Ch.

1 Basic Concepts &

Fluid Properties
PROF. TAHA ALDOSS

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Applications

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Internal Flow
Natural and Forced
Internal Flow

Water Distribution System (gravity driving, or, machine driving)

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External Flow

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Fluid Fundamentals

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Differences between Solids, Liquids and Gases:

1. How they behave under the applied shear stress (Solid vs. Fluid)
2. What volume would they fill (Liquid vs. Gas)
3. Would they form a free surface (Liquid vs. Gas)
4. How they behave under pressure (Compressibility concept)

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Phase = f(P, T)

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Definition of fluid
 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear
(tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be.

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Dimensions and Units
A dimension is a physical variable used to specify the behavior or nature of a
particular system.

For example, the length of a rod is a dimension of the rod.

All the physical quantities used may be

expressed in terms of these fundamental
dimensions.

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The units
to be used for certain dimensions are selected by somewhat arbitrary definitions
which usually relate to a physical phenomenon or law.

For example, Newton’s second law of motion may be written

mass is constant

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 used to define systems
of units for
mass, force, length, and time

(F) blf = [(m) lbm / 32.174] . (a) ft/s2

(F) N = (m) kg . (a) m/s2

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Work has the dimensions of a product of force times a distance.

Energy has the same dimensions.

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The weight of a body is defined as the force exerted on the body as a result of
the acceleration of gravity.

where W is the weight and g is the acceleration of gravity.

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The Power: rate of doing work
The watt (J/s) is the unit of power in SI system.

Energy unit is derived from the power unit

1 Watt-sec = 1 Joul

kW-hr = 3600 kJ

14
Pressure and Stresses = Force / Area For example,

Force [N], A [m2] 1 atm pressure = 1.0132E+5 N/m2 (Pa)

P (Pa) = S (Pa) = F (N) / A (m2) 1 atm pressure = 14.7 psi

Force [lbf], A [ft2]
1 psi = 144 psf
P (psf) = S (psf) = F (lbf) / A (ft2)

1 lbf = 1 slug . 1 Ft/s2

1 slug = 32.2 lbm

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Examples on Units:

SI:

P = S = F/A = N/m2 = Pa

Viscosity = Shear stress / Rate of Strain = τ / (du/dy) = (F/A) / (V/L)

μ = (N/m2) / (m/s/m) = (N/m2).s = Pa.s

BG:

P = S = F/A = pound-force/ft2 or lbf/in2 = psi

Viscosity = Shear stress / Rate of Strain = τ / (du/dy) = (F/A) / (V/L)

μ = (lbf/ft2)/(ft/s/ft) = (lbf/ft2).s or psi.s

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 (a) Earth standard
wt 1000 lbf
Example 1: g 32.174 ft/s2
A body weighs 1000 lbf when exposed to a mass ??? kg
standard earth gravity g = 32.174 ft/s2. Solution
(a) What is its mass in kg? Wt=m.g
(b) What will the weight of this body be in N m=Wt/g 1000.81 lbm 31.08 slug
if it is exposed to the moon’s standard CF 14.5939 kg/slug
acceleration gmoon = 1.62 m/s2? m 453.59 kg
(c) How fast will the body accelerate if a net (b) Moon Std
force of 400 lbf is applied to it on the moon g 1.62 m/s2
or on the earth? Wt ??? N
Wt=m.g 734.82 N
©
F 400 lbf
a ??? ft/s2
a ??? m/s2
F=m.a
a=F/m 12.87 ft/s2
CF 0.3048 (m/s2)/(ft/s2)
a 3.92 m/s2

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Fluid Concepts &
Properties

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Fluid as a Continuum The mean free path is the average distance
between molecules (λ = 60x10-9 m = 60 nm)

1 nm =10-9 m

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Fluid as a Continuum
The mean free path is the average distance
between molecules (λ = 60x10-9 m = 60
nm)

The limiting volume δϑ* is about 10-9 mm3 for all liquids and for
gases at atmospheric pressure.

For example, 10-9 mm3 of air at standard conditions contains

approximately 30x106 molecules.

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Question: Sphere Volume = 4/3πR3

What should be the probe size for continuum measurement.

(1 nm = 1.0E-9 m)
Assume a spherical shape for the probe (λ = 60E-9 m = 60 nm)

δϑ* should be ≥ 10-9 mm3

Vols = 10-9 mm3 = 4/3  Rs3 ……

Rs = 6.2E-04 mm,

Ds* = 1.24E-03 mm = 1.24x10-6 m = 1240 nm = 1240/60 = 20.7 mean free path,

λ = (6.0x10-8 m = 60 nm)

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Calculate the critical probe diameter that satisfy the fluid continuum condition.

Assume spherical shape for probe

δv* 1.00E-09 mm^3
Vol-sphere = 4/3.πR^3 1.00E-09 mm^3
R*=(3/4*V*/π)^1/3 6.20E-04 mm
D*=2*R 1.24E-03 mm 1.24E-06 m
λ-mean free bath 6.00E-08 m
D*/λ 20.68 #

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Examples of probes: hot wire anemometer.

Dwire = 3.8E-3 mm > Ds* = 1.24E-03 mm

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Pitot tube

Diameter of STD pitot tube

2.3 mm < D < 35 mm

Compare with D* = 1.24E-3 mm

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 Dimensionality
V = f(x, y, z, t) unsteady, three dimensional

Examples:
V = 5xi + 8xyj 2-D, steady
V = -2xi + 3xj + 4tk 1-D, unsteady

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1-D flow 2-D flow

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Non-separating and separating flows

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Features of Viscous Fluid

1. Boundary Layer Concept

2. Non-slip boundary condition
3. Boundary Layer Separation
4. Wake flow

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Compressibility

It is a measure of the relative volume change

of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure
(or mean stress) change.

where V is volume and p is pressure

Units = 1/Pa

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 Reynolds Experiment: Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Types of Flows Based on Reynolds Number

- Laminar Flow: Re < 2000
- Turbulent Flow: Re > 4000

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Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid

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Shear Stress and Viscosity Relation
ε = ∆L/L = deformation per unit length
Fluid shear strain = (∂y.∂θ)/∂y = ∂θ

shear stress ~ rate of strain

In the limit of infinitesimal changes

tan(δθ) = δθ
& τ α du/dy
μ units [=] shear stress x time/angle
For Newtonian Fluids: F = M L/T^2

BG unit: is slug/ft-s = psf-s

SI unit: is kg/m-s = Ps-s
• Considering two parallel plates with viscous fluid in between.
The upper plate is moving at a constant velocity V, and the
distance between the two plates is h.
• Calculate the velocity profile between the two plates.

For Newtonian Fluid

τ = μ ∂u/∂y
The constants a and b can be evaluated from the no-slip
=b condition at the upper and lower walls:

Integrate to obtain

Hence a = 0 and b = V/h.

Thus the velocity distribution is linear Then the velocity profile between the plates is given by

& du/dy = V/h τ = μ .V/h

 Viscometers theory
Shear stress = (viscosity . rate of deformation)
V τ = F/A
Shear stress = (viscosity . velocity gradient)
h
τ = μ .V/h τ = μ.δu/δy

Shear stress = Force / area

viscosity = shear stress / (V/h)
μ = τ . h/V

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EX: Shearing Viscometer:

μ = τ . h/V

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Rate the driving motor power.

L 2m
b 60 cm 0.6 m
h 3 cm 0.03 m
Oil SAE 30W @ 20 deg
μ 0.29 kg/m-s
V 2.5 m/s
Shear stress, τ=μ.∆V/∆y=V/h
24.17 N/m^2
Surface Area, A=L*b 1.2 m^2
F=τ.A 29 N
P=F.V 72.5 J/s (W)

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Rotating Viscometers

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 T is the torque, N-m

μ = a.T/ [2π.HR3.Ω]

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 Ex.4. Rotating viscometers

H 4 cm 0.04 m
R 2 cm 0.02 m
μ = a.T/ [2π.HR3.Ω] a h 1 mm 0.001 m
b 2 mm 0.002 m
Ω 1000 rpm 104.72 rad/s
Power, P=T.ω 6.39 J/s 6.39 W
μ ??? kg/m-s
T=P/Ω 0.06 N-m
V=Ω*R 2.09 m/s
T=2π[R3ΩHμ/h]
μ=T.h/[2πR3ΩH] 0.29 kg/m-s

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Rotating Viscometers: Rate the driving motor power.

H 4 cm 0.04 m
R 2 cm 0.02 m
a 1 mm 0.001 m
b 2 mm 0.002 m
ω 1000 rpm 104.72 rad/s
Fluid: Oil SAE 30W @ 20 deg
μ 0.29 kg/m-s
V=ω*R 2.094395 m/s
Shear stress, τ=μ.∆V/∆y=V/a 2094.40 N/m2
A=2πR.H 0.005027 m^2
F=τ.A 10.53 N
Totque, T=F.R 0.210552 N.m
Power, P=T.ω 22.05 W

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Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity at 1 atm and 20°C

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Surface tension
People used to use wick in the oil lamb, to
bring the oil up for burning.

How this happen?

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 How this happen?

A Spider walking on water surface!

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A waxed car surface will not be wetted by rain, thus stay
clean. Why?

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*** Surface tension coefficient = f(liquid, surrounding gas, and surface)

A particle of water will wet a clean glass surface.

A particle of mercury will never wet the surface, this is one

reason why it is used in thermometers.

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 Surface tension

If θ < 90°, the liquid “wets” the

solid;

If θ > 90°, the liquid is nonwetting.

water mercury

Inserting a capillary tube in water, the water will rise inside the tube
Inserting the same capillary tube in mercury, the mercury will fall instead

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The two most common interfaces are water-air and mercury-air.

For a clean surface at 20°C 68°F, the measured surface tension is

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Contact-angle effects at liquid-gas-solid interface.

If θ < 90°, the liquid “wets” the solid; if θ > 90°, the liquid is nonwetting.

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 Fs.t.
Derive an expression for the change in height h in a circular
tube of a liquid with surface tension and contact angle.

h α 1/R m.g

Thus the capillary height increases inversely with tube radius R

and is positive if θ < 90° (wetting liquid) and negative (capillary
depression) if θ > 90°.

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Water rises in a
glass capillary due
to the surface
tension of the Mercury falls in a
water and the glass capillary due to
fact that the water the surface tension of
wets the glass the mercury and the
surface. fact that the mercury
does not wet the
glass surface.

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Surface Tension (capillary tubes)
ρ 1000 kg/m3
R 1 mm 0.001 m
Water-air-glass
θ 0 deg 0 rad
γ 0.073 N/m
ρ 1000 kg/m3

h = 2.γ.cosθ/(ρgR)

R, mm D, m D, mm h, m h, mm
1 0.002 2 1.49E-02 14.88
2 0.004 4 7.44E-03 7.44
4 0.008 8 3.72E-03 3.72
6 0.012 12 2.48E-03 2.48
8 0.016 16 1.86E-03 1.86
10 0.02 20 1.49E-03 1.49
12 0.024 24 1.24E-03 1.24
14 0.028 28 1.06E-03 1.06
16 0.032 32 9.30E-04 0.93
18 0.036 36 8.27E-04 0.83
20 0.04 40 7.44E-04 0.74
22 0.044 44 6.76E-04 0.68
24 0.048 48 6.20E-04 0.62
26 0.052 52 5.72E-04 0.57
28 0.056 56 5.32E-04 0.53

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Surface tension of a clean air-water interface.

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In contact with air

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Vapor Pressure (Cavitation)

Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid boils and is in equilibrium

with its own vapor.

When the liquid pressure is dropped below the vapor pressure due to a
flow phenomenon, we call the process cavitation.

The dimensionless parameter describing flow-induced boiling is the

cavitation number

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Fluid Vapor Pressure Application
Cavitation, Recirculation, and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Cavitation is considered to be a
catastrophic failure of a pump

Suction pressure falling below vapor

pressure causes bubble formation

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Vapor pressure increases with Vapor pressure of water.
temperature making hot liquids
more susceptible for cavitation

where
P is the vapor pressure in mmHg
T is the temperature in K
S.G. of Hg = 13.6

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 Speed of Sound, Mach number and Compressibility

In gas flow, one must be aware of compressibility effects (significant density changes caused by the
flow).

Compressibility becomes important when the flow velocity reaches a significant fraction of the
speed of sound of the fluid.

For example, for air at 20°C, a = {(1.40)[287 m2/s2.K)](293 K)}1/2 = 343 m/s (1126 ft/s = 768 mi/h).

Another way to state this is to account for compressibility when the Mach number, M = V/a of the
flow reaches about 0.3.

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 R_dry air Units
287.058 J kg−1 K−1
53.3533 ft lbf lb−1 °R−1
1,716.49 ft lbf slug−1 °R−1
Based on a mean molar mass for dry air of
28.9645 g/mol.

Speed of sound in air

k 1.4 #
T 20 C 293 K
R 287.058 J/kg-K
a=(kRT)^0.5 343.15 m/s

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Liquid viscosity decreases with temperature and is roughly exponential,

A better fit is the empirical result that ln(μ/μo) is quadratic in To/T, where T is absolute
temperature

For water, with T0 = 273.16 K, μ0 = 0.001792 kg/(m-s), suggested values are a = -

1.94, b = - 4.80, and c = 6.74, with accuracy about 1 percent.

The viscosity of water is tabulated in Table A.1

 Liquids

T, C T, K ln(μ/μo) μ/μo μ, kg/m-s

0 273.16 0.00 1.00 0.0018
20 293.16 -0.56 0.57 0.0010
40 313.16 -1.00 0.37 0.0007
60 333.16 -1.34 0.26 0.0005
80 353.16 -1.62 0.20 0.0004
100 373.16 -1.84 0.16 0.0003
120 393.16 -2.02 0.13 0.0002
140 413.16 -2.17 0.11 0.0002
160 433.16 -2.29 0.10 0.0002
180 453.16 -2.38 0.09 0.0002
Gas viscosity variation with temperature:
Estimate the increase in air viscosity as its temperature increases from 20C to 300C.

Gas viscosity increases with temperature.

Two common approximations are the power law and the Sutherland law:

T0 (usually 273 K).

For air, n = 0.7 and S = 110 K 199°R.
T, C T, K T/To μ/μo μ/μo
0 272 1 1.00 1.00
272 544 2 1.62 1.59
544 816 3 2.16 2.08
816 1088 4 2.64 2.52
1088 1360 5 3.09 2.92
1360 1632 6 3.51 3.30
1632 1904 7 3.90 3.66
1904 2176 8 4.29 4.00
2176 2448 9 4.66 4.33
2448 2720 10 5.01 4.64
White- P-771
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