[INTRO TO SCIENCE]

[FPISA0]
Week 3

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Throughout this week you will learn about Atoms, atomic
structure, and the periodic Table.
6.1 Structure of the Atom
• · All atoms are made up of smaller units called subatomic
particles.
These subatomic particles include:
• a. Protons
• b. Neutrons
• c. Electrons
• These subatomic particles are arranged in a definite order.
• A positively charged nucleus is surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons. These electrons orbit the
nucleus.
6.1.2 The Nucleus of the Atom
• An atom has an inner chamber called the Nucleus.
• Inside the nucleus are 2 relatively large subatomic particles
known as protons & neutrons.
• Together, protons & neutrons are called Nucleons.
• Protons & neutrons have relatively similar sizes or masses.
• Protons are positively charged particles, designated by p+.
• Neutrons do not carry any electrical charge and are
therefore neutral, designated by n0 (the superscript ‘0’
indicates that they carry no electrical charge).
6.1.3 The Electrons
• Outside the nucleus, are negatively charged particles called
electrons, which rotate around the nucleus.
• Electrons are very tiny, designated by e-.
• TAKE NOTE: Because protons always stay within the
nucleus, the nucleus always carries a positive charge.
However, atoms are always electrically neutral. Thus,
the number of negatively charged electrons travelling
around the nucleus is always equal to the number of
positively charged protons inside the nucleus.
6.1.4 The Subatomic Particles
• TAKE NOTE: The protons & neutrons (nucleons) remain
locked up in the nucleus of the atom during chemical
reactions. During a chemical reaction, it is the electrons on
the outer shell of an atom that will react with electrons of
other atoms. These electrons are known as valence
electrons. Thus, it is the electrons in the outer shell of an
atom that will determine its chemical reactivity.
6.1.5 Atomic Number
• Each element has its own unique atomic number.
• Atomic number = the number of protons in an atom e.g., the
atomic number of Hydrogen is 1. The atomic number of
helium is 2.
• Atomic number is denoted by the letter Z.
• You can find the atomic number of each element on the
periodic table.
• Atomic mass number = the number of protons and neutrons
(nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom.
• Atomic mass number is denoted by the letter A.
• TAKE NOTE: To calculate the number of neutrons:
• Number of Neutrons = Atomic mass number – Atomic
number
6.1.6 Isotopes
• Atoms of the same chemical element that have different
atomic mass are known as isotopes.
• In each element, the number of neutrons can be different
from each other, while the number of protons stays the
same.
• Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but
that have a different number of neutrons.
• Since the atomic number is equal to the number of protons
and the atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons, we
can also say that isotopes are elements with the same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
6.2 The Periodic Table
• Our current periodic table lists 109 elements. It is arranged
according to the periodic law:
a. Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, their physical and chemical properties show a
periodic pattern.
b. Elements that have similar properties are arranged in
groups or families - vertical columns.
c. The horizontal rows are called periods.
Each element has a higher atomic mass than the previous
one. This has to do with the increasing energy levels.
6.2.1 Group One – The Alkali Metals
• Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium & Francium.
• They are called ‘active metals’ since they react easily &
vigorously with water to produce hydrogen gas & an alkaline
solution.
• Chemical reactivity increases from top to bottom, with
caesium & francium being most reactive.
• Hydrogen is included in this group even though it is not a
metal but a gas. The only reason why hydrogen is placed in
this group is because it contains only one valence electron.
6.2.2 Group Two – The Alkaline Earth Metals
• Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium &
Radium.
• These metals are also very reactive but less reactive than
Group one alkali metals.
• This group of elements have two valence electrons.
6.2.3 The Transition Metals
• These elements are found in the centre of the periodic table
between groups 2 and 3. Properties of these elements
include:
• They form coloured compounds.
• They are good conductors of heat & electricity.
• They can be hammered or bent into shape easily.
• They are less reactive than alkali metals such as sodium.
• They have high melting points except for Mercury which is a
liquid at room temperature.
• They are usually hard & tough with high densities.
6.2.4 Group Six – The Chalcogens
• This group contains the non-metals Oxygen, Sulphur,
Selenium, Tellurium and Polonium.
• Oxygen & Sulphur are well known & occur often in biological
systems.
• Selenium & Tellurium also occur but are less well known.
• Polonium is a rare, radioactive element.
• Chemical reactivity decreases from top to bottom with
oxygen being the most reactive.
• These elements have six valence electrons.
6.2.5 Group Seven – The Halogens
• Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine & Iodine. These four elements
are known as the halogens.
• Astatine at the bottom is a very rare, radioactive element.
• The halogens are very reactive. The reactivity in the group
decreases from top to bottom i.e., Fluorine is most reactive
while iodine is least reactive.
• These elements have seven valence electrons.
6.2.6 Group Eight – The Noble Gases
• Helium, neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon & Oganesson.
Radon and Oganesson are rare gases.
• All the elements in this group are gases.
• They are called ‘noble’ because they do not react easily with
any other reactant: they are on their own & remain in an
unbonded state. They are chemically stable and inert.
• Since the noble gas atoms do not react easily with any other
reactant, they do not form ions or molecules. They remain
neutral atoms.
6.2.7 The Diatomic Molecules
• he smallest particles of elements in their elemental states are
atoms.
• However, seven elements in their elemental forms do not consist
of individual atoms but consist of diatomic molecules. This means
that the smallest particles of these elements are molecules
consisting of two atoms. These seven elements are:
• Hydrogen – H2
• Oxygen – O2
• Nitrogen – N2
• Fluorine – F2
• Chlorine – Cl2
• Bromine – Br2
• Iodine – I2
• However, when these elements are used in compounds, they are
not diatomic molecules e.g., H2O or HCl.
6.3 The Shell Model
• The shell model was first made popular by a chemist called
Linus Pauling (1901-1994). The shell model is similar to
Bohr’s model of the atom, but it is a little bit more advanced.
• According to the shell model, electrons behave as they are
arranged in a series of concentric shells.
Shell = a region of space around the nucleus of the atom
within which electrons reside. An important aspect of this
model is that there are at least seven shells around the
nucleus & each shell can hold a certain number of electrons
only.
• Thus, electrons move around the nucleus in these regions of
shells also known as noble gas shells. The electrons fill these
shells from innermost to outermost.
• The maximum number of electrons allowed in the 1st shell is
2, the 2nd & 3rd shells is 8, the 4th & 5th shells is 18 & the
6th & 7th shells is 32 electrons.
• A series of seven such concentric shells accounts for the
seven periods of the periodic table. Furthermore, the
number of elements in each period is equal to the shell’s
capacity for electrons. For e.g., the first shell has the capacity
of 2 electrons, therefore there are 2 elements in the first
period.
• Hydrogen is the element whose atom has only one electron.
This one electron resides within the first shell which is the
shell closest to the nucleus. Each helium atom has two
electrons both of which are also found within the first shell
which is thus filled to its maximum capacity.
• The electrons of the outermost occupied shell in any atom
are directly exposed to the external environment and are the
first to interact with other atoms. Most importantly, it is
these electrons that participate in chemical bonding.
The electrons in the outermost shell, therefore, are most important.
Note that all atoms with one electron in the outermost shell are listed in
the first column of the periodic table. The atoms with two electrons in
the outermost shell are listed in the second column of the periodic table.
Similarly, atoms listed in the last column of the periodic table each have
their outermost shells filled with electrons – two for helium and eight for
both neon and argon. This explains why elements of the same group
have similar properties.
•· Electrons in the outermost shell of any atom play a significant
role in that atom’s chemical properties including its ability to form
chemical bonds. Thus, the properties of elements depend on their
number of electrons in the outermost shell. To indicate their
importance, we call these electrons = valence electrons. We indicate
the shell that they occupy as the valence shell.
•· Valence electrons can be represented in a more simplified form
of the shell model seen as a series of dots surrounding an atomic
symbol. This notation is called the Electron-Dot Structure or the Lewis
Dot Symbol or simply, Lewis Notation. Electron-Dot structures for
atoms are important for understanding ionic and covalent bonding.
6.4 Electron – Dot Structures
• As stated, prior, valence electrons can be conveniently
represented as a series of dots surrounding an atomic
symbol.
• The electron-dot structure helps us to understand ionic and
covalent bonds. For metallic bonds, the electron-dot
structures are not important, which is why metallic groups 3
to 12 are not included in this illustration.
• When you look at the electron-dot structure of an atom, you
immediately know two important things about that element:
i. You know how many valence electrons it has
ii. And you know how many of these electrons are paired
• Chlorine for example has three sets of paired electrons and
one unpaired electron. In comparison, carbon has four
unpaired electrons.
• Paired valence electrons are relatively stable i.e., they do not
readily form chemical bonds with other atoms.
• Unpaired valence electrons have a strong tendency to
participate in chemical bonding. By doing so, they become
paired with an electron from another atom.