creosote: Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of
compression in the tree when it was young. Upset is
coal tar. The seasoned timber is kept in
an injury by crushing. This is also known as rupture.
an air tight chamber and air is exhausted. Then
creosote oil is pumped into the chamber at a
pressure of 0.8 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of
50°C. After 1 to 2 hours timber is taken out of the
chamber.
5. ASCO: This preservative is developed by the Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun. It consists Cedar is a type of coniferous wood, meaning that it
of 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide is classified as a softwood and its cones/needles
(As2O5b, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of copper remain all year round. Cedar trees fall under the
sulphate (CuSO4⋅5 H2O) and 4 parts by weight of Cedrus genus and the Pinaceae family, which is the
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium family of trees that is coniferous.
dichromate (Na2Cr2O7⋅2 H2O). This preservative is
available in powder form. By the solution is prepared. EUCALYPTUS
The solution is then sprayed over the surface of The most common species in Australia is eucalyptus.
timber. This treatment prevents attack from termites. Within the species there are a huge variety of sub-
The surface may be painted to get the desired species that have vary different properties, including
appearance. colour and grain patterns. Common ones include
Tasmanian Oak (cream), blackbutt (pale brown),
Types spotted gum (mid brown) and Jarrah (red). Prices
vary from inexpensive to moderately expensive.
SOFTWOOD
In broad timber terms, there are two different Eucalyptus is a hardwood that is considered one of
categories of woods — softwood and hardwood. the sustainable woods that are both useful and
Softwood comes from coniferous species such as environmentally friendly. Because Eucalyptus wood
cedar, fir and pine. They grow quickly and the wood comes from a species of fast-growing trees, it is easily
is lighter, has coarser grain and is not as strong as available at a cheaper price than other hardwood
most hardwoods. options.

While in general softwoods are considered inferior to MAHOGANY

hardwoods for many purposes, they do have their One of the great furniture woods, mahogany is
place in the woodworking world for specific jobs — reddish-brown-to-deep red in colour. While very
and because they grow quickly they are very common in antique furniture, it is not common today
economical. In building, they are commonly used for as it is not sustainably grown. It has a straight grain
the framework of houses and areas such as lining and is of medium hardness, so it's easy for joiners to
boards and cladding. work.

HARDWOOD Mahogany is used commercially for a wide variety of

Hardwoods by comparison are heavy, strong and goods, due to its coloring and durable
stable. They are used predominantly for piers, nature.furniture joinery, flooring veneers and musical
flooring, decking and in most timber furniture. instruments.

Hardwood comes from angiosperm — or flowering Ash is used for furniture, flooring, doors, cabinetry,
plants — such as oak, maple, or walnut, that are not architectural moulding and millwork, tool handles,
monocots. Softwood comes from gymnosperm baseball bats, hockey sticks, oars, turnings, and is
trees, usually evergreen conifers, like pine or spruce. also sliced for veneer. It is a popular species for food
containers due to the wood having no taste.
Hardwoods are generally more expensive due to USES OF TIMBER
their slower rate of growth and durable properties, 1. For heavy construction works like columns, trusses,
but can be worthwhile in the long-run as they are low piles.
maintenance and long lasting. 2. For light construction works like doors, windows,
flooring and roofing.
ENGINEERED WOOD 3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers,
Engineered wood, while manmade, is made entirely fencing poles, electric poles and gates.
of genuine wood. Its main difference from solid 4. For temporary works in construction like
wood is simply that engineered wood is made of scaffolding, centering, shoring and strutting, packing
layers rather than being a single, solid piece. of materials.
5. For decorative works like showcases and furniture.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TIMBER 6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats
7. For industrial uses like pulps (used in making
CEDAR papers), card boards, wallpapers
The most common type of cedar is western red. As 8. For making sports goods and musical instruments.
this name implies, it is pinky, red in colour. It is
relatively soft but straight grained and is mostly used
for outdoors for furniture, deck handrails, wall
cladding and window frames because it resists
rotting in moist environments. Relatively inexpensive.
WOOD TESTS • Lastly, calculate the compressive strength.

MOISTURE CONTENT TEST SHEAR STRENGTH TEST

This test determines the moisture content in wood. The shear strength is important when timber is used
However, wood contains a small amount of moisture as slabs. The load should be applied parallel to the
content. A weighing machine and a drying oven are grains.
important apparatus for the water absorption test.
PROCEDURE:
% of moisture content = Weight of moisture in sample • The size of the specimen for shear strength is 5cm x
/ Dry weight of sample = (W1 – W2)/ W2 5cm x6.25 cm.
• Cut the corner of the specimen.
PROCEDURE: • Thus it produces failure on 5cm x 5cm surface.
• Initially, Take the specimen with a size of 5cm x 5cm • However, this failure occurs tangentially or radially.
x 2.4cm.
• Then using a weighing machine weigh the BENDING STRENGTH TEST
specimen. Mark it as W1.
• Oven-dry the timber at a temperature of 103- The Bending strength test is necessary when we use
degree celsius. timber as a beam. Through this test, we can find the
• Take out the specimen when becomes dry. modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity.
• Again, weigh and mark the weight of the dry
specimen as W2. PROCEDURE:
• Finally, calculate the percentage of moisture • Take a specimen of 5cm x 5cm x 7.5 cm in size. The
content by % of moisture content specimen should be free from defects and
deterioration.
TENSILE STRENGTH TEST • Drop a hammer with specific weight from a certain
The tensile strength test defines the strength and height.
ability to withstand breaking. Also, we can • Thus we get the impact bending.
determine the load-carrying capacity of the wood. • Lastly, using the load and deflection, calculate
bending strength.
Tensile strength = Maximum load applied / Cross
sectional area Other information and Trivias
● Wood is a material that is believed to burn
PROCEDURE: easily. The larger the profile the longer it takes to
• Firstly, take a specimen with 5cm x 5cm and 20cm burn. Due to its heatproof and carbonization
in length. properties, it is more durable than steel and
• Then place the specimen on the base plate of the concrete that loses its endurance at 600-800
instrument. degrees.
• Apply load either parallel or perpendicular to the ● Trees trap 50% of all the sun's energy caught
grains. by living organisms. All wood is biodegradable.
• Mark the load at which the wood breaks. ● Wood is easily understood as the structure
• Finally, calculate the tensile strength of the wood. that makes up a tree. Also, people often use the
word wood loosely to refer to both lumber and
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST timber; or even more generally to refer to things like
The compressive strength test defines the crushing ‘wood flooring’, ‘wood cladding’.
strength of the timber. Furthermore, this test ● Wood has high bearing capacity. 1 kg of
determines the load which the wood can support wood bears more load than 1 kg concrete or steel.
over a period. ● If a city is structured in the right way using
wooden supports, it can be completely freed from
Compressive strength = Load at which the specimen the earthquake risk within 20 years.
breaks / Total area of the specimen ● World’s most dangerous tree- Manchineel
tree in the Caribbean and Gulf Mexico is said to be
PROCEDURE: the most dangerous tree in the world. The tree’s bark
• Initially, take a specimen with a size of 5cm x 5cm has sap all over it and when the sap gets on your skin,
x 20cm. it causes blisters.
• Then place the specimen in the compressive
testing machine.
• Following, apply load parallel to the grains. The
specimen should be free from defects.
• Gradually increase the load.
• Then note down the load at which the timber
breaks.
LESSON 6: - mostly used for gears, axles, crankshafts,
STEEL couplings, forgings, machinery parts,
railways, and structural steel.
Steel
- most commonly used materials in civil engineering
(productions exceeding about 1.3 billion tons a
year).
- an alloy of iron and carbon (2%) with 1% 4. High-Carbon Steel
manganese, and a slight but appreciable amount - strong, brittle, and hard steel
of silicon, phosphorous, sulfur and oxygen. - utilized for high strength wires and springs,
- highly elastic, ductile, malleable, and weldable and a practical material for producing
shock-absorbing Machinery.
HISTORY OF STEEL
5. Ultra-High-Carbon Steel
Pre-100 AD - have great strength and good tensile
- Steel has been produced on a small scale for ductility
thousands of years and its earliest known kind is - utilized in manufacturing non-industrial
about 4000 years old and was excavated in Turkey. equipment such as knives, axles or punches.

300 BC–1700 AD 6. Low-Alloy Steel

- era of the legendary Damaskus Steel. - contains up to 8% of alloying elements
composed of carbon, manganese, silicon,
1855 AD aluminum, nickel, chromium, cobalt,
- creation of the Bessemer Process molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, titanium,
niobium, zirconium, nitrogen, sulfur, copper,
1950 boron, lead, tellurium and selenium. The alloy
- Introduction of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) was made to increase its durability and
which limits impurities and can even increase toughness after the heat treatment.
efficiency.
7. High-Alloy Steel
1967 - has chromium that allows the material to
- World Steel Association was founded as the first exhibit resistance to corrosion because of its
International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) in Brussels, formation of a thin layer of chromium oxide
Belgium on 19th of October, 1967. on the surface and high nickel content.
-stainless steel is a high-alloy steel that
IRON VS STEEL contains at least 12% chromium.
- three basic types of stainless steel, the
STEEL ≠ IRON austenitic, ferritic and martensitic.
- Iron is a metal element that occurs naturally on
Earth while steel is a man-made alloy that’s made • Austenitic
by mixing iron and carbon together. -provides excellent weldability but is
not stable at room temperature
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL • Ferritic
-has 12-17% chromium content, up to
1. Plain Carbon Steel 0.1% carbon, and with small amounts
- world’s most used and produced steel of aluminum, molybdenum and
- iron that is made-up of less than one titanium.
percent carbon with a few amounts of -known for its tough, strong, and
manganese and silicon from the deoxidation magnetic characteristics.
procedure conducted in the ladle. • Martensitic
- grouped into Low-Carbon Steel with lower - contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and
than 0.30% carbon, Medium-Carbon Steel 1.2% carbon
with 0.30 to 0.45% carbon, High-Carbon Steel - type of steel is not only receptive to
with 0.45 to 0.75% carbon, and Ultra-High heat treatments but also contains
Carbon Steel that contains up to 1.50% magnetic properties.
carbon.
OTHER TYPES OF STEEL
2. Low-Carbon Steel
- has low tensile strength but it has high 1. Nickel Steel
malleability and ductility - most used steel alloy in the world
- commonly used in the production of metal - contains 3.5% of nickel and 0.35% carbon.
sheets, pipes, chains, box, wires, cases, rivets, - known for the strength of its structural steel
vehicle frames without its ductility.

3. Medium-Carbon Steel 2. Manganese Steel

-increased carbon indicates greater - steel contains 11-14% of manganese which
resistance and tensile strength, reduced is used in manufacturing of complex railways
ductility, and less malleability track due to its outstanding hardening
characteristic and wear resistance.
 3. Molybdenum Steel 6. Weldability
- important alloying agent for steel since it - referred to as joinability, relates to its
improves the steel’s toughness, weldability, capacity for welding
and corrosion resistance - used to choose the welding procedure and
- use in structural steel, marine environment evaluate the final weld quality against other
applications, oil and gas pipelines, and ball materials.
bearings.
7. Hardenability
4. Tungsten Steel - ability of a material to become harder
- known as wolfram, is primarily made up of through heat treatment
silver metal that possesses the highest melting - Quenching and tempering refer to the
point among other metal types. thermal treatment that steel undergoes.
- can withstand high temperature and it is
resistant to corrosion and wear. 8. Machineability
- ease with which a material can be
5. Silicon Steel machined in terms of specific energy,
- most important material used when it specific horsepower, or shear stress
comes to magnetic force
- properties: saturation, reduction, resistivity, 9. Workability
magnetostriction, and magneto-crystalline - used to shape sheet metal or steel plate into
anisotropy. a variety of shapes, ranging from automobile
panels to enormous rolled steel tubes.
6. Vanadium Steel - High-workability metals can be easily
- known for its corrosion-resistant molded into a variety of shapes with a small
characteristic and its capability to absorb bending radius without the use of expensive
shocks servo presses.
- used for chemical-carrying pipes, tubes,
and in the form of a fine layer to affix titanium 10. Wear Resistance
to steel for aerospace and automobile - Steels that have been quenched to
applications. produce a hard martensitic microstructure
- Abrasion-resistant steels can be bent,
7. Chromium-Vanadium Steel welded, cut, and machined despite their
- utilizes both chromium and vanadium high hardness.
properties that makes it extremely high
tensile strength which can be easily cut but is PROCESSES OF STEEL
not brittle.
Bessemer process
PROPERTIES OF STEEL - first used to produce steel in 1856.
- first method utilized to make steel in significant
1. Tensile Strength quantities
- maximum stress that steel can withstand - Historians claim that two separate inventors, one in
before failing. Pittsburgh and the other in the UK, simultaneously
- used to describe the change in steel from created a method for producing steel that entailed
elastic to plastic deformation. blasting impurities from iron using air.
-Its standard unit of measurement is force
units per cross-sectional area The manufacturing of steel is done by using one of
these two methods:
2. Yield Strength 1. Blast furnace
- magnitude of stress that makes steel lose its - often referred to as the basic oxygen
elastic behavior. process (BOP), to combine raw iron ore
and tiny amounts of steel scrap.
3. Conductivity - the furnace is then heated by the
- rate at which thermal energy is transferred introduction of pure oxygen. At this
through a substance temperature, the scrap metal not only melts
- Watts per meter per degree Kelvin (W/mK) into a liquid, but the impurities in the iron are
is the unit used to express this rate. also oxidized, entirely evaporating. As a result
- A substance with high thermal conductivity of the high temperature and reduction of the
can move heat more effectively and quickly carbon content to its optimal ratio, liquid
than one with poor thermal conductivity. steel is produced.

4. Corrosion Resistance 2. Electric arc furnaces

- ability of a metal to retain its binding energy - Large amounts of steel scrap is melted into
and withstand degradation and chemical liquid using the electric arc furnace (EAF)
breakdown that would otherwise take place technology, which uses high-current electric
when exposed to such an environment arcs from electrodes.

5. Hardness • Steel is the ideal material to utilize in a variety

- resistance to surface indentation (localized of production capabilities since it is adaptable,
plastic deformation) and scratches inexpensive, and abundant.
• Steel is a valuable resource that original 1. Tension Test
equipment manufacturers and other fabrication - provides information for the sample’s
businesses rely on to create their unique parts and elasticity, tensile strength and yield strength.
goods. - used to determine how a material reacts
when a force is applied to it
USES OF STEEL
2. Compression test
1. Structural Sections - determines the compressive strength of the
- use to create frames for buildings materials by the degree of bending during
- frames are part of the structural skeleton testing.
forming a solid foundation for the home. - Since the application of steel deals with a
great magnitude of forces, the compression
2. Reinforcing Bars test is the best test to do.
- one of the most common uses of steel in
construction 3. Bending testing
- helps strengthen the concentrate allowing - Bend testing on steel takes into
it to better withstand tension consideration the materials’ resistance to
- binds with concrete and has similar fracture, ductility, fracture strength, and
properties. bend strength. These qualities can be utilized
to decide if a piece of equipment will fail
3. Sheet Products under pressure and are essential in any
- formed by an industrial process that turns construction procedure, including plastic
metal, such as steel, into flat pieces. materials loaded with bending forces.
- used for many construction purposes, such
as internal ducts or roof flashings. 4. Brinell’s steel hardness test
- coined after engineer Johan August Brinell.
4. Non-Structural Appliances -first broadly utilized standardized steel
- Some heating and cooling systems have hardness test.
steel features - requires a large test piece and leaves
- heat exchanger, refrigerant pipes, and considerable space; hence, it is constrained
ductwork often contain steel. in its usefulness. Brinelling has come to mean
the permanent indentation of any hard
5. Internal Fixtures surface.
- rails, stairs and shelving. Since stairs receive - involves a large, heavy ball, which is pushed
lots of foot traffic throughout the day the against steel at a predetermined level of
durable material is key. force.

6. Transportation Networks 5. Rockwell hardness test

- used in building bridges, tunnels, rail tracks. - simpler to perform, and more accurate than
- used to construct properties, such as train different kinds of hardness testing techniques
stations, shipping ports, and airports. Most of - All types of metals can be tested with the
this steel utilized is from reinforced bars. Rockwell steel bar test strategy, except in
conditions where the test metal or surface
7. Utilities conditions will present excessive varieties;
- fuel, water, or power because it makes up where the indentations would be
some of the pipelines used to carry water unreasonable for the application; or where
and gas. the sample size or test shape forbids using.
- older homes and commercial properties
typically have galvanized pipes, which 6. Impact Test
people treat with a zinc coating. - determine the active opposition or
durability of materials by figuring the
8. Architectural Wall Cladding measure of energy absorbed during fracture.
- apply one material over another, forming a - performed at different temperatures to
layer of skin. This provides thermal insulation reveal any consequences on impact energy
and weather resistance.
7. Torsion Test
9. Wall Support Products - done to decide the behavior a material or
- brackets and mounting plates. Stainless analysis shows when turned or under torsional
steel brackets can help hold items, such as forces because of applied moments that
photographs, in place. cause shear stress about the axis.

10. Kitchen Appliances ADVANTAGES OF STEEL

- washers and refrigerators, contain some • extremely strong and durable
steel. In fact, 75% of the weight of typical • One of the most versatile building materials
household appliances comes from steel. easy to work with
Stainless steel products don’t corrode or rust, • environmental friendly
making them last longer. • Aesthetics

MATERIAL TESTING ON STEEL DISADVANTGES OF STEEL

• Weighs More Than Other Materials
• Susceptibility To Corrosion and rust LESSON 7
• Susceptibility To buckling BITUMEN
• Requires More Maintenance
• High cost
DEFINITION OF BITUMEN
• is a black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons
obtained naturally or as a residue from
petroleum distillation or purification.
• Naturally occurring bitumen deposits can be
found at the bottom of ancient lakes.
• Refined bitumen is principally obtained as a
residual product in petroleum refineries after
higher fractions like gas, kerosene, and diesel
are removed.
• Bitumen or a mixture of bitumen and
aggregates, such as concrete, make up the
majority of roads.
• It is a common liquid binder that holds
asphalt together.
• Bitumen is one of the most recycled
products.

HISTORY OF BITUMEN
• *The earliest known use of bitumen was by
Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals in Romania
and Syria, who used it to attach stone tools
to wooden or ivory handles. Archaeological
evidence suggests that Neanderthals
heated the bitumen, which made it more
adhesive, and then used it as a glue to
attach the handles to the stone tools. This
technique is believed to have been used as
early as 40,000 years ago.
• Around 6000 BC, the Sumerian civilization in
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) had a
thriving ship-building industry, and they used
naturally occurring bitumen for various
purposes, including waterproofing their
boats. Bitumen was readily available in the
region as it could be found in surface
seepages in the form of tar pits or asphalt
lakes.
• One of the earliest-known examples of the
use of bitumen in boat-building was
discovered at the site of H3 at As-Sabiyah in
Kuwait. A reed boat that dates back to
around 5000 BC was found at this site, and it
was coated with bitumen to make it
waterproof. This boat is considered to be one
of the earliest seafaring vessels in the world.
• The use of bitumen for boat-building allowed
the Sumerians to develop a thriving trade
network, which helped to spread their
influence and culture throughout the region.
Bitumen was also used for other purposes by
the Sumerians, such as in construction and
medicine.
• Overall, the discovery of the use of bitumen
by the Sumerians in boat-building highlights
the importance of this substance in the
development of early civilizations and the
role it played in enabling the growth of trade
and commerce.
• Around 3600 BC, the Mesopotamian prevent decomposition and decay of the
civilization had established an body.
intercontinental trading system that • The Arabic word "mumiyyah," which means
connected various regions of the world. One bitumen, is the root word from which
of the commodities that was traded was "mummy" is derived. For many years, it was
bitumen, which was highly valued for its believed that the bitumen used in ancient
various uses. Egyptian mummification came only from the
• Mesopotamia and the Near East were rich Dead Sea in Palestine. However, recent
sources of bitumen, and there were several studies have shown that the Egyptians likely
known locations where it could be found, used a variety of bitumens from different
including the Hit seepage on the Euphrates sources, including those found in the eastern
River in southern Iraq. This location was Mediterranean and the Red Sea region.
particularly important as it was the largest • The use of bitumen in ancient Egyptian
known source of bitumen in the region and mummification is a fascinating example of
was strategically located along the trade the many innovative and resourceful ways in
routes that connected Mesopotamia with which early civilizations utilized natural
other regions. resources. Bitumen's preservative properties
• Bronze age Syrian sites have yielded made it an ideal substance for use in
significant amounts of bitumen, and much of embalming, and its widespread use in
it has been found to have originated from mummification highlights its importance in
the Hit seepage in southern Iraq. This suggests ancient cultures. The fact that the Arabic
that the Mesopotamians were actively word for bitumen is the root word for
mining and exporting bitumen from this "mummy" underscores the critical role that
location, and it was likely a valuable this substance played in the preservation of
commodity that helped to fuel their trade these ancient Egyptian artifacts.
networks. • The Chumash people, who were native to
• Around 3000 BC, the Indus Valley civilization, the central and southern coastal regions of
located in what is now Pakistan, had California, used bitumen (also known as
developed an advanced water asphalt or tar) as body paint during various
management system that included the ceremonies.
construction of large water tanks or • In Europe, the first use of bitumen as a
reservoirs. One of the most well-preserved construction material for road pavement did
examples of these tanks is the Mohenjo-daro indeed appear in the 1830s. The French
water tank, which dates back to around engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is
3,000 BC. often credited with inventing the modern
• The Mohenjo-daro water tank is a large road, as he developed a method for building
rectangular structure that measures a solid foundation of large stones covered by
approximately 12 meters by 7 meters and has smaller stones and topped with a layer of
a depth of around 2.5 meters. The tank's walls crushed stone and bitumen. This method was
are made of sandstone blocks that are widely adopted throughout Europe,
bonded together with natural bitumen. including in England, where John Loudon
Bitumen was used to seal the joints between McAdam developed his own road-building
the sandstone blocks, making the walls method that also used crushed stone and
watertight and preventing water from bitumen.
leaking out. • The Plaza de la Concorde in Paris was one of
• In addition to the use of bitumen to seal the the early locations where bitumen was used
joints between the sandstone blocks, there is for road paving. The project was completed
also a vertical bituminous core in the center in 1835 and used a layer of compressed
of the tank's walls. This bituminous core is stones covered by a layer of hot bitumen,
believed to have served as an additional followed by another layer of compressed
barrier to prevent water from leaking out of stones. This method proved to be durable
the tank. and effective, and paved the way for the
• The use of bitumen in the construction of the widespread use of bitumen in road
Mohenjo-daro water tank highlights the construction.
advanced engineering and technological
knowledge of the Indus Valley civilization as
it also demonstrates their ability to make use • Actually, the 19th century saw significant
of natural resources to create innovative developments in the use of materials for
solutions for water management and construction and other applications. One
infrastructure development. major development was the widespread use
• Around 1100 BC, the ancient Egyptians of iron and steel, which revolutionized
began using bitumen in their embalming building construction and transportation.
techniques for mummification. The use of • Regarding the use of bitumen, while it is true
bitumen in embalming was likely due to its that the refining of bitumen from crude
preservative properties, which helped to petroleum oils began in the 19th century, it
 was not a major development in the use of of 60-70 means that the bitumen has a viscosity of
materials at the time. Instead, it was primarily 6000-7000 cSt at 60°C and 70 cSt at 135°C.
used for waterproofing and other industrial There are several viscosity grades of bitumen
applications. available, including VG-10, VG-20, VG-30, VG-40,
• The process of refining bitumen was actually and VG-50. The higher the viscosity grade, the
pioneered much earlier than the early 1900s. thicker and more durable the bitumen is, making it
The first modern oil refinery was built in Ploiești, more suitable for high-traffic areas or areas with
Romania in 1856, and the refining of crude oil
extreme weather conditions.
and bitumen quickly became a major
Viscosity grade bitumen is typically produced from
industry in the United States, with the first
crude oil through a process called distillation. The
American oil refinery opening in 1861. By the
crude oil is heated to high temperatures to separate
early 20th century, refining techniques had
become much more sophisticated, and the its various components, including bitumen, which is
production of gasoline and other petroleum then further processed to achieve the desired
products had become a major global viscosity grade.
industry.
Penetration grade and viscosity grade bitumen are
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BITUMEN
two types of bitumen that are commonly used in
Penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that
road construction and other applications. While
is commonly used in the construction industry for a
both types of bitumen have similar properties and
variety of purposes, such as road paving, roofing,
uses, there are some differences between the two:
and waterproofing. The term "penetration" refers to
1. Consistency: The main difference between
the consistency or hardness of the bitumen, which is
penetration grade and viscosity grade bitumen is
measured using a standard penetration test.
their consistency. Penetration grade bitumen is
The penetration value of bitumen is
harder and less viscous than viscosity grade bitumen,
determined by the depth, in tenths of a millimeter,
which means that it has a higher resistance to
that a standard needle will penetrate the bitumen
deformation and is more suitable for areas with
sample under specific conditions of time,
heavy traffic loads. Viscosity grade bitumen, on the
temperature, and applied force. The penetration
other hand, is softer and more viscous, which makes
value is an important factor in determining the
it better suited for areas with lighter traffic loads.
quality and suitability of the bitumen for different
2. Testing methods: Penetration grade bitumen is
applications.
typically tested using the penetration test, which
80/100 penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that
measures the depth to which a standard needle will
has a penetration value of 80 to 100 decimeters
penetrate the bitumen under standardized
(dmm) at 25°C. This means that the bitumen is
conditions. Viscosity grade bitumen is tested using
relatively softer than 60/70 penetration bitumen and
the viscosity test, which measures the kinematic
is suitable for use in areas with lower traffic loads,
viscosity of the bitumen at a specific temperature.
such as residential streets and parking lots.
3. Standards: Both penetration grade and viscosity
60/70 penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that
grade bitumen are produced to meet specific
has a penetration value of 60 to 70 decimeters
standards. Penetration grade bitumen is
(dmm) at 25°C. This means that the bitumen is
standardized by the American Society for Testing
relatively hard and is suitable for use in areas with
and Materials (ASTM) and the European Committee
high traffic loads, such as highways and airports.
for Standardization (CEN). Viscosity grade bitumen is
30/40 penetration grade bitumen is a type of
standardized by the American Association of State
bitumen or asphalt that has a penetration depth of
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and
3-4 tenths of a millimeter when tested under specific
the International Standards Organization (ISO).
conditions. This grade of bitumen is commonly used
4. Applications: Penetration grade bitumen is
in road construction and is suitable for use in areas
typically used for road construction, waterproofing,
with moderate to high traffic.
and roofing. Viscosity grade bitumen is also used for
Viscosity grade bitumen is a type of bitumen that is
these applications, but it is more commonly used for
classified based on its viscosity or thickness at a
industrial applications such as sealing and insulation.
particular temperature. It is commonly used in the
5. Availability: Both penetration grade and viscosity
construction industry for various applications such as
grade bitumen are widely available in most parts of
road surfacing, roofing, waterproofing, and sealing.
the world. However, the availability of each type
The viscosity of bitumen is measured in centistokes
may vary depending on the specific region and
(cSt) at a temperature of 60°C or 135°C, and the
local market conditions.
grade is designated by two numbers separated by a
TYPES OF BITUMEN
hyphen. The first number represents the viscosity in
hundreds of centistokes at 60°C, and the second 1. Cutback Bitumen
number represents the viscosity in tenths of a • Cutback bitumen is created by adding a
centistoke at 135°C. For example, a viscosity grade petroleum-based solvent to conventional
bitumen to reduce its viscosity. The goal is to
reduce viscosity and promote bitumen
 penetration on asphalt surfaces. Cutback bituminous mixes perform better. Bitumen
bitumen is sprayed on different layers of that has been treated with these chemicals
roads at a significantly lower temperature is known as modified bitumen.
than bitumen. A cutback bitumen is said to
cure as the petroleum solvent evaporates. Types of Modifiers
• Polymers
Three Types of Cutback Bitumen o Polymer Modified Bitumen
• Rapid Curing (PMB)
o Prepared with a light, fast- o Polymer modified bitumen
evaporating diluent like (PMB) is a type of specifically
naphtha or gasoline built and engineered bitumen
o Recommended for patching that is used to make
and surface dressing of roads pavement, heavy-duty roads,
in a notably lower and residential roofing
temperature solutions that can survive
• Medium Curing extreme weather. PMB is
o Combination of Bitumen and bitumen with a polymer
lighter hydrocarbons such as added to it, giving it
kerosene increased strength, cohesion,
o Recommended for premixes and resilience to fatigue,
containing fewer fine stripping, and deformations,
aggregates making it a good choice for
• Slow Curing infrastructure.
o Commonly referred to as “ o Common Types of PMB
road oils”
o Usually a residual material
produced from the fractional
distillation of certain crude
petroleums
o Recommended for premixes
containing more fine
aggregates

2. Bitumen Emulsion
• Bitumen emulsion is a combination of fine
bitumen particles and water. The bitumen
content can be adjusted to meet specific
needs, however it usually ranges between
30% and 70%. The main goal of emulsifying
bitumen is to create a product that can be
used without the need for heating.

Types of Bitumen Emulsion (Based on Ionic

Charge) • Rubbers
• Anionic Bitumen Emulsion o Rubber Modified Bitumen
o Negatively charged (RMB)
o All components repel each o Rubber modifier acts as a
other. The only way for the strengthening agent for the
emulsion to break is for the binder, preventing any
water to evaporate. As more deformation from occurring
water evaporates, the during low temperature,
particles are driven closer and fatigue, or heat difficulties.
closer together until they can o RMB has certain unique
no longer be separated by a features that set it apart from
thin layer of water. other bitumen binders, such
• Cationic Bitumen Emulsion as high adhesion that
o Positively charged decreases cracking and
o The bitumen drops are deformation. It also improves
immediately attracted to the the material's stability and
surface and begin to break. uniformity across the supply
Evaporation also causes the chain.
emulsion to lose water. o Advantages
▪ The resistance to
Since almost all surfaces have a net negative fatigue is high
charge, anionic and cationic emulsions ▪ Very cost effective
break in different ways. ▪ Strong resistance to
thermal cracking
3. Modified Bitumen ▪ Aging process slows
• Bitumen modifiers are additives or mixtures of down
additives that can help bitumen and
 ▪ Gives protection from Resistance To Water
water damage due to Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an
hard grade of asphalt effective sealant Bitumen is water resistant.
formed
Hardness
COMPOSITION OF BITUMEN The penetration value of bitumen is defined as
Bitumen is a complex colloidal system of bitumen hardness.
hydrocarbons and their derivatives which is soluble
in trichloroethylene. Viscosity and Flow
The flow properties of bitumens vary considerably
TCE is found as an ingredient in a number of with temperature and stress conditions.
consumer products such as
● adhesives Softening point
● cleaning fluids for rugs This property make us to know whether given
● paint removers/strippers bitumen can be used at the particular place.
● spot removers
● typewriter correction fluids Ductility
Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount
Main Fractions bitumen will stretch at temperature below its
• Asphaltenes softening point.
o fraction insoluble in light aliphatic
hydrocarbon solvent, e.g. n-heptane. Durability
o The asphaltenes have the highest Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance
molecular weight but their exact to oxidative hardening of the Material in the field.
nature is dependent on the type of
solvent and the volume ratio of Versatility
solvent to bitumen. Due to versatility property of Bitumen it is relatively
o Mainly composed of condensed easy to use it in many applications because of its
aromatic hydrocarbons and include thermoplastic property.
complexes with nitrogen, oxygen,
sulphur and metals such as nickel and Economical
vanadium. It is available in cheaper rates almost all over the
world which makes it feasible and affordable in
many applications.
• Maltenes
o fraction soluble in n-heptane. Strength
o Resins Though the coarse aggregates are the main load
o Oils bearing component in a pavement, bitumen or
▪ Aromatics asphalt also play a vital role in distributing the traffic
▪ Saturates loads to the layers beneath.
o Maltenes contain lower molecular
weight versions of asphaltenes,
called resins, and a range of PRODUCTION OF BITUMEN
hydrocarbon compounds known as In addition to being found naturally in seeps and the
‘oils’ including olefins,naphthenes oil sands, bitumen can be produced by removing
and paraffins.
lighter fractions from crude oil during the refining
o Resins are amorphous substances of
a dark brown color with a molecular process. Fractions that are removed are liquid
weight of from 500 to 1000 g/mol, the petroleum gas, gasoline, and diesel.
density is about 1 g/cm3.
o Oil fraction of bitumen consists of
different hydrocarbons with a
molecular weight of from 100 to 500
g/mol and a density less than 1
g/cm3
o The aromatic oils are oily and dark
brown in appearance and include
naphtheno-aromatic type rings.
o The saturated oils are made up
Once crude oil has been extracted from the ground,
mainly of long straight saturated
chains and appear as highly viscous the production of bitumen can begin. The crude oil
whitish oil. is pumped from the storage tanks and through a
system that increases the temperature of the crude
oil to 200°C. The oil then moves to a furnace, where
PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN it is heated even higher to approximately 300°C
Adhesion where it is vaporized partially into a distillation
Bitumen binds together all the components without column. Here, the separation of the different
bringing about any positive or negative changes in components of the crude oil occurs. As lighter
their properties. components rise to the top, heavy components—
including the bitumen—fall to the bottom of the waterproofing. For instance, it was commonly used
column. This process is known as fractional distillation. to waterproof boats and other marine vessels, as well
Finally, the bitumen is obtained by further distilling as the sides of buildings. It was used in ancient times
the residue in a vacuum distillation column. This type as mortar in building construction.
of bitumen is known as straight run bitumen. The
grade of the bitumen depends on how much Adhesive: Bitumen is applied on road paving
volatile material remains in the distilled bitumen— because it is viscous (or it having a thick, sticky
with more volatiles resulting in a less pure, more liquid consistency between solid and liquid) when hot, but
solid once it cools down. Therefore, Bitumen
product.
operates as the binder/glue for pieces of the
aggregate. Along with being used as a
waterproofing agent and acting as an adhesive,
EXTRACTION OF BITUMEN engineers who replace asphalt roads can reuse the
There are two ways to extract bitumen from the oil material for other road projects
sands — either through surface mining, where the
bitumen is gravity separated using hot water, or
Damp-proof courses: Bitumen is used as a thin course
thermal in-situ extraction, where bitumen is injected
on the building foundation or between the bricks in
with steam and pumped out of the ground. The
a building structure. In the rainy weather, the soil
method used depends on the depth of the deposit.
absorbs the water, and it can damage the building.
So madalas po, Damp proof courses are used on the
building foundations para maiwasan ang attraction
of water from the soil, ‘cause it avoids moisture from
entering the inner spaces of the building. Liquid
bitumen like bitumen emulsion and pure bitumen like
bitumen penetration grade are suitable for damp
proofing courses.

DEEP DEPOSITS SHALLOW DEPOSITS

For damp proofing, prefabricated mats that are
< 200 METERS > 75 METERS sprayed with blown bitumen are used. They are also
Steam is injected into the oil Steam is injected into the used to prevent pollution from spreading in the form
sands deposit, reducing the oil sands deposit, reducing of small water-retaining, bituminous walls at refuse
viscosity of the bitumen. The the viscosity of the bitumen. disposal sites.
mixture of bitumen and water The mixture of bitumen and
is pumped to the surface water is pumped to the
where the water is recovered surface where the water is Coating: In many industries like the oil and gas
and recycled. recovered and recycled. industry, to protect the pipelines from corrosion,
bitumen is applied as a thin layer on the steel pipes
and covers their surfaces. Generally, bituminous
coating is a good way to para maging resistant to
chemical degradation ang mga metal and steel
USES OF BITUMEN surfaces at to increase the life of the outer layer of
pipes and surfaces. Cutback bitumen is a good
Bitumen has several modern uses. It's generally choice for coating.
meant for industrial use and is commonly found in
road paving. The majority of U.S. roads are made of Roofing: Bitumen is used in insulation of flat roofs,
either bitumen or a combination of bitumen and terraces and balconies. Coverings of Roofs (Shingles)
aggregates, such as concrete. Bitumen is widely and Roofing felts are made of fibres or plastics. These
used in road construction, damp-proof courses, used are impregnated with penetration-grade bitumen
as waterproofing, used for adhesive, coating, and coated with blown-grade bitumen. In many
roofing, as well as for tanking of basements, parts of Asia such as Malaysia, the Philippines and
preservation of stones, paints, pavements, and Thailand where the weather is rainy most of the time,
protection of structures. there is a special type of roofing called shingle roofs.
In this type of roofing, oxidized bitumen is commonly
Road construction: In road construction bitumen can used.
be used in hot mix asphalt and cold mix asphalt on
the road surface. Both of these two types of asphalts Other uses of concrete include the following:
are used in flexible pavement. In hot mix asphalt,
paving grades bitumen which are penetration The Tanking of basements: Bitumen is the usual
grade and viscosity grade are used. All types of choice for waterproofing of Basements like Asphalt.
bitumen including Penetration Grades, Viscosity
Grades, Oxidized Bitumen and liquid bitumen can Preservation of stones: These materials are used for
be used in road construction. preservation of stonework from attack by salts and
other substances present in the ground and
Waterproofing: Bitumen is used in the waterproofing atmosphere.
process and rust-proof coating. In the waterproofing
process it can be used in different forms of For paints: The industrial blown or R grade of bitumen
bituminous paint, bituminous membrane, and is mainly used for bituminous paints and other
bituminous coating to prevent water penetration surfaces.
into the surfaces. Another key use for bitumen is
Protection of structures: It is used as a protection by Specific Gravity Test: In paving jobs, to classify a
impregnation for concrete elements such as slabs, binder, density property is of great use. In most cases
piles, etc. Organic binders of 10-15 mm thickness are bitumen is weighed, but when used with
also applied over, para maiwasan na magcorrod aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume
ang bitumen. using density values. The density of bitumen is greatly
influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in
TESTS ON BITUMEN: aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase
Bitumen is a material with different properties. In in specific gravity. The specific gravity of bitumen is
order to choose proper bitumen for road defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of
construction and other industries, bitumen tests are bitumen of known content to the mass of equal
necessary to help us to determine its properties and volume of water at 27°C. The specific gravity can be
examine its quality before using it, during the measured using either pycnometer or preparing a
application, and after aging. It can also be used to cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state.
classify bitumen by its physical properties. This part of The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to
presentation covers several tests on bitumen. 1.02

Penetration Test: The penetration test of bitumen Viscosity Test: Viscosity is the property of bitumen
measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by which influences the ability of bitumen to spread,
measuring the depth of penetration of standard penetrate into the voids and also coat the
loaded needle in five seconds while maintaining aggregates. The viscosity of liquid binders such as
bitumen sample temperature at 25°C. The more cutbacks and emulsions are measured indirectly
viscous the bitumen, the less distance needle is able using orifice type viscometers. At the application
to penetrate. Hence, the penetration value for temperature, this characteristic greatly influences
viscous bitumen is less. the strength of resulting paving mixes. Low or high
The penetration value is largely influenced by viscosity during compaction or mixing has been
any inaccuracy with regards to pouring observed to result in lower stability values. At high
temperature, size of the needle, weight placed on viscosity, it resists the compactive effort and thereby
the needle and the test temperature. In hot climates, resulting mix is heterogeneous, hence low stability
a lower penetration grade is preferred. values. And at low viscosity instead of providing a
uniform film over aggregates, it will lubricate the
Ductility Test: The ductility of bitumen is measured by aggregate particles.
the distance in centimeters (cm), to which the
bitumen sample will elongate before breaking when Flash and Fire Point: Flash point of bitumen is defined
it is pulled by standard specimen at specified speed as the point of lowest temperature at which bitumen
and temperature. catches vapors of test flame and fires in the form of
Ductility is the property of bitumen that flash. It is the point of lowest temperature at which
permits it to undergo great deformation or the bitumen ignites and burns at least for 5 second
elongation. It is defined as the distance in cm, to under specific conditions of test. Flash and fire point
which a standard sample or briquette of the material test helps to control fire accidents in bitumen coated
will be elongated without breaking. Dimension of the areas. By this test we can decide the bitumen grade
briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The with respect to temperature for areas of high
distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the temperatures. In simple words, flash point and fire
ductility value which is reported in cm. The ductility point tests are used to determine the temperature to
value gets affected by factors such as pouring which bituminous material can safely be heated.
temperature, test temperature, rate of pulling etc.
The ductility value of bitumen usually varies from 5 to Float test: Float test is used to determine the
over 100 cm's and several standards have specified consistency of bitumen. But we generally use
minimum ductility values for various pavement types. penetration test and viscosity test to find out the
However, a ductility value of 100 cm's is specified consistency of bitumen except for certain range of
generally for bituminous construction. consistencies. Normally the consistency of
bituminous material can be measured either by
The softening point test shows the temperature at penetration test or viscosity test. But for certain range
which the bitumen gains a certain degree of of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and
softening under the specifications of the test. It is also Float test is used. The apparatus consists of an
known as the Ring and ball Test because it is aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen
conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. The to be tested. The specimen in the mould is cooled to
softening point helps to determine the temperature a temperature of 5C and screwed into float. The
up to which bitumen can be heated for different total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 5C
road use applications. A brass ring containing test and the time required for water to pass its way
sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and
or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is is expressed as the float value.
placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid
medium is heated at a rate of 5C per minute. Water Content Test: It is desirable that the bitumen
Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent
touches the metal plate which is at a specified foaming of the bitumen when it is heated above the
distance below. Generally, higher softening point boiling point of water. The weight of the water
indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is condensed and collected is expressed as
preferred in hot climates. percentage by weight of the original sample. The
allowable maximum water content should not be
more than 0.2% by weight. To estimate the amount Installation is Cheap to install
of water in bitumen, combine a known weight of comparatively compared to asphalt.
samples in a pure petroleum distillate free of water, costlier.
heating and distilling the water. Cost effective. An They require regular
asphalt surface maintenance, especially
Loss on Heating Test: Bitumen is commonly used as a doesn’t require when resurfacing a
binder in pavements. When it is exposed to the regular maintenance pavement with greater
atmosphere, the volatiles present in it evaporates like bitumen surface, traffic volume. So not
and bitumen hardens. In the loss of heating of rather a routine check cost effective in the long
bitumen, the bitumen specimen is subjected to an periodically is run.
accelerated ageing process under the conditions enough.
specified by the standard. When heat is applied,
bitumen loses its fluidity and hardens. Bitumen used
in pavement mixes should not lose more than 1% of
its weight, although bitumen with penetration values
of 150-200 can lose up to 2% of its weight.

ASPHALT VS. BITUMEN

So, asphalt vs. bitumen, the term bitumen is often

mistakenly used to describe asphalt. A bitumen-
sealed road has a layer of bitumen sprayed and
then covered with an aggregate. Asphalt results in a
smoother and more durable asphalt road surface
than a bitumen-sealed road.

The word “asphalt” is used to refer

to asphalt concrete, a mixture of construction
aggregate and asphalt itself (also called “tarmac”
in common parlance). “Bitumen” refers to the liquid
derived from the heavy residues from crude oil
distillation.

Asphalt Bitumen
Asphalt pavements Bitumen pavements are
are durable; with a less durable; with a layer
layer depth of 25-40 depth of 10-20 mm and
mm and life span of lifespan of 5-10 years.
20+ years.
Surface made of The loose fragments on
asphalt is smoother bitumen pavements
and more skid- make the driving
resistant, ensuring the experience noisier and
driver’s safety and can wear down tires,
minimal noise. consequently causing
safety issues.
Reduced friction Higher frictional
between tire and car; resistance of a bitumen
meaning better fuel pavement means less
economy and efficiency in energy
minimization of utilization.
carbon dioxide
emission.
Asphalt is an Exposure to bitumen
impermeable leaching may cause
material; thus, the deterioration of soil and
pavements do not groundwater quality.
leach. Therefore, they
have a lesser chance
of infiltrating and
polluting the
groundwater
Less sensitive to Pavements are
temperature susceptible to
compared to bitumen high temperature, which
pavements. Negative can make it slick and
impacts are seen only soft.
in extremely high or
low temperature.
LESSON 8 Advantages of CMT
FIELD TEST OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 1. Safety
-The use of tested and approved
What is construction materials testing? materials ensures that the structure being
built is safe and will be able to withstand the
“The testing of materials used in construction, forces it will encounter over its lifetime
including soils, aggregates, concrete, asphalt, and
steel, to evaluate their properties and performance 2. Quality
characteristics for use in the construction of -Material testing ensures that the
buildings, roads, and other structures”. - ASTM D3740- construction materials meet the required
20 standards and specifications.

"The testing and analysis of materials used in

construction and civil engineering, including soils, 3. Cost-effectiveness
aggregates, concrete, masonry, and steel, to assess - Using tested and approved
their physical, mechanical, and chemical materials can help avoid costly repairs and
properties." - ISO 1920-1:2017 maintenance.

“A quality control process that involves testing of 4. Sustainability

concrete and its components to determine their - Construction materials and testing
properties and to ensure that they meet the can help promote sustainable building
specified requirements for strength, durability, and practices.
other performance characteristics." - ACI 318-19
Disadvantages of CMT
Construction Materials Testing 1. Time-consuming
• Thorough process of testing of Physical, -It can be a time-consuming process,
Mechanical, and Chemical particularly if multiple tests need to be
• Quality, Durability, and Performance performed on different materials.
• To ensure that the specified requirements are
met 2. Costly
- It can also be costly, especially for
Importance of CMT large-scale projects that require a significant
Field testing of construction materials is amount of testing. The cost of materials and
essential to ensure that the materials used in equipment needed for testing can add up
construction projects meet the necessary standards quickly and increase the overall budget.
and specifications. It is critical for the viability and
safety of a construction project. It can reveal any 3. Destructive
number of issues related to construction quality. -Some construction materials testing
methods require the destruction of the
1. Quality control materials being tested, this can be wasteful
- to ensure that the construction materials and may not be feasible for certain materials
being used meet the required quality or applications.
standards.
4. Limited Sample Size
2. Cost savings - The accuracy of construction
- prevent costly errors and delays. materials testing can be affected by the size
and representativeness of the sample being
3. Compliance tested.
- to ensure that construction materials meet
the necessary requirements, avoiding CEMENT
potential fines or legal action. - a binding agent that sets and hardens to
adhere to construction unit
4. Performance - are finely ground powders that, when mixed
- to ensure that the materials being used are with water, set to a hard mass
performing as expected and will perform
adequately over the lifespan of the structure. Hydration - is the chemical reaction of
cement compounds with water to produce
5. Verification submicroscopic crystals which causes the
- to verify that materials are being installed setting and hardening.
correctly and according to the
manufacturer's instructions.
-to ensure that the materials will perform as
intended.
 Field Test of Cement • Calibrating the equipment
• Filling the equipment
1. Manufacturing Date of Cement • Measuring the initial volume
- With the passage of packing time • Applying pressure
of cement, the strength reduces. Cement • Measuring the final volume
must be used before 90 days from the date • Calculating the air content
of manufacturing.
3. Unit weight test
- determines the density of the
concrete mix.

Process of Unit Weight Testing:

• Obtain a representatie sample of the
fresh concrete
• Clean the mold and weigh it to the
nearest 0.01 lb (0.005 kg) and record
the weight.
2. Colour of Cement • Coat the inside of the mold with a thin
- gives an indication of excess lime or layer of mold release agent.
clay and the degree of burning. The colour • Fill the mold with concrete
of the cement should be light greenish grey • Strike off the top of the mold
and it should be uniform in color. • Weigh the mold with the concrete to
the nearest 0.01 lb (0.005 kg) and
3. Presence of Lumps record the weight.
- develops lumps due to the presence • Determine the volume of the mold by
of moisture from the atmosphere but is not filling it with water and weighing the
good to use the cement that is affected with water to the nearest 0.1 lb (0.05 kg).
the moisture for construction. • Calculate the unit weight of the
concrete
4. Temperature Test
- affect the setting time and strength Field Test of Cement (Hardened Concrete)
development of the cement.
1. Compressive strength test
5. Float Test o Ability to resist (compressive) forces
- determine the fineness of cement, without breaking and deforming
which is an important property affecting its • Cylindrical and cubic concrete
strength development and workability. sample are used
• Tested using the UTM (Universal
6. Strength Test Testing Machine)
- an essential component of cement
quality control, as it provides information on 2. Splitting tensile strength test
the ability of cement to resist stress and load. • Ability to resist (tensile) forces without
breaking and deforming
7. Setting Time Test • Force is applied to the sides of the
- it should be able to set, gain strength cylindrical and cubic concrete
and not crack. Cement is also capable of sample.
setting under water which is called 'hydraulic • Tested using the UTM (Universal
cement'. Testing Machine)

CONCRETE 3. Flexural strength test

• one of the most versatile and widely-used • Ability to resist bending forces
construction materials on earth. • Beam/ rectangular prism concrete
• has 3 main components which are Water, samples are used
Aggregates (Fine and Course) and Cement • Tested using the UTM

Field Test of Cement (Fresh Concrete) 4. Rebound Hammer Test

• A spring release mechanism is used to
1. Concrete slump test activate a hammer which impacts a
-determine the consistency/ plunger to drive into the surface of
workability of the concrete mix. the concrete.
- results that can be gathered from a • Equipment used: Rebound Hammer
Concrete Slump Test: True Slump, Zero Slump,
Collapsed Slump, and Shear Slump 5. Penetration Resistance Test
• A small pin or probe is penetrated
2. Air content test into the concrete’s surface.
- is a test wherein the air trapped in • In-place strength of concrete.
the concrete is determined. • Equipment used is a Windsor Probe
test machine.
Process of Air Content Testing:
• Sampling 6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
 • The velocity of a pulse of a vibrational 6. When cracks begin to appear, remove
energy is determined through a slab the deflection gauges and load the
• Quality, integrity, and uniformity ng sample to failure. Note down the peak
concrete or crushing load.
• Equipment used is an Ultrasonic Pulse 7. Using the peak load and contact area,
Velocity Tester. calculate the compressive strength of
the wooden cube.
WOOD 8. Calculate the stress and strain values
and plot a graph between them to
Wood Quality Test determine the modulus of elasticity
series of tests conducted to assess the quality and modulus of stiffness.
of a piece of wood. 9. Repeat the above procedure by
- include measuring the wood's moisture orienting the sample in such a way that
content, density, modulus of elasticity, modulus of the grain fibers are perpendicular to
rupture, compression strength, and other physical the applied load.
properties.
7. Indentation Resistance Test
Field Test of Wood - measures the ability of a wood
surface to resist being dented or marked by
1. Modulus of Rupture a hard object.
- measures the maximum amount of
stress that a piece of wood can handle TIMBER
before it breaks.
- determine the strength and Field Test of Timber
durability of wood to ensure that wood is
strong enough to support heavy loads. 1. Moisture Content Test
- measures the amount of water
2. Modulus of Elasticity present in a piece of timber. Moisture
- measures how much a piece of content is an important factor to consider
wood will bend or deform under a given when using timber, as excessive moisture can
amount of stress lead to issues such as warping, cracking, and
3. Internal Bond Strength decay.
- measures the strength of the bond
between the wood fibers in a composite 2 common methods in measuring the moisture
wood product. content of a timber:

4. Moisture Content Test Oven Dry Testing- process of determining the dry
- measures the amount of water in a weight of a sample of timber by removing all the
piece of wood, expressed as a percentage moisture content through heating.
of the wood's total weight.
Moisture Meter Testing- a non-destructive testing
5. Density Test method used to measure the moisture content of
- measures how much the wood wood without damaging the wood itself.
weighs per unit volume, typically expressed in
pounds per cubic foot or grams per cubic LUMBER
centimeter.
ASTM D198
6. Compression Strength Test - a standard test method for static flexural tests of
- determine the strength and lumber in structural sizes. Developed by American
resistance of the wood to being compressed Society for Testing and Materials International.
or flattened, and it is an important way to - an important tool for evaluating the mechanical
evaluate the suitability of the wood for properties of lumber in structural sizes, which is
various applications. essential for ensuring the safety and reliability of
structures made from wood.
Compression Strength Test Procedure
Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of the wooden
sample using a vernier caliper. 1. Prepare your test specimen in accordance
2. Place the wooden sample in the with the standard, noting all relevant histories
universal testing machine such that the of the treatment, conditioning, etc. of the
grain fibers are parallel to the applied wood specimen that could affect its
compressive load. strength.
3. Attach the deflection dial gauges to 2. Adjust the flexure fixture in accordance with
the sample. the specimen size and desired purpose of the
4. Start loading the sample in testing. Center-point loading and third-point
compression. loading are both available options.
5. Note down the deflection reading from 3. Insert the test specimen into the flexure
the dial gauges for each regular load fixture.
increment.
 4. 4. Apply the flexure load to the specimen at softening under the specifications of the test.
the constant rate of speed defined in the - It is also known as the Ring and ball
standard. Test.
5. 5. Continue the test until failure, while
recording load & deflection data at first 6. Flash and Fire Point Test
failure, maximum load, and other points of - The flash point of bitumen is defined
sudden change. as the lowest temperature at which bitumen
catches vapors from a test flame and ignites
STEEL in the form of a flash fire.
- The fire point of bitumen is defined
Field Test of Steel as the lowest temperature at which the
bitumen ignites and burns for at least 5
1. Tensile Shear Test seconds under specified test circumstances.
- measures the strength and elasticity
of the steel by subjecting it to tension. 7. Loss on Heating Test
- determine the number of volatiles
2. Bend Test present in bitumen.
- involves bending a sample of steel
to a specified angle without causing it to 8. Water Content Test
crack or fracture. - determined by the Dean and Stark
method. In this method, the bitumen sample
3. Re-bend Test is kept in a 500ml heat-resistant glass
- involves bending a previously bent container.
sample of steel back to its original position, to
assess whether the material has retained its
ductility and resistance to fracture.

4. Shear Test
- involves applying a force parallel to
the plane of the material, causing it to
deform or fracture in shear.

5. Brinell Hardness Test

- pressing a hardened steel ball or
carbide ball into the surface of the material,
with a specified force, and measuring the
resulting indentation.

6. Impact Test
7. Torsion Test

BITUMEN

Field Test of Bitumen

1. Ductility Test
- measured by the distance in
centimeters(cm), to which the bitumen
sample will elongate before breaking when
a standard specimen pulls it at a specified
speed and temperature.

2. Penetration Test
- Hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in millimeters to which a
standard loaded needle will penetrate
vertically in five seconds while the bitumen
sample is kept at 25 degrees Celsius.

3. Float Test
- measuring the consistency or ability
of bitumen to flow.

4. Viscosity Test
- measures the degree of fluidity of
the bitumen sample

5. Softening Point Test

- denotes the temperature at which
the bitumen attains a particular degree of